Article to be published in: Proc.

Seventh International Symposium on Utilization of High-Strength/High

Performance Concrete, to be held in Washington D.C., June 20-24, 2005.

Comparison of Two Metakaolins and a

Silica Fume Used as Supplementary
Cementitious Materials

J.M. Justice, L.H. Kennison, B.J. Mohr, S.L. Beckwith,

L.E. McCormick, B. Wiggins, Z.Z. Zhang, and K.E. Kurtis

Synopsis: The performance of two metakaolins as supplementary cementitious materials

(SCMs) was evaluated at 8% by weight cement replacement. The metakaolins varied by
their surface area (11.1 vs. 25.4 m2/g). Performance of metakaolin mixtures was
compared to control mixtures at water-to-cement ratios of 0.40, 0.50, and 0.60 where no
SCM had been used and to mixtures where silica fume had been used as partial
replacement for cement. In both mixtures containing metakaolins, compressive, splitting
tensile, and flexural strengths increased, as well as elastic modulus, as compared to
control mixtures. Setting time was reduced in the pastes with both metakaolins.
Additionally, considering durability, both metakaolins reduced rapid chloride ion
permeability and expansion due to alkali-silica reaction when compared to control and
silica fume mixtures. In general, the finer of the two metakaolins proved more effective
in improving concrete properties, although both performed superior to silica fume.

Keywords: admixture; concrete; durability; fineness; metakaolin; pozzolan; SCM; silica

fume; strength
ACI member Kimberly E. Kurtis is Assistant Professor in the School of Civil and
Environmental Engineering at the Georgia Institute of Technology. She is Chairman of
ACI Committee E802: Teaching Methods and Educational Materials, Secretary of
Committee 236: Materials Science of Concrete, and Associate Member of Committee
201: Durability of Concrete.

Joy M. Justice is a second-year graduate student at the Georgia Institute of Technology.

She completed her undergraduate studies at the California Institute of Technology. Joy is
advised by Dr. Kimberly Kurtis and is currently pursuing a Master's degree in Materials
Science and Engineering.

Luke H. Kennison earned a B.S. in Civil and Environmental Engineering from the
Georgia Institute of Technology in 2003, followed by an M.S. in 2004. Luke was
advised by Dr. Kimberly Kurtis. He is currently employed by Hazen and Sawyer, P.C. in
Atlanta, Georgia.

ACI Member Benjamin J. Mohr is a Ph.D. candidate at the Georgia Institute of

Technology where he obtained his M.S. in Civil Engineering. He also obtained his B.S.
in Civil Engineering from the University of Delaware. His research interests include
fiber-cement materials, cement chemistry, and microstructure of cement-based materials.

Staci L. Beckwith earned her Bachelors degree in Civil and Environmental Engineering
from the Georgia Institute of Technology in 2004 and is currently employed by Power
Engineers in Norcross, Georgia.

Lauren E. McCormick is a fourth-year undergraduate student in Civil and Environmental

Engineering at the Georgia Institute of Technology. She is advised by Dr. Kimberly
Kurtis.

ACI member Billy Wiggins is a professional engineer employed by Thiele Kaolin

Company. He holds a Bachelors degree is in Civil Engineering and a Masters degree in
Building Construction.

Z.Z. Zhang obtained his M.S. and Ph.D. from Purdue University. Currently he is a senior
research scientist and group leader of the materials research group at the R&D
Department of Thiele Kaolin Company.

INTRODUCTION

Metakaolin differs from other supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs),

like fly ash, silica fume, and slag, in that it is not a by-product of an industrial process; it
is manufactured for a specific purpose under carefully controlled conditions.1 Metakaolin
is produced by heating kaolin, one of the most abundant natural clay minerals, to
temperatures of 650-900 °C. This heat treatment, or calcination, serves to break down
the structure of kaolin. Bound hydroxyl ions are removed and resulting disorder among
alumina and silica layers yields a highly reactive, amorphous material with pozzolanic
and latent hydraulic reactivity, suitable for use in cementing applications.2,3

Metakaolin reacts with portlandite (CH) to form calcium-silicate-hydrate (C-S-

H) supplementary to that produced by portland cement hydration. This reaction becomes
important within the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) located between aggregate and paste
fractions. This region typically contains a high concentration of large, aligned CH
crystals, which can lead to localized areas of increased porosity and lower strength.4,5
Metakaolin can react with some of the CH produced by cement hydration, thereby
densifying the structure of the hydrated cement paste. The rates of pozzolanic reaction
and CH consumption in metakaolin systems have been shown to be higher than in silica
fume systems, indicating a higher initial reactivity.6 Because this reaction with CH
occurs early and rapidly, metakaolin incorporation may contribute to reduced initial and
final set times.3,4 In addition, this refinement in the ITZ can result in increased strength
in metakaolin concrete.2,6

As portlandite in the ITZ and elsewhere in the paste is water soluble and is
susceptible to deterioration in aggressive chemical environments, metakaolin has great
potential for improving concrete durability.4 Also, because the supplementary C-S-H
formed during the pozzolanic reaction with metakaolin has a lower Ca/Si ratio than
ordinary C-S-H, these products are believed to be better able to bind alkali ions from the
pore solution, thus reducing concrete's susceptibility to alkali-silica reaction (ASR).1,3,7
This potential beneficial use of metakaolin is particularly relevant, as silica fume
agglomerates have been shown to contribute to ASR expansion in some cases.8
Metakaolin has also been shown to decrease concrete permeability, which in turn
increases its resistance to sulfate attack and chloride ion ingress.9-12 Additionally,
metakaolin may reduce autogenous and drying shrinkage, which could otherwise lead to
cracking.13

Thus, when used as a partial replacement for portland cement, metakaolin may
improve both the mechanical properties and the durability of concrete. In general,
metakaolin offers a set of benefits similar to those imparted by silica fume, including
comparable strengths, permeability, chemical resistance, and drying shrinkage resistance.
Physically, metakaolin particles measure approximately one-half to five micrometers
across, making them an order of magnitude smaller than cement grains and an order of
magnitude larger than silica fume particles. Both metakaolin and silica fume are
typically used to replace 5 to 20 weight % of the cement. Metakaolin is white in color,
whereas standard silica fume ranges from dark grey to black (although white silica fume
is available at higher cost). This makes metakaolin particularly attractive in color-
matching and other architectural applications. For these reasons, metakaolin is
increasingly used in the production of high-performance concrete.9,14

Here the influence of metakaolin fineness is investigated and the performance of

concrete containing one of two metakaolins of different fineness are compared to silica
fume concrete and ordinary concrete. Measurements of fresh properties, including
slump, setting time, and shrinkage (autogenous, chemical, and free shrinkage) are
examined, as well as mechanical performance (compressive strength, splitting tensile
strength, flexural strength, elastic modulus) and certain aspects of durability (shrinkage,
chloride permeability, sulfate resistance, alkali reactivity).

MATERIALS

The two metakaolins used in this study, MK235 (Kaorock) and MK349
(Kaorock F), were provided by Thiele Kaolin Company in Sandersville, GA. These
metakaolins differ primarily in their fineness, with MK349 having a smaller particle size
and greater surface area (25.4 vs. 11.1 m2/g). Physical characteristics of the metakaolins
are shown in Table 1.

Commercially available Type I cement was used for all paste and concrete
mixtures. Aggregates were #67 3/4"- (19 mm) MSA crushed stone and 2.38 fineness
modulus natural sand, as well as alkali-reactive Jobe sand for the ASR testing.
Commercially available silica fume and superplasticizer, which conforms to the ASTM C
494 Type F designation, were also used. Chemical analyses for silica fume and cement
are shown in Table 2.

EXPERIMENTAL METHODS

General

In this study, the early age properties of fresh concrete and mechanical
performance and durability of hardened concrete were examined. All tests were
conducted using the following four sample groups:
(1) an ordinary cement paste or concrete,
(2) pastes or concrete substituted with 8% MK235 by mass,
(3) pastes or concrete substituted with 8% MK349 by mass, and
(4) pastes or concrete substituted with 8% silica fume by mass.
Pastes, mortars, or concretes were prepared at three water-to-cementitious materials ratios
(w/cm) — 0.40, 0.50, and 0.60 — for each of the above sample groups, unless ASTM
tests made specific requirement for w/cm. Concrete raw materials were batched and
mixed for approximately 15 minutes in accordance with ASTM C 192 using a 2.5 ft3-
capacity (71 L) Lancaster Counter Current Batch mixer, according to the mixture designs
given in Table 3. Mortars and pastes were mixed with a Hobart mixer per ASTM C 305
for at least five minutes after the addition of water. SCMs were incorporated into
mixtures concurrently with or immediately following cement — after aggregates, but
prior to water.
 Concrete samples were removed from plastic-covered molds 24 hours after
casting and placed in a 23 °C fog room for the remainder of the active testing period.
Mortar and cement paste samples, with the exception of the Vicat samples, were
demolded at 24 hours and placed in a 23 °C limewater curing tank. A summary of the
tests conducted on fresh and hardened samples, their corresponding ASTM standards,
and the dimensions of samples used for each is shown in Table 4.

Early Age Properties

Early age properties of pastes and concrete, including slump, unit weight, and
setting time were measured. Slump was measured according to ASTM C 143.
Superplasticizer was used as necessary in order to achieve a target slump of 3-4" (76-102
mm) for all mixtures. Unit weight was calculated based on an average of five 3×6"
(76×152 mm) concrete cylinders.

Time to initial and final set was measured using a Vicat apparatus according to
ASTM C 191. Three samples were used for each measurement. Because pastes made
with metakaolin required a higher water content to become workable, setting time tests
were conducted both at a normal consistency (varying w/cm) as determined by ASTM C
187, as prescribed by the standard, and at a constant w/cm of 0.34. This was the w/cm
necessary for MK349 to reach normal consistency — the highest value determined by
ASTM C 187 (Table 5). In order for the other three experimental groups to approach
normal consistency (approximately 15 mm penetration with the Vicat needle), these
pastes were allowed to remain in the mixing bowl as necessary before placing in the ring
molds and moist cabinet.

Shrinkage

Three types of shrinkage were monitored: autogenous, chemical, and free

shrinkage. All examinations were conducted at a water-to-cementitious materials ratio of
0.40, and SCMs were used at 8% replacement. Autogenous shrinkage was measured on
four replicate samples using rigid corrugated polyethylene tubes sealed on both ends to
prevent loss of moisture to the environment. Linear deformation of these tubes was
monitored according to the well-accepted technique described by Jensen and Hansen.15
Chemical shrinkage was evaluated on four replicate samples by a method modified from
Geiker and Knudsen.16,17 This method involves introducing a known volume of cement
paste (approximately 10 g, sample thickness < 10 mm) into a small glass vial fitted with a
graduated pipette, thereby allowing volume change to be measured over time. Both
autogenous and chemical shrinkage samples were kept in an environmental chamber at
20 °C and 50% relative humidity. Data was recorded daily.
 Free, or bulk, shrinkage was measured according to ASTM C 157 on three or
four replicate samples, for concrete and mortar prisms, respectively. A sand-to-cement
ratio of 2.25 was used to cast mortar prisms of 1×1×11.25" (25×25×286 mm), and the
mixture design shown in Table 3 was scaled down to make 3×3×11.25" (76×76×286 mm)
concrete prisms. These were removed from molds 24 hours after casting and allowed to
cure in limewater for the remainder of one week. At that point, samples were moved to
an environmental chamber at 23 °C and 50% relative humidity to evaluate drying
shrinkage. Measurements were recorded on days 1, 3, 5, 7, 10, and 14, and then every
seven days for the following six weeks.

Mechanical Properties

Compressive strength was measured on three replicate samples according to

ASTM C 39. Cylinders of 3×6" (76×152 mm) were compressed at a rate of 20,000
lb/min (1480 N/s). Splitting tensile strength was also measured on three replicate 3×6"
(76×152 mm) cylinders loaded at a rate of 5,000 lb/min (370 N/s), as outlined in
procedure ASTM C 496. Compression and tension tests were conducted on 1, 3, 7, 28,
and 90 days of age using an 800,000 lb-capacity (3600 kN) compression machine with a
digital indicator.

Modulus of rupture was evaluated at ages of 1, 3, 28, and 90 days using a

400,000 lb-capacity (1800 kN) universal testing machine. Prisms were cast at
3.5×4.5×16" (89×114×406 mm), and ASTM C 78 (third-point loading) was followed,
using steel supporting rods and rubber pads. Three samples were tested in flexure for
each condition.

Modulus of elasticity was determined per ASTM C 469, using 6×12" (152×304
mm) cylinders and a compressometer. This test was conducted on three replicate samples
per mixture at day 28 of age on the 400,000 lb-capacity (1800 kN) load frame.

Durability

The rapid chloride permeability test (RCPT), as described in ASTM C 1202,

was performed on three replicate specimens 4" (102 mm) in diameter and 2" (51 mm)
thick. These samples were cut from 4×8" (102×203 mm) concrete cylinders at 28 days of
moist curing.

To determine sulfate resistance, six replicate 1×1×11.25" (25×25×286 mm)

mortar bars were prepared and measured for expansion according to ASTM C 1012. In
addition to controls, two sets of samples were cast for each of the three SCMs, one at 8%
and one at 15% replacement. ASTM C 1012 was modified slightly by preparing all
mortar bars using a single w/cm of 0.485 and adding superplasticizer to those mixes with
metakaolin and silica fume replacements to achieve suitable workability. Samples were
exposed to a 33,800 ppm sulfate solution (50 g/L sodium sulfate) at room temperature
and length change was recorded weekly.

Potential for alkali reactivity was measured according to the accelerated mortar
bar method (ASTM C 1260). This method has been shown reliable for evaluating the
effectiveness of SCMs in suppressing ASR.18 As with sulfate testing, a single water-to-
cementitious materials ratio (0.47) was used and both 8% and 15% replacement levels
were examined for samples (six replicates) containing SCMs. Gradation information for
the alkali-reactive Jobe sand, which is slightly modified from the standard, and mortar
mixture designs are shown in Tables 6 and 7, respectively. Mortar bars (1×1×11.25" or
25×25×286 mm) were stored in a 1 N sodium hydroxide solution at 80°C, and length
change data was collected for 28 days.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

General

Metakaolin addition proved beneficial, yielding concrete with considerably

higher strengths and greater durability than the controls (those without SCMs). In
general, the finer MK349 appeared to be more effective in improving concrete properties
than the coarser MK235, although both were more effective than silica fume. Key results
regarding early age properties, shrinkage, mechanical properties, and durability are
presented herein.

Early Age Properties

In order to achieve a target slump of 3-4" (76-102 mm), superplasticizer was

required for all concrete mixtures, with the exception of the control mixtures at a w/cm of
0.50 and 0.60. When using SCMs, the necessary superplasticizer dosage increased with
decreasing w/cm. MK235 typically required twice the amount used with silica fume, and
MK349 required three times that value. Both metakaolins produced concrete with unit
weights similar to control samples, while silica fume yielded concrete of 1% lower unit
weight than controls on average over the three w/cm.

The water-to-cementitious materials ratios used to produce pastes of normal

consistency determined by ASTM C 187 are shown in Table 5, and the initial and final
setting times measured are shown in Figure 1. In general, final set occurred
approximately 30 minutes after initial set, which was generally shorter than expected.
For the normal consistency pastes, the MK235-containing samples had longer initial and
final setting times than the control sample (initial set at 155 minutes), while the paste
containing the finer MK349 had shorter setting times. The paste containing silica fume
had the lowest setting times — approximately 135 minutes for initial set.

The initial and final setting times determined for pastes at a constant water-to-
cementitious materials ratio of 0.34 are shown in Figure 2. In this scenario, all pastes
containing SCMs had shorter times to initial and final set than the control sample (initial
set at 305 minutes) at this w/cm. Both metakaolin pastes exhibited faster setting times
than the silica fume pastes, with the paste containing MK349 showing the fastest setting
times of all four paste types at 145 minutes.

Shrinkage

Autogenous shrinkage, which occurs due to the lowering of cement paste

relative humidity, increased with the addition of metakaolin. Both metakaolin samples
experienced greater autogenous shrinkage than controls, with MK349 pastes showing the
most shrinkage (-2100 µstrain at 28 days). Values were -750, -200, and +200 µstrain for
MK235, silica fume, and control pastes, respectively, as shown in Figure 3. These results
correspond to results for setting time at a constant w/cm. That is, pastes experiencing
greater autogenous shrinkage had shorter times to initial and final set.

Pastes containing metakaolin showed greater chemical shrinkage than controls

or silica fume pastes, with the MK235 paste showing the most chemical shrinkage —
approximately 8.5 mL/100 g at 28 days of curing. The MK349 paste was expected to
show the greatest chemical shrinkage because of its high surface area; the lower chemical
shrinkage as compared to the coarser MK235 paste could be related to morphology and
stacking behavior, but further investigation is necessary to isolate the potential causes for
these observations. At 28 days, control samples had experienced the least chemical
shrinkage: approximately 4 mL/100 g at 28 days. However, around seven weeks, silica
fume samples actually started to expand, and continued to do so for the duration of the
four-month testing period, such that they showed the least overall chemical shrinkage
(Figure 4). This expansion is likely due to ASR involving silica fume agglomerations.

Metakaolin incorporation had varying effects on free shrinkage. Mortar bars

made with MK235 shrank approximately 0.053% during the first two weeks of drying.
Overall, these samples showed the least bulk shrinkage over the duration of the six-week
testing period. Prisms made with silica fume experienced the most shrinkage. Length
change results are shown in Figure 5a. Mass loss followed the same trend as shrinkage:
samples that shrank the most also generally lost the most mass during the testing period.
Mass change is shown in Figure 5b. Concrete prisms made with MK235 also showed the
least bulk shrinkage and the least mass loss during the first six weeks of drying, while
prisms incorporating silica fume experienced the most shrinkage and mass loss (Figure
6).
Mechanical Properties

A significant increase in compressive strength as compared to the ordinary

concrete controls was observed for both metakaolin samples at 8% replacement for
cement, with the finer MK349 having a more pronounced effect. Compressive strength
increased with decreasing w/cm, reaching a value of nearly 11,000 psi (75 MPa) for the
MK349 concrete with w/cm=0.40 at 28 days. Strength increases due to MK349 fineness
were less apparent are higher w/cm likely because ample water was available for
hydration and particle surface area became less critical at higher w/cm.

Silica fume addition resulted in concrete of strength comparable to the control

mixtures, which was unexpected. As a result, all the mixtures containing silica fume
were recast using a new supply of the material; however, results from this second round
of testing were similar. As shown in Figure 7, results were inconsistent across the three
w/cm, but generally strength did not develop until later ages. The cause(s) for these
lower-than-anticipated strengths with silica fume concrete are not clear, but similar
results have been recently reported in the metro-Atlanta region19 and in the literature. 6,20
Agglomerations were not readily apparent when examining these samples by optical
microscopy, thus it is assumed that adequate silica fume dispersion was achieved in these
mixtures.

Splitting tensile strength results also generally showed increases with

metakaolin use as compared to ordinary concrete controls. Splitting tensile strengths for
the metakaolin mixtures generally ranged between 3 and 4 MPa for all three w/cm at 28
days (Figure 8). Both MK235 and MK349 improved concrete performance in this test,
but neither was dominant, and standard deviations for all test results were relatively large.
The silica fume used did not greatly affect splitting tensile strength, as compared to
controls.

Metakaolin incorporation generally increased flexural strength when concrete

prisms were subjected to four-point bending. There was an increase of 1-2 MPa
associated with the use of both metakaolins, although there was not a clear trend
indicating that one was superior. Prisms cast with silica fume as a partial replacement for
cement showed a slightly higher modulus of rupture than the control at w/cm=0.40,
though mixtures at higher w/cms did not differ from controls. At w/cm=0.40, MK349
and silica fume prisms reached 600 psi (4.1 MPa) at one day of age, control and MK235
prisms at three days. At higher w/cms, MK349 samples reached 600 psi (4.1 MPa) by
day three, while other mixtures did not reach this value until 28 days of age. These
results are shown in Figure 9.

As with compression testing, silica fume addition yielded unexpectedly low

elastic modulus values. However, when recast and cured, new silica fume samples
showed a modulus of elasticity higher than controls and both metakaolin samples for all
water-to-cementitious materials ratios, as depicted in Figure 10. The effect was most
pronounced at w/cm=0.40, with silica fume yielding an elastic modulus of 37 GPa versus
34 GPa for the metakaolins and 30 GPa for controls.

Durability

The metakaolin mixtures showed markedly lower permeability than controls, as

measured by RCPT (Figure 11). For all w/cm, the control samples were considered to
have a high permeability (above 4000 Coulombs). MK235 proved to be the most
effective in reducing charge passed, with values in the low or very low (below 2000
Coulombs) range for all water-to-cementitious materials ratios. Concrete cast with
MK349 produced RCPT results which were not much higher than the MK235 samples,
with results ranging from very low at w/cm=0.40 to moderate for 0.60. Silica fume
addition also reduced permeability as compared to the control, with values in the low to
moderate range. However, the silica fume did not produce reductions in permeability as
great as either of the metakaolins.

Sulfate resistance was measured by ASTM C 1012. Several months of

measurements are reported in Figure 12. With the data to date, the effect of the
metakaolins and silica fume is not clearly evident, as the mortar bars are only starting to
show evidence of sulfate-induced expansion. Data collection is ongoing, but the results
are expected to indicate that mixtures resistant to sodium sulfate attack can be produced
using either of the metakaolins examined or silica fume at either 8% or 15% weight
replacement.

Results from ASR testing by ASTM C 1260 are presented in Figure 13.
According to ASTM C 1260, expansion of less than 0.10% at 14 days of age indicates
acceptable performance, and expansion of greater than 0.20% indicates unacceptable
performance. Based upon these criteria, the 15% MK235 mixture passed, the 8% MK235
and 15% MK349 specimens fell into the intermediate range (showing between 0.10% and
0.20% expansion at 14 days), and all other mixtures failed. These results show that both
metakaolins reduce expansion due to ASR and to a greater extent than silica fume at the
same rate of addition. Additionally, 15% replacement with either metakaolin sample
produced greater reductions in expansion than 8% replacement, and MK235 was more
effective than MK349 in mitigating expansion due to ASR.

CONCLUSIONS

The performance of two metakaolins, which varied primarily in their fineness,

was examined and compared to the performance of ordinary and silica fume pastes,
mortars, and concretes. The following conclusions may be drawn:
1. With regard to workability and setting time, both metakaolins examined generally
required more superplasticizer and shortened setting time of pastes as compared to
control mixtures and companion silica fume mixtures.

2. Greater shrinkage, both autogenous and chemical, was observed in mixtures

containing SCMs as compared to ordinary cement and concrete control mixtures. Of the
two metakaolins, the finer material produced greater autogenous shrinkage, while the
relatively coarser material produced more chemical shrinkage. Free shrinkage was
generally greatest for the silica fume mortars and concrete. Of the two metakaolins, the
coarser metakaolin (MK235) exhibited the least free shrinkage, even less than the control
samples. The variation in shrinkage behavior (considering autogenous, chemical, and
free shrinkage) warrants further examination.

3. Increased concrete strength, as compared to both control and silica fume mixtures,
was measured for concretes produced with both metakaolins. However, the finer
metakaolin, MK349, yielded the highest compressive and splitting tensile strengths and
moduli. The positive influence of the metakaolin fineness was more apparent at lower
w/cm. Concretes produced with the finer metakaolin also exhibited an increased rate of
strength gain.

4. With regard to the durability tests reported here, concretes produced with metakaolin
at 8% by weight cement exhibited reduced permeability, as measured by RCPT, with
very low measurements at w/cm of 0.40, low measurements at 0.50, and moderate
measurements at 0.60. The coarser metakaolin generally produced greater reductions in
permeability at all three w/cms examined. In accelerated alkali-silica reaction tests
(ASTM C 1260), the best performance was achieved in mortars with 15% by weight
replacement of cement with metakaolin, with the coarser material resulting in the least
expansion in this test.

REFERENCES

1. Ramlochan, T.; Thomas, M.; and Gruber, K. A., "The Effect of Metakaolin on
Alkali-Silica Reaction in Concrete," Cement and Concrete Research, V. 30, 2000,
pp. 339-344.
2. Bensted, J., and Barnes, P., "Structure and Performance of Cements," Spon, New
York, 2002, 565 pp.
3. Kostuch, J. A.; Walters, V.; and Jones, T. R., "High Performance Concretes
Incorporating Metakaolin: A Review," Concrete 2000: Economic and Durable
Concrete through Excellence, R. K. Dhir and M. R. Jones, eds., E&FN Spon,
London, 1993, pp. 1799-1811.
4. Wild, S., and Khatib, J. M., "Portlandite Consumption in Metakaolin Cement Pastes
and Mortars," Cement and Concrete Research, V. 27, 1997, pp. 137-146.
5. Bentz, D. P., and Garboczi, E. J., "Simulation Studies of the Effects of Mineral
Admixtures on the Cement Paste-Aggregate Interfacial Zone," ACI Materials
Journal, V. 88, No. 5, Sept.-Oct. 1991, pp. 518-529.
6. Poon, C.; Lam, L.; Kou, S. C.; Wong, Y.; and Wong, R., "Rate of Pozzolanic
Reaction of Metakaolin in High-Performance Cement Pastes," Cement and Concrete
Research, V. 31, 2001, pp. 1301-1306.
7. Aquino, W.; Lange, D. A.; and Olek, J., "The Influence of Metakaolin and Silica
Fume on the Chemistry of Alkali-Silica Reaction Products," Cement and Concrete
Composites, V. 23, 2001, pp. 485-493.
8. Diamond, S.; Sahu, S.; and Thaulow, N., "Reaction Products of Densified Silica
Fume Agglomerates in Concrete," Cement and Concrete Research, V. 34, 2004, pp.
1625-1632.
9. Boddy, A.; Hooton, R. D.; and Gruber, K. A., "Long-Term Testing of the Chloride-
Penetration Resistance of Concrete Containing High-Reactivity Metakaolin," Cement
and Concrete Research, V. 31, 2001, pp. 759-765.
10. Asbridge, A. H.; Chadbourn, G. A; and Page, C. L., "Effects of Metakaolin and the
Interfacial Transition Zone on the Diffusion of Chloride Ions through Cement
Mortars," Cement and Concrete Research, V. 31, 2001, pp. 1567-1572.
11. Khatib, J. M., and Wild, S., "Sulphate Resistance of Metakaolin Mortar," Cement
and Concrete Research, V. 28, 1998, pp. 83-92.
12. Courard, L.; Darimont, A.; Schouterden, M.; Ferauche, F.; Willem, X.; and
Degeimbre, R., "Durability of Mortars Modified with Metakaolin," Cement and
Concrete Research, V. 33, 2003, pp. 1473-1479.
13. Brooks, J. J., and Megat Johari, M. A., "Effect of Metakaolin on Creep and
Shrinkage of Concrete," Cement and Concrete Composites, V. 23, 2001, pp. 495-
502.
14. Ding, J., and Li, Z., "Effects of Metakaolin and Silica Fume on Properties of
Concrete," ACI Materials Journal, V. 99, No. 4, July-Aug. 2002, pp. 393-398.
15. Jensen, O. M., and Hansen, P. F., "A Dilatometer for Measuring Autogenous
Deformation in Hardening Cement Paste," Materials and Structures, V. 28, No. 181,
1995, pp. 406-409.
16. Geiker, M., and Knudsen, T., "Chemical Shrinkage of Portland Cement Pastes,"
Cement and Concrete Research, V. 12, 1982, pp. 603-610.
17. Knudsen, T., and Geiker, M., "Obtaining Hydration Data by Measurement of
Chemical Shrinkage with an Archimeter," Cement and Concrete Research, V. 15,
1985, pp. 381-382.
18. Bérubé, M.; Duchesne, J.; and Chouinard, D., "Why the Accelerated Mortar Bar
Method ASTM C 1260 is Reliable for Evaluating the Effectiveness of
Supplementary Cementing Materials in Suppressing Expansion due to Alkali-Silica
Reactivity," Cement, Concrete, and Aggregates, V. 17, 1995, pp. 26-34.
19. Wolfe, J. E., personal communications with K.E. Kurtis, Apr.-June 2004.
20. Curcio, F.; DeAngelis, B. A.; and Pagliolico, S., "Metakaolin as a Pozzolanic
Microfiller for High-Performance Mortars," Cement and Concrete Research, V. 28,
1998, pp. 803-809.
Table 1 — Physical characteristics of the two metakaolin samples examined.
Characteristics MK235 MK349
Oxide Analysis (%)
SiO2 51.5 52.5
Al2O3 44.7 44.5
TiO2 2.1 1.7
Fe2O3 0.4 0.9
Sedigraph PSD (%)
< 2.0 µm 67 90
< 1.0 µm 41 83
< 0.5 µm 9 53
< 0.2 µm 4 4
Surface Area (m2/g) 11.1 25.4
Bulk Density (lb/ft3) 18 8.7
(kg/m3) 288 139

Table 2 — Chemical oxide analysis, weight %, for Type I cement and silica fume and
Bogue potential compositions for the cement.
Component Cement Silica Fume
SiO2 21.26 97.12
Al2O3 4.79 0.01
Fe2O3 3.14 0.05
CaO 64.10 0.37
MgO 2.35 0.28
Na2O 0.02 0.04
K2O 0.36 0.58
TiO2 0.19 0.02
MnO2 0.04 0.04
P2O5 0.03 0.08
SrO 0.03 0.01
BaO 0.04 0.00
SO3 2.63 0.04
Loss on Ignition 1.04 1.36
Insoluble Residue 0.11 N/A
Moisture N/A 0.43

C3S 55.2 N/A

C2S 19.3 N/A
C3A 7.4 N/A
C4AF 9.5 N/A
Table 3 — Concrete mixture designs for control mixtures and mixtures with SCMs at 8%
by weight replacement for cement. Amounts shown are required to produce one cubic
yard or one cubic meter of concrete.
1 yd3 or 1 m3 Nominal
w/cm Water Coarse (SSD) Fine (SSD) Cement SCM Density
lb kg lb kg lb kg lb kg lb kg lb/yd3 kg/m3
Control 340 201 1709 1014 1127 668 850 505 -- -- 4026 2388
0.4
w/ SCM 340 201 1709 1014 1127 668 782 464 68 41 4026 2388
Control 340 201 1709 1014 1279 759 680 403 -- -- 4008 2377
0.5
w/ SCM 340 201 1709 1014 1279 759 626 372 54 31 4008 2377
Control 340 201 1709 1014 1374 815 567 336 -- -- 3990 2366
0.6
w/ SCM 340 201 1709 1014 1374 815 522 310 45 26 3990 2366

Table 4 — Tests conducted and cast specimen dimensions.

Description Designation Dimensions
in mm
Slump C 143 N/A N/A
Setting time C 191 N/A N/A
Compressive strength C 39 3×6 76×152
Splitting tensile strength C 496 3×6 76×152
Modulus of rupture C 78 3.5×4.5×16 89×114×406
Modulus of elasticity C 469 6×12 152×305
Autogeneous shrinkage N/A [14]
Chemical shrinkage N/A [15, 16]
1×1×11.25, 25×25×286,
Free shrinkage C 157
3×3×11.25 76×76×286
Chloride permeability C 1202 4×8 102×203
Sulfate resistance C 1012 1×1×11.25 25×25×286
Alkali-silica reaction C 1260 1×1×11.25 25×25×286
Table 5 — Normal consistency of pastes, as determined by ASTM C 187.
Sample w/c or w/cm
Control 0.27
MK235 0.31
MK349 0.34
Silica Fume 0.28

Table 6 — ASR testing, Jobe aggregate gradation.

Sieve Mass retained, g Mass retained, %
#8 132 10
#16 330 25
#30 396 30
#50 396 30
#100 66 5
Total 1320 100

Table 7 — Mortar mixture designs for ASTM C 1260 (ASR test).

Mixture Water (g) Aggregate (g) Cement (g) SCM (g)
Control 276 1320 587 N/A
8% 276 1320 540 47
15% 276 1320 499 88
 250
Initial Set
Final Set
200
Time (minutes)

150

100

50

0
Control MK235 (8%) MK349 (8%) SF (8%)
Sample
Figure 1 — Vicat initial and final setting times at normal consistency with varying w/cm.

350
Initial Set
300 Final Set

250
Time (minutes)

200

150

100

50

0
Control MK235 (8%) MK349 (8%) SF (8%)
Sample
Figure 2 — Vicat initial and final setting times at constant w/cm (0.34).
 500
Control
Autogenous deformation (microstrain)

MK235
0 MK349
SF
-500

-1000

-1500

-2000

-2500
0.1 1 10 100 1000
Age (days)

Figure 3 — Autogenous deformation of cement paste at w/cm=0.40, 8% replacement.

14
Control
MK235
12
Chemical shrinkage (mL/100 g

MK349
SF
cementitious material)

10

0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Age (days)
Figure 4 — Chemical shrinkage of cement paste at w/cm=0.40, 8% replacement.
 (a) 0
Control
-0.01 MK235
MK349
-0.02 SF
Length change (%)

-0.03

-0.04

-0.05

-0.06

-0.07

-0.08
0 7 14 21 28 35 42
Age (days)

(b) 0
Control
MK235
-1 MK349
SF
Mass change (%)

-2

-3

-4

-5
0 7 14 21 28 35 42
Age (days)

Figure 5 — Free shrinkage of mortar prisms at w/cm=0.40, 8% replacement: (a) length

change and (b) mass change.
 (a) 0
Control
MK235
-0.01 MK349
SF
Length change (% )

-0.02

-0.03

-0.04

-0.05
0 7 14 21 28 35 42
Age (days)

(b) 0
Control
MK235
-0.5 MK349
SF
M ass change (% )

-1

-1.5

-2

-2.5
0 7 14 21 28 35 42
Age (days)
Figure 6 — Free shrinkage of concrete prisms at w/cm=0.40, 8% replacement: (a) length
change and (b) mass change.
 (a)
80
Control
70 MK235
60 MK349
Strength (MPa)

SF
50 SF Redo
40
30
20
10
0
1 3 7 28 90
Age (days)

(b)
70
Control
60 MK235
MK349
Strength (MPa)

50 SF
40 SF Redo

30

20

10

0
1 3 7 28 90
Age (days)

(c)
50
Control
MK235
40
MK349
Strength (MPa)

SF
30 SF Redo

20

10

0
1 3 7 28 90
Age (days)
Figure 7 — Average peak compressive strength versus concrete age for (a) w/cm=0.40,
(b) w/cm=0.50, and (c) w/cm=0.60.
 (a)
6
Control
5 MK235
MK349
Strength (MPa)

4 SF

0
1 3 7 28 90
Age (days)

(b)
5
Control
MK235
4
Strength (MPa)

MK349
SF
3

0
1 3 7 28 90
Age (days)

(c)
4
Control
MK235
Strength (MPa)

3 MK349
SF

0
1 3 7 28 90
Age (days)
Figure 8 — Average peak splitting tensile strength versus concrete age for (a)
w/cm=0.40, (b) w/cm=0.50, and (c) w/cm=0.60.
 (a)
9
8 Control
MK235
7 MK349
Strength (MPa)

6 SF
5
4
3
2
1
0
1 3 28 90
Age (days)

(b)
7
Control
6 MK235
MK349
Strength (MPa)

5
SF
4

0
1 3 28 90
Age (days)

(c)
6
Control
5 MK235
MK349
Strength (MPa)

4 SF

0
1 3 28 90
Age (days)
Figure 9 — Average peak flexural strength (modulus of rupture) versus concrete age for
(a) w/cm=0.40, (b) w/cm=0.50, and (c) w/cm=0.60.
 50
Control
MK235
40 MK349
SF
SF Redo
30
E (GPa)

20

10

0
0.40 0.50 0.60
w/cm
Figure 10 — Modulus of elasticity, E, at 28 days of age.

8000
Control
7000
Charge passed (Coulombs)

MK235
MK349
6000
SF
5000 HIGH

MODERATE
4000

3000

2000 LOW

1000 VERY
LOW
0
0.40 0.50 0.60
w/cm

Figure 11 — Rapid chloride permeability results at 28 days of age.

 0.15
Control
8% MK235
8% MK349
Length change (%)

0.1 8% SF
15% MK235
15% MK349
15% SF
0.05

-0.05
0 28 56 84 112 140 168 196 224
Age (days)
Figure 12 — Mortar bar expansion due to sulfate exposure, w/cm=0.485.

0.9
Control
0.8 8% MK235
8% MK349
0.7 8% SF
Length change (%)

15% MK235
0.6
15% MK349
0.5 15% SF

0.4

0.3
FAIL
0.2

0.1
PASS
0
0 7 14 21 28
Age (days)
Figure 13 — Expansion due to alkali-silica reaction, w/cm=0.47.
Evaluation of Thiele Metakaolin for
Applications in Concrete
Phase II Final Report
September 12, 2006

V. Garas, F. Lagier, and K.E. Kurtis

School of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Georgia Institute of Technology
Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0355
 Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW OF THE LITERATURE.................................................. 1

OBJECTIVES................................................................................................................................. 3
MATERIALS.................................................................................................................................. 3
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS ..................................................................................................... 4
General........................................................................................................................................ 4
Design Approaches for Ternary Blends...................................................................................... 4
Particle Packing Optimization ................................................................................................ 4
Isothermal Calorimetry ........................................................................................................... 5
Trial Batching ......................................................................................................................... 6
Chloride Content of Metakaolin ................................................................................................. 6
Plastic Properties......................................................................................................................... 6
Early Age Shrinkage ................................................................................................................... 6
Compressive Strength ................................................................................................................. 7
Durability .................................................................................................................................... 7
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION..................................................................................................... 7
Plastic Properties......................................................................................................................... 7
Chloride content of Metakaolin .................................................................................................. 7
Shrinkage .................................................................................................................................... 8
Mechanical Properties................................................................................................................. 8
Results from Ternary Blends .................................................................................................. 8
Analysis of Particle Packing in Ternary Blends ..................................................................... 9
Influence of Early Curing Conditions..................................................................................... 9
Durability .................................................................................................................................... 9
COST ANALYSIS ....................................................................................................................... 10
CONCLUSIONS .......................................................................................................................... 11
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 12

2
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Metakaolin (MK) is produced by heating kaolin (natural clay) to temperature of 650-900 oC to
break down the kaolin’s structure and create an amorphous material with pozzolanic and latent hydraulic
reactivity, suitable for use in cementing applications.1,2 In combination with Portland cement, metakaolin
reacts with portlandite (CH) to form supplementary calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H), the primary-
strength giving phase in Portland cement concrete; various calcium aluminate products (e.g., C4AH13,
C3AH6, C2ASH8) may also result from the reaction of metakaolin in these types of systems. The
formation of supplementary C-S-H, however, is particularly important within the interfacial transition
zone (ITZ), which is the region of the paste immediately surrounding the coarse aggregate. This region
typically is more porous (due to poor particle packing at the aggregate surface and “one-sided” growth)
and contains a higher concentration of larger, aligned CH crystals. As a result, the ITZ is considered to be
the “weak link” in concrete.3,4 Because metakaolin reacts with CH produced by cement hydration and the
supplementary C-S-H formed can fill existing porosity, the inclusion of metakaolin in concrete can
densify the microstructure of the hydrated cement paste and potentially lead to greater strength and
impermeability. 1,5 Compared to most other supplementary cementitious materials (SCM) used in
concrete, metakaolin’s reaction rate is rather rapid, owing to its high surface area and amorphous
structure. Of the SCMs commonly used, silica fume is the only other material with a similar reaction rate.

Fly ash is, like metakaolin, an SCM which is used as a partial replacement for portland cement in
concrete. But, unlike metakaolin which is specially processed for use in concrete and which possesses
latent hydraulic properties, fly ash is the largely pozzolanic by-product of industrial processes such as
coal-burning power stations. Fly ash consists of spherical particles composed primarily of silica, alumina
and iron; it’s reaction rate is rather slow, 6,7,9 and depends upon the relative amount of crystalline (or non-
reactive) material present, as well as on the calcium content of the fly ash. Whiles its rate of reaction is
relatively slow, the use of fly ash can improve workability,1 lead to higher later age strength, 6 and provide
superior resistance sulfate attack, alkali silica reaction, and carbonation.6,8 The difference between fly ash
and Portland cement becomes apparent under a microscope.

ASTM 618 describes two classes of fly ash:

• Class F, with SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 > 70%
• Class C, with SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 > 50%
The ASTM specification indicates, then, that higher CaO-content fly ashes be classified as Class C. The
recently revised Canadian Standards Association (CSA) specification for fly ash, CSA A23.5, divides fly
ash into three classes depending on its calcium content in recognition of the difference in behavior
between low and high lime fly ashes. These classes are as follows:
• Type F, low calcium, < 8% CaO
• Type CI, intermediate calcium, 8–20% CaO
• Type CH, high calcium, > 20% CaO
Low-CaO fly ashes (Class F) generally provide good resistance to alkali-silica reaction (ASR). However,
strength development at early ages is typically slower than that at conventional Portland cement,
especially at higher levels of replacement. High-CaO fly ashes (Class C), on the other hand, are less
efficient in suppressing chemical deterioration of concrete, but generally react faster than low-CaO fly
ashes and have less negative impact on the early strength of concrete and are less sensitive to inadequate
curing.10 Most fly ashes, regardless of composition, tend to reduce the water demand of concrete, while
improving cohesiveness (i.e., resistance to segregation, such as excessive bleeding). The beneficial effects
of fly ash on permeability and diffusivity tend to become more apparent with time, especially in the case
of the more slowly reacting, low-CaO fly ashes.11

Research during the past decade has shown some additional improvements in concrete properties
due to partial replacement of Portland cement with fly ash. In addition to increasing the long-term

1
compressive strength,6,8,12 the long-term bond strength has been found to increase, up to 30% wt. fly ash.13
Fly ash also was used to optimize the chloride resistance of typical structural concrete, as the use of fly
ash resulted in up to 2–4 times better performance than corresponding Portland cement concrete at a 30
wt% replacement level. In addition, relatively low levels of moderate-calcium fly ash reduced the
potential of alkali reactivity of aggregates as it reduced the expansion of the ASTM C 1260 test mortar
bars at 14 days below the critical limit of 0.10%.14

Thus, the benefits of using metakaolin or fly ash separately in concrete as partial replacement for
Portland cement are fairly well-established, especially for fly ash. However, because the cost of
metakaolin is about 6-7 times the cost of ordinary Portland cement in the United States, thus using
metakaolin alone as a supplementary cementitious material (SCM) may not be cost effective. On the other
hand, the slow reaction rate of fly ash can make its use impractical when rapid early strength development
is required. However, use of these materials in combination – as a ternary blend – has the potential to
overcome the higher cost associated with metakaolin concrete and the slower strength development
associated with fly ash concrete.16

Recent studies of ternary blends, which contain cement and two supplementary materials (SCMs),
have shown improvements in economy17, early and late strength6,18,19,20, durability8,18,19,20, and also
decrease the heat of hydration15 as compared to ordinary concrete or binary blends.6,8 Ternary
cementitious blends of Portland cement, silica fume, and fly ash offered significant advantages over
binary blends and even greater enhancements over plain Portland cement, as the silica fume improves the
early age performance of concrete, with the fly ash continuously refining the properties of the hardened
concrete as it matured.8,20 In addition, the shortfalls of high CaO fly ash in terms of controlling ASR
resistance could be compensated for by the incorporation of relatively small quantities of other SCMs like
silica fume. Such combinations produced concrete with generally excellent properties and offset the
problems associated with using the increased amounts of high CaO fly ash or silica fume required when
these materials are used individually. In terms of durability (chloride diffusion, ASR and sulfate
resistance), such blends were vastly superior to plain Portland cement concrete, although it was not clear
how the two materials “worked together” to improve the durability.8 However, the same study suggested
that it was possible that many of these benefits were attributed to reductions in permeability and ionic
diffusivity in the system. Another study focused on accelerated cured ternary cement concrete showed
that ternary systems (8% Silica fume + 25% slag) provided 18 h strengths exceeding 40 MPa. So,
concrete mixtures containing 8% SF and 25% slag appear to have good potential for use in precast
operations employing accelerated curing19. In addition, the combined utilization of silica fume, fly ash
and slag was found to be beneficial to the rheological properties of the high performance concrete (HPC).
A recent study focused on studying the effects of different supplementary cementitious materials on
strength and durability of concrete cured for a short period of time (2 weeks only), showed that replacing
Portland cement with a combination of 10% silica fume, 25% slag, and 15% fly ash, also showed increase
in compressive strength.19

Only a few research studies have examined the incorporation of metakaolins in ternary blend
systems, resulting in a body of knowledge which is much less complete compared to the literature
available for fly ash, silica fume, and slag ternary blend systems. Reductions in free drying shrinkage,
restrained shrinkage cracking width, and chloride diffusion rate have been reported when metakaolin is
used in combination with silica fume, as compared to concrete where these SCMs have been used alone.21
Another study showed that when metakaolin is combined with fly ash, the effects of MK and fly ash on
the temperature-rise tend to compensate for one another. For example, the temperature-rise for a 10%
MK–10% fly ash mortar is the same as that of the plain cement control.8 For water-cured concrete made
with Portland cement, fly ash, and metakaolin, increasing the MK content enhanced the 28-day
compressive strength and reduced sorptivity to values below that of the control, whereas the sorptivities
of fly ash concrete exceeded that of the control.18

2
 Thus, it is believed that a combination of metakaolin and fly ash in a ternary cement system (i.e.,
Portland cement being the third component) should result in a number of synergistic effects, some of
which may include:
• Fly ash increases long-term strength development of metakaolin concrete.
• Fly ash offsets increased water demand of metakaolin.
• Fly ash compensates for higher heat release from metakaolin cement.
• The relatively low cost of fly ash offsets the increased cost of metakaolin.
• Metakaolin compensates for low early strength of concrete with fly ash (binary blend of cement and
fly ash).
• Metakaolin reacts with CH to produce C-S-H, thus potentially improving the behavior of higher CaO
fly ash for reduces the normally high levels of high CaO fly ash required for ASR preventio
Thus significant improvements in mechanical and durability properties could be achieved upon
replacing some of the cement with metakaolin, and fly ash. That will be the main focus of this study.

OBJECTIVES
The principal objective of this research plan was to build upon the prior research in Phase I,
which examined the effect of metakaolin addition rate on compressive and flexural strength development,
plastic concrete properties, shrinkage, permeability, and durability to address issues not previously
considered in Phase I and to examine with further testing those results from Phase I which were
inconclusive. A major focus of this continued research is the development and characterization of
metakaolin/fly ash ternary-blended concrete.

The specific studies to be performed, then, under this Phase II research plan are:
• Development of ternary blends containing Class C fly ash and metakaolin
• Assessment of plastic concrete properties
• Measurements of chloride content in both metakaolin samples
• Measurement of very early age (< 24 hour) concrete shrinkage
• Assessment of ternary blends for mitigation of expansion by alkali-silica reaction
• Assessment of metakaolin for mitigation of sodium sulfate and magnesium sulfate attack.
In addition, a detailed cost analysis - based on the concrete strength at different ages - was also done to
assess the suitability and practicality of using metakaolin as a supplementary cementitious material in
ternary blended concrete. The cost of metakaolin based upon different locations of the United States and
on the amount ordered was considered.

Additional testing to characterize the freeze/thaw resistance and contribution to mitigation of

corrosion afforded by the use of metakaolin was performed at Texas A&M University; those results are
reported elsewhere.

MATERIALS
The two metakaolins used in this study, MK 235 (Kaorock) and MK 349 (Kaorock F), were
provided by Thiele Kaolin Company in Sandersville, GA. These metakaolins differ primarily in their
surface area, with MK 349 having the greater surface area (25.4 vs. 11.1 m2/g). Physical characteristics
of the two metakaolins are shown in Table 1.

Commercially available Type I/II cement and Class C fly ash were used for all paste, mortar, and
concrete mixtures. Oxide analyses for cement and fly ash are shown in Tables 2 and 3. Aggregates were
#89 1/2"- (12.5 mm) MSA crushed stone and 2.38 fineness modulus natural sand, as well as alkali-
reactive Jobe sand for the ASR testing. A carboxylated polyether-type superplasticizer (Grace ADVA
100) was also used.

3
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
General
Pastes, mortars, or concretes were prepared at three water-to-cementitious materials ratios (w/cm)
– 0.30, 0.40, and 0.50 – unless ASTM specifications for a particular test required a different w/cm.
Concrete raw materials were batched and mixed for approximately 15 minutes in accordance with ASTM
C 192 using a 2.5 ft3-capacity (71 L) Lancaster Counter Current Batch mixer, according to the mixture
designs given in Table 4. Mortars were mixed with a Hobart mixer per ASTM C 305 for at least five
minutes after the addition of water. SCMs were incorporated into mixtures concurrently with or
immediately following cement – after aggregates, but prior to water.

The plastic-covered concrete were kept in their molds at ambient conditions or in insulated curing
boxes for the first 24 hours and then demolded and placed in a 23°C fog room for the remainder of the
active testing period. A summary of the tests conducted on fresh and hardened samples, their
corresponding ASTM standards, and the dimensions of samples used for each is shown in Table 5.

Design Approaches for Ternary Blends

Three mix deign approaches were evaluated for the design of ternary blends containing Class C
fly ash and metakaolin: 1- particle packing optimization, 2- isothermal calorimetry, and 3- trial batching
at three water/cementitious materials (w/cm) of 0.30, 0.40, and 0.50, where the initial cement weight in
the control mixes was replaced by either 25% FA only, or 25% FA + 3% or 5% or 8% of one of the
metakaolins.

Particle Packing Optimization

The commercially available computer particle packing model LISA2 was used to optimize
packing of the particles (i.e., cement, SCMs, aggregates) used to produce concrete. LISA2 is shareware,
provided by the silica fume-supplier Elkem, that calculates and displays the particle size distribution of a
mixture of components by creating a library of particle size distributions for different materials,
determining the particle size distribution for any combination of these materials, and then comparing the
resulting particle distribution graph to the corresponding graph produced by a model developed by
Andreassen in 1931 (Figure 1).22 Andreassen suggested that optimal packing occurs when the particle size
distribution can be described by:

CPFT = (d/D)q.100……………..……………………………….(1)

where CPFT is the Cumulative (Volume) Percent Finer Than, d is the particle size, D is the maximum
particle size, and q is the distribution coefficient. This model (eq. 1) assumes that the smallest particles
would be infinitesimally small, which is not realistic for cement-based materials. A later, modified
version of the model considers the minimum particle size distribution; this called the “Modified
Andreassen Model”:23

CPFT = (dq-dmq/Dq-dmq)………………………..……………..(2)

where CPFT is the Cumulative (Volume) Percent Finer Than, d is the particle size, dm is the minimum
particle size of the distribution, D is the maximum particle size, and q is the distribution coefficient (q-
value) which increases upon increasing the amount of coarse materials and decreases upon increasing the
amount of fine materials. A more detailed description of the two models and the software algorithms is
given in the LISA2 user manual.22

4
 For this study, the Modified Andreassen Model was used. Prior research23 has shown that a q
coefficient value of 0.25-0.30 will result in high strength concrete, and that q values < 0.23 give less
workability mixtures. This approach was applied to results reported by Wiggins24 for the strength of
mortar mixtures containing metakaolin and fly ash (Table 6). However, no correlation was found between
the distribution coefficient, q, and the compressive strength of the mortars (Figure 2). Thus, other
approaches to mix design and optimization were explored.

Isothermal Calorimetry
Recent, not yet published work by Hansen’s group at University of Michigan suggests that
relationships can be developed to link heat evolved in pastes, measured through isothermal, to concrete
compressive strength. In an attempt to understand the influence of metakaolin on the reaction of pastes
containing Class C fly ash and, ultimately, to use this knowledge to optimize mix proportions, calorimetry
was performed on plain cement pastes and binary and ternary blends. Ternary blends containing 3 and 5%
metakaolin were examined based upon economic considerations.

Heat of hydration was measured via isothermal calorimetry using a Thermometric TAM Air
eight-channel heat conduction calorimeter maintained at 25 °C. Pastes contained 200 g total cementitious
material were mixed using a Sunbeam hand mixer. Polyethylene ampoules were filled with
approximately 20 g of paste, with empty ampoules serving as references. All experiments were
conducted in replicates of three and data was collected for at least 24 h. The heat of hydration of the
control, binary, ternary blends at w/cm of 0.40 were measured using Type I/II cement, with 25% fly ash,
and 3 and 5% metakaolin, following the mixture proportions in Table 4. Additionally, the influence of
increasing fly ash content was examined in 5% metakaolin pastes by examining Class C fly ash dosages
of 25, 35, 40, and 50%.

Figure 3a shows the rate of heat evolution and Figure 3b shows the cumulative heat evolved for
the 25% fly ash cases. Data in both is normalized per gram of cementitious material. As expected, the
lowest and slowest heat evolution occurred in the 25% fly ash paste, with the MK pastes (at 3 and 5%)
generating less heat than the control, but more than fly ash alone. Fly ash incorporation reduced the total
heat evolved (Figure 3b) relative to the control, due to the replacement of the highly exothermic cement
with the fly ash. Additionally, upon incorporating each of the metakaolins in ternary blends with cement
and fly ash, a significant increase in the total heat evolved was observed as compared to the binary blend
(cement + 25% FA). However, the increase of the MK content from 3% to 5% resulted in only small
increases in the cumulative heat of hydration.

While no clear influence of metakaolin surface area is found in the cumulative heat of hydration
data, of the blended pastes, the finer MK 349 showed generally greater peaks in heat evolution when used
at a replacement level of 5%. This specimen produced approximately 2.5 wM/g cement, which occurred
at just over six hours of age, and coincided with the second peak in hydration, which is typically
associated with the reaction of calcium aluminate phases. This effect was also noted when examining
cements of varying composition (Table 7). In all cements examined, an acceleration in the reaction rates
and an increase in the rate of heat evolution were observed in the presence of metakaolin, suggesting that
they have a catalyzing effect on the cement hydration (Figure 5). In addition, for those cements with
moderate and high alkali contents (i.e., Cements 2 and 5 in Table 7), increased heat associated with the
second peak was noted. This effect may be important for massive concrete construction, where early heat
development must be controlled, or in construction when longer setting times are necessary.

That the MK 349 may be more reactive than MK 235 is also suggested by the data in Figure 4,
where the metakaolins are combined at 5% by weight of cement with 25, 35, 40, and 50% fly ash. Here,
MK 349 blends resulted in both higher peak heats of hydration and slight increases in the cumulative heat
evolved when compared to MK 235 blends at the same fly ash content.

5
 Figure 4 also shows that increasing the fly content decreases both the cumulative amount and the
rate of heat evolved, as expected. This will likely result also in a decrease in the strength of concrete
especially in early ages.

Overall, these results suggest that metakaolin replacements of 5% or higher are needed in order to
overcome the hydration delay that resulted form incorporating fly ash at a replacement level of 25% of
the mass of the cement in the control.

Trial Batching
Based upon isothermal calorimetry results, ternary blends (Portland cement, fly ash Class C, and
metakaolin) were developed at three w/cm’s - 0.30, 0.40, and 0.50 – as shown in Table 4. Guidelines in
ACI 211.4R-93 Guide for High Strength Concrete Mixture Proportioning were used to develop these mix
proportions. A target slump of 3-4” was chosen to match Phase I.

Chloride Content of Metakaolin

The chloride content of raw metakaolin materials was measured according to FM 5-516 “Florida
Method of Test for Determining Low-Levels of Chloride in Concrete and Raw Materials”, using a
Metrohm Autotitrator (798 MPT Titrino) (Figure 6). Three 3.000 gm samples were used for each of the
two metakaolins. Each sample was prepared by adding 35 ml of a 1:12 nitric acid solution to 3.000 g of
the raw material and heating at ~ 250oC until boiling. The samples were allowed to boil for 2 to 4
minutes. Samples were then filtered through a Whatman No. 41 filter paper into 100 ml volumetric flasks
and allowed to cool to room temperature. The titration process then started by placing the sample on the
magnetic stirrer of the autotitrator, and the titrant (0.01N AgNO3 solution) was dispensed until the end
point is reached.

The chloride content is internally calculated by the titrator according to the following equation:
Cl- (ppm) = (1,000VxMxN)/(W)……………..……………………………….(3)
where:
N = normality of the AgNO3 solution
V = corrected end point in milliliters
M = molecular weigh of chloride
W = weight of sample in grams

Plastic Properties
Slump of the concrete mixtures prepared according to Table 4 was measured according to ASTM
C 143. Superplasticizer dosage was adjusted as necessary in order to achieve a target slump of 3-4" (76-
102 mm) for all mixtures, and the amount required for each mixture is recorded in Table 4. Unit weight
was calculated based on the average of five hardened 3×6" (76×152 mm) concrete cylinders.

Early Age Shrinkage

Free shrinkage of the mixtures shown in Table 8 were examined according to ASTM C 157 with
the first 24 hours shrinkage measured using embedded waterproof, low-modulus strain gages (TML KM-
30) with 31 mm gage length. Each shrinkage prism 3”x3”x11.25” (76×76×286 mm) mold was first half-
filled with concrete, then a strain gage was embedded and centered in the mold using two inverted U
shape steel seats (Figure 7), then the second half was filled. Temperature at the center of the specimen
was measured simultaneously with strain, using an OMEGA Type K thermal probe embedded vertically
in the specimen immediately after casting. Strain and temperature measurements started at ~15 minutes
after mixing was finished. Data was recorded every 1 min., using data acquisition systems.

6
Compressive Strength
Compressive strength of ordinary concrete and binary and ternary blends shown in Table 4 was
measured on three replicate samples according to ASTM C 39. Compression tests were conducted on 1,
3, 7, and 28 days of age using an 800,000 lb-capacity (3600 kN) compression machine with a digital
indicator. Cylinders of 3×6" (76×152 mm) were compressed at a rate of 15,000 lb/min (1110 N/s).

Durability
To determine sulfate resistance of mixture proportions investigated in Phase I (Table 9), four
replicate 1×1×11.25" (25×25×286 mm) mortar bars were prepared and measured for expansion according
to ASTM C 1012. In addition to controls, two sets of samples were cast for each of the three SCMs (i.e.,
MK 235, MK 349, and silica fume), one at 8% and one at 15% replacement by wt. cemetn. ASTM C
1012 was modified slightly by preparing all mortar bars using a single w/cm of 0.485 and adding
superplasticizer to those mixes with metakaolin and silica fume replacements to achieve suitable
workability. Samples were exposed to a 33,800 ppm sulfate solution (50 g/L sodium sulfate), at room
temperature and length change was recorded on weekly basis for the first 3 weeks, and then monthly until
the age of 1 year. Additionally, to examine magnesium sulfate attack, ASTM C 1012 was repeated using
MgSO4 also at a sulfate concentration of 33,800 ppm (42.399 g/L magnesium sulfate).

Use of ternary blends for control of expansion of alkali-reactive was measured according to the
accelerated mortar bar method (ASTM C 1260). This method has been shown reliable for evaluating the
effectiveness of SCMs in suppressing ASR.25 A single water-to-cementitious materials ratio (0.47) was
used and 3, 5, and 8% metakaolin replacement levels were examined with 25% Class C fly ash.
Gradation information for the alkali-reactive cherty sand (Jobe, TX), which is slightly modified from the
standard, and mortar mixture designs are shown in Tables 10 and 11 respectively. Mortar bars
(1×1×11.25" or 25×25×286 mm) were stored in a 1 N NaOH solution at 80°C, and length change data
was collected for 28 days, which is longer than the 14-day period specified in the standard.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Metakaolin addition proved beneficial, yielding concrete with considerably higher strengths and
improved durability over the controls and fly ash binary blends. In general, the finer MK 349 appeared to
be more effective in improving concrete properties than the coarser MK 235.

Plastic Properties
The use of fly ash generally decreased unit weight particularly at lower w/cm. Unit weight
decreases were typically between 0.5% and 1.0% as compared to the control mixes. Mixtures with
metakaolin and fly ash (ternary blends) showed further decrease in unit weight, typically between 0.25%
and 1.70%, as compared to the control mixes.

No superplasticizer was needed to achieve a target slump of 3-4" (76-102 mm) for cement or fly
ash binary blend at 0.50 w/cm, but the admixture was needed for all other concrete mixtures, as shown in
Table 4. As expected, higher dosages were required as the w/cm decreased. The amount of
superplasticizer needed generally increased upon using metakaolin and generally decreased upon using
fly ash. MK 349 required from 15% to 400% more superplasticizer than MK 235. When using fly ash at
a replacement level of 25% by mass of cement, a decrease of 32% to 60% in the necessary
superplasticizer dosage was observed to achieve the target slump, when compared to the corresponding
control mixes with same the w/cm (Table 4).

Chloride content of Metakaolin

The average chloride content measured for raw MK 235 and MK 349 was 37.11 ppm (0.00371
%), and 72.08 ppm (0.00721 %) respectively (Table 12). This shows that the finer metakaolin (MK 349)
contained about twice the chloride in MK 235. Although FM5-516 does not provide a specific

7
classification of raw materials according to their chloride content, it is recommended that Thiele Kaolin
consider including this test as part of their ordinary QA/QC procedures if repeated tests are necessary to
maintain approval within the state of Florida

Shrinkage
Phase I shrinkage studies on MK concretes showed that metakaolin replacement resulted in
increased autogenous and chemical shrinkage, measured in cement paste. However, reduced free
shrinkage was observed in mortars and concretes. The inconsistency of these results prompted further
investigation to better understand the shrinkage behavior of metakaolin concretes.

Results from very early age (< 24 hours) shrinkage tests, performed with concrete, are shown in
Figure 8. These results show that during the first 24 hours, the metakaolin-containing concretes
experienced less shrinkage or comparable shrinkage to the control concretes. This supports the results
obtained on concrete in Phase I.

The maximum shrinkage measured was 0.0027% for the control, and 0.0025% for the MK 235
concrete and 0.0012% for the MK 349 concrete. This represents 7.5%, and 55.5% reduction in shrinkage
for the metakaolin concretes, as compared to the control. The reduction in early shrinkage upon
incorporating metakaolin could be related to the very low permeability (and reduced water loss) in
metakaolin concretes, as reported in Phase I. However, storage in high RH environment during the testing
suggests that another mechanism is more likely responsible for the behavior. For example, the decreased
shrinkage during the first 24 hours could be related to the slower reaction rate of the metakaolin, relative
to the cement it replaces. Also, it could be that any shrinkage at < 24 hours is partially or – in the case of
MK 349 – completely offset by expansion. Data in Figure 8 shows that the MK 349 sample actually
exhibited a net expansion; this could be thermal expansion due the higher internal temperature measured
in this concretes, as compared to the control and the MK 235 concretes. In addition, any expansion may
also be related to greater early ettringite formation, as suggested by the exaggeration of the second peak
(associated with reaction of aluminates) in calorimetry. This could result from the higher alumina content
in metakaolin when compared to portland cement, and, hence, the greater alumina content in the
metakaolin/cement pastes (Tables 1 and 2).

Mechanical Properties

Results from Ternary Blends

Significant increases in compressive strength as compared to the ordinary concrete controls and
the fly ash binary blends were observed for both metakaolins at 8% replacement for cement at low w/cm
(i.e. w/cm=0.30) (Figure 9). The finer MK 349 had a more pronounced effect, particularly at ages of
three days or more. In general, the compressive strengths of all mixtures increased with decreasing w/cm,
reaching a value of nearly 12,400 psi (85.5 MPa) for mix 8 (25% FA + 8% MK 349) at 28 days.

As in Phase I, strength increases due to metakaolin were less apparent at higher w/cm. This is
likely because ample water was available for hydration and particle surface area and size became less
critical at higher w/cm.

Higher rates of strength gain than the control concretes were apparent for the 5% and 8% MK 349
ternary blends at one day for a w/cm of 0.30 and at seven days for a w/cm of 0.40. By the age three days,
8% metakaolin ternary blends strengths exceeded the control at w/cm of 0.3. For w/cm or 0.40, this
occurred at 28 days of age (Figure 10).

8
Analysis of Particle Packing in Ternary Blends
Results from the Phase II (ternary blend) strength characterization were analyzed using the
modified Andreassen model, described previously in the section “Particle Packing Optimization”, to
determine if a relationship between the model coefficient (q) and the measured strength of these mixtures
could be found. First, as expected, the modified Andreassen model coefficient for these mixtures
decreased as the amount of fine materials (i.e., metakaolin) in the mix increased.

However, while a q coefficient of between 0.25 and 0.30 has been associated with high
performance concrete,23 a strong correlation between q value and strength was not apparent in the Phase II
strength data, as was also the case for the Wiggins data presented earlier (Figure 2). For example, while
Figures 11-13 show that ternary blends with 5% and 8% MK showed significantly higher compressive
strength (and other data, presented subsequently in Figures 16 and 17 show improvements in durability),
almost all the q values for these mixes were below 0.25. This is likely because the modified Andreassen
model does not adequately account for the faster and greater chemical reactivity of the metakaolin.
Furthermore, this result suggests that - for highly reactive materials like metakaolin - concrete
performance is more significantly affected by the chemical reactivity of the material not the optimum
packing of particles.

A relationship was found, however, to exist between q value and superplasticizer dosage required
to achieve the target slump. Upper limits of 0.23 and 0.25 have been set by researchers23 and the LISA2
software developers, respectively, to maintain high flowability in high performance concrete. Figure 14
shows that mixtures with q values lower than these limits required more superplasticizer, indicating that
they had a lower workability than mixtures with higher q value. These results are counter to the expected
and suggest that the faster rate of chemical reactivity and higher surface area (in addition to particle size)
of highly reactive materials like metakaolin should be also accounted for as while modeling the rheology
of concretes incorporating such materials.

Influence of Early Curing Conditions

Additionally, to replicate conditions at center of large concrete sections or produced by
accelerated curing practices, control and 5% MK ternary blends specimens at w/cm=0.30 were cast and
kept for the first 24 hours in an insulated curing box and were subsequently cured in a fog room. Results
from these samples which were initially accelerated cured were compared to those cured entirely by the
ASTM standard curing regime (Figure 19). Similar trends are apparent for control and ternary concretes.
Initial accelerated curing resulted in ~70% increase in one-day compressive strength, as compared to
standard curing. The one-day strength is ~87% of the 28-day compressive strength, indicating a higher
initial reaction rate due to the higher temperatures in the insulated curing box. Strengths at later ages (i.e.
7 and 28 days) were similiar to those subjected to ASTM-fog room curing. The significant increase in the
early strength is of particular importance to prestressing industry where early high strength is needed in
order to apply the prestressing forces without causing damage to the concrete section.

Durability
Sulfate resistance – to both sodium and magnesium sulfate - afforded by the use of metakaolin
was measured by procedures in ASTM C 1012. The results shown in Figure 16 show that specimens
exposed to MgSO4 showed less expansion than specimens exposed to Na2SO4. This may be due to the
formation of a brucite layer near the sample surface with MgSO4 exposure; formation of relatively
insoluble brucite may slow sulfate ingress. As a result, it is difficult to distinguish among the expansion
results for the various mixtures in the magnesium sulfate environment.

Although ASTM C 1012 provides no strict limit on expansion, it has been suggested that
expansion of 0.05% to 0.10% at 180 days would indicate moderate sulfate resistance and expansion of
less than 0.05% at 180 days would indicate high sulfate resistance during ASTM C 1012 exposure.20

9
According to this criteria, all mixtures investigated fell into the passing range (below 0.05% expansion at
180 days). The low C3A content (< 8%) of the Type I/II cement used likely contributed to the sulfate
resistance of the mortars.

However, the type and addition rate of the SCMs examined clearly influenced the expansion
behavior in the standard Na2SO4 solution. Results in Figure 16 show that when used at 8% by weight of
cement, metakaolin produces greater reductions in expansion than silica fume. In fact, while further
reductions in expansion are noticed when the silica fume dosage is increased from 8% to 15%, the
behavior of the metakaolin mortars at both of these rates are nearly the same in the sodium sulfate
environment. This indicates that the metakaolin may be used at lower cost, assuming silica fume and
metakaolin are comparably priced, to provide equivalent sulfate resistance in concrete.

In addition, the performance of ternary blends for mitigation expansion by alkali-silica reaction
was examined by ASTM C 1260 (Figure 17). According to ASTM C 1260, expansion of less than 0.10%
at 14 days of age indicates acceptable performance, and expansion of greater than 0.20% indicates
unacceptable performance. Based upon these criteria, the 8% MK 235 ternary blend, the 3%, 5%, and 8%
MK 349 ternary blends specimens fell into the intermediate range (showing between 0.10% and 0.20%
expansion at 14 days), while all other mixtures failed. These results show that although both metakaolins
significantly reduce expansion due to ASR, MK 349 was found to be more efficient, perhaps due to its
larger surface area and greater reactivity. Additionally, 8% replacement with MK 235 produced greater
reductions in expansion than 3% and 5% replacements, while increasing replacement with MK 349 from
5% to 8% did not produce significant reduction in expansion due to ASR. Further testing, by the longer
term ASTM C 1293, is ongoing.

COST ANALYSIS
A cost analysis was performed based on the price lists received from Thiele Kaolin in August
2006 (Table 13) and the compressive strength results for control, binary, and ternary blends investigated
in Phase II (Table 4). Figures 18-21, 22-25, 26-29, and 30-34 show analysis results when Thiele’s
metakaolin is ordered in different amounts for use in the state of Georgia, the east coast, west of the
Mississippi river, and in California, respectively.

These results show that the 3%, and 5% MK ternary blends showed cost savings (in terms of
cost/psi) at low w/cm (i.e. w/cm = 0.30) at 28 days when compared to the control mix (PC concrete). The
magnitude of cost reduction depended on the amount of the metakaolin ordered.

For use in Georgia, the 3% MK 235, 3% MK 349, and 5% MK 349 ternary blends showed a
maximum of 7.0 %, 3.5 %, and 4.7 % reduction in the cost/psi at 28 days, when compared to the
w/cm=0.30 control mix. For the east cost, the 3% MK 235, 5% MK 235, 3% MK 349, and 5% MK 349
blends showed maximum reductions in cost/psi at 28 days of 6.3 %, 0.5 %, 2.9% and 3.5 % as compared
to the w/cm=0.30 control mix. In the area west of the Mississippi River, the 3% MK 235, 3% MK 349,
and 5% MK 349 blends showed a maximum reduction in cost/psi at 28 days of 5.03 %, 1.6 %, and 1.6 %
compared to the w/cm=0.30 control mix. In California and the west coast, only the 3% MK 235 ternary
blend showed a reduction (3.4%) in the cost/psi when compared to the w/cm=0.30 control mix at 28 days;
this is due to the higher freight rates for shipping metakaolin further distances.

However, the initial cost of materials is but one parameter in determining the lifecycle cost of a
structure or project. Thus, potential improvements in durability and resulting increased service life and
decreased maintenance costs must also be considered. By taking into account the enhanced durability
performance afforded by the use of metakaolin, as compared to control and fly ash binary blends
investigated (refer to the “Durability” section, and Phase I report), a long-term cost effectiveness could be

10
achieved upon using metakaolin concretes. This is particularly true when longer service life is required
and/or when construction is to occur in aggressive environments.

CONCLUSIONS
The performance of two metakaolins, which varied primarily in their fineness, was examined and
compared to the performance of plain concrete and in concrete containing ternary blends of the
metakaolin and Class C fly ash.

Three mix design approaches for the development of metakaolin/fly ash ternary blends were
examined - particle packing optimization, isothermal calorimetry, and trial batching. The particle packing
approach was found to be unsatisfactory, likely due to lack of consideration of the constituent’s chemical
reactivity. Additionally, calorimetry was used to examine the influence of metakaolin addition on the
early age reaction in ternary systems. While the fineness of the metakaolin was found to have some
influence on accelerating the early reactions (when comparing the two metakaolin samples), these result
overall suggest that metakaolin replacements of 5% or higher are needed in order to overcome the
hydration delay that resulted form incorporating fly ash at a replacement level of 25% of the mass of the
cement in the control. Thus, ternary blended concretes were developed using ACI guidelines, with
additional investigation by calorimetry.

From this investigation, the following observations for ternary blended concretes were made:

• When compared to companion control and fly ash concrete at the same w/cm, mixtures incorporating
metakaolin as a third cementing material required more superplasticizer to achieve the same
workability.

• Increased concrete strength, as compared to both control and fly ash mixtures, was measured for
ternary blended concretes produced with both metakaolins. The finer metakaolin, MK 349, generally
yielded the highest compressive strength. The positive influence of the metakaolin fineness on
strength was more apparent at lower w/cm. Concretes produced with the finer metakaolin also
exhibited an increased rate of strength gain when compared to the controls and the fly ash binary
blends.

• In accelerated mortar tests (ASTM C 1260), both metakaolins significantly reduced expansion due to
alkali-silica reaction when combined with 25% Class C fly ash. The finer MK 349 was found to be
more efficient, mitigating expansion of a highly reactive cherty aggregate at 5% replacement, as
compared to the 8% required for MK 235.

• The cost effectiveness in terms of (cost/psi) increased with time for all ternary blends. Results show
that ternary blends of both metakaolins investigated showed cost savings (in terms of cost/psi) at
w/cm of 0.30 at 28 days, with 3% MK ternary blends being the most cost effective. Farther cost
savings may achieved in the log term taking into account the enhanced durability performance of MK
concretes.

In addition, continued examination of binary blends of metakaolin-cement systems yielded the

following observations:

• With regard to durability, resistance to sodium sulfate attack was more improved upon incorporating
metakaolin, with 8% metakaolin generally producing greater reductions in expansion than 8% silica
fume.

11
• Concrete containing 8% MK 235 experienced very early age shrinkage (<24 hours) comparable to the
ordinary cement concrete control. Expansion was noted in the first 24 hours in the 8% MK 349
concrete, perhaps due to thermal effects or early ettringite formation.

Finally, the chloride content of both metakaolins was measured. While both contained very small
amounts of chloride (< 100 ppm), the finer metakaolin (MK 349) had twice as much chloride. It is
recommended that Thiele Kaolin include this test as part of their ordinary QA/QC procedures, if repeated
tests are necessary to maintain approval within the state of Florida.

REFERENCES
1. Bensted, J., and Barnes, P., "Structure and Performance of Cements," Spon, New York, 2002, 565 pp.
2. Kostuch, J.A.; Walters, V.; and Jones, T.R., “High Performance Concretes Incorporating Metakaolin:
A Review”, Concrete 2000; Economic and Durable Concrete through Excellence, R.K. Dhir; and
M.R. Jones, eds., E & FN Spon, London, 1993, pp.1799-1811.
3. Wild, S.; and Khatib, J.M., “Portlandite Consumption in Metakaolin Cement Pastes and Mortars”,
Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 27, 1997, pp.137-146.
4. Bentz, D.P.; and Garboczi, E. J., “Simulation studies of the effects of Mineral Admixtures on the
Cement Paste-Aggregate Interfacial Zone”, ACI Materials Journal, Vol.88, No.5, Sept.-Oct.1998, pp.
518-529.
5. Poon, C.; Lam, L.; Kou, S.C.; Wong, Y.; and Wong, R., “Rate of Pozzolanic Reaction of Metakaolin
in High-Performance Cement Pastes”, Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 31, 2001, pp.1301-1306.
6. Antiohos, S.; Maganari, K.; and Tsimas, S., “Evaluation of Blends of High and Low Calcium Fly
Ashes for Use as Supplementary Cementing Materials”, Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 27,
2005, pp.349-356.
7. Hwang, K.; Noguchi, T.; and Tomosawa, F., “Prediction Model of Compressive Strength
Development of Fly-Ash Concrete”, Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 34, 2004, pp.2269-2276.
8. Thomas, M.D.A.; Shehata, M.H.; Shashiprakash, S.G.; Hopkins, D.S.; and Cail, K., “Use of Ternary
Cementitious Systems Containing Silica Fume and Fly Ash in Concrete”, Cement and Concrete
Research, Vol. 29, 1999, pp.1207-1214.
9. http://www.iflyash.com/whatisflyash.htm, March, 2005.
10. Thomas, M.D.A.; Shehata, M.H.; and Shashiprakash, S.G., “The Use of Fly Ash in Concrete:
Classification by Composition”, Cement, Concrete, and Aggregates, Vol. 12, No. 2, 1999, pp. 105-
110.
11. Thomas, M.D.A.; and Matthews, J.D., “Chloride penetration and Reinforcement Corrosion in Marine-
Exposed Fly Ash Concretes”, Proceedings 3rd CANMET/ACI International Conference on Concrete
in a Marine Environment, V.M. Malhotra (Ed.), ACI SP-163, American Concrete Institute, Detroit,
1996, pp. 317–338.
12. Han, Sang-Hun; Kim, Jin-Keun; and Park, Yon-Dong, “Prediction of Compressive Strength of Fly
Ash Concrete by New Apparent Activation Energy Function”, Cement and Concrete Research, Vol.
33, 2003, pp.965-971.
13. Li, G., “A New Way to Increase the Long-Term Bond Strength of New-to-Old Concrete by the Use
of Fly Ash”, Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 33, 2003, pp.799-806.
14. Bektas, F.; Turanli, L.; Topal, T.; and Goncuoglu, M.C., “Alkali Reactivity of Mortars Containing
Chert and Incorporating Moderate-Calcium Fy Ash”, Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 34, 2004,
pp.2209-2214.
15. Bai, J.; and Wild, S., “Investigation of the Temperature Change and Heat Evolution of Mortar
Incorporating PFA and Metakaolin”, Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 24, 2002, pp.201-209.

12
16. Dhir, R.K.; and Jones, M.R., “Development of Chloride-Resisting Concrete Using Fly Ash”, Fuel,
Vol. 78, 1999, pp.137-142.
17. Shehata, M.H.; and Thomas, M. D.A., “Use of Ternary Blends Containing Silica Fume and Fly Ash
to Suppress Expansion due to Alkali–Silica Reaction in Concrete”, Cement and Concrete Research,
Vol. 32, 2002, pp.341-349.
18. Bai, J.; Wild, S.; and Sabir, B.B., “Sorptivity and Strength of Air-Cured and Water- Cured PC–PFA–
MK Concrete and the Influence of Binder Composition on Carbonation Depth ”, Cement and
Concrete Research, Vol. 35, 2005, pp.473-482.
19. Hooton, R.D.; and Titherington, M.P., “Chloride Resistance of High-Performance Concretes
Subjected to Accelerated Curing”, Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 34, 2004, pp.1561-1567.
20. Lane, D.S.; and Ozyildirim, C., “Preventive Measures for Alkali-Silica Reactions (Binary and
Ternary Systems)”, Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 29, 1999, pp.1281-1288.
21. Khatib, J.M. and Wild, S., “Pore size distribution of Metakaolin Paste”, Cement and Concrete
Research, Vol.26, No.10:. 1996, pp. 1545-1553.
22. http://www.materials.elkem.com/hits/web_0006.nsf/lupstartpage/downloadenginter
23. Kumar V, S.,and Santhanam, M, “Particle Packing Theories and their Application in Concrete
Mixtrure Proportioning: A Review”, The Indian Concrete Journal, September 2003, pp. 1324-1331.
24. Wiggins, B., “Cement/Fly Ash/Metakaolin Ternary Blends: Effects on Compressive Strengths of
Mortars”, submitted for publication.
25. Bérubé, M.; Duchesne, J.; and Chouinard, D., "Why the Accelerated Mortar Bar Method ASTM C
1260 is Reliable for Evaluating the Effectiveness of Supplementary Cementing Materials in
Suppressing Expansion due to Alkali-Silica Reactivity," Cement, Concrete, and Aggregates, Vol. 17,
1995, pp. 26-34.
26. Taylor H.F.W., "Cement Chemistry" Second Edition, Thomas Telford Publishing, 1998.
27. Frías, M., Sánchez, M.I., Cabrera, J., “The Effect that the Pozzolanic of Metakaolin Has on the Heat
Evolution in Metakaolin-Cement Mortars”, Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 30, 2000, pp. 209-
216.
28. Hewlett, P.C., “Lea’s Chemistry of cement and concrete”, Fourth edition, Butterworth-Heinemann,
2003.

13
Table 1. Physical characteristics of the two metakaolin samples examined.
Characteristics MK 235 MK 349
Oxide Analysis (%)
SiO2 51.37 52.10
Al2O3 44.60 44.03
Fe2O3 0.46 0.92
CaO 0.23 0.47
MgO 0.03 0.13
Na2O 0.39 0.02
K2O 0.07 0.14
TiO2 1.99 1.42
MnO2 0.01 0.01
P2O5 0.19 0.17
SrO 0.01 0.01
BaO 0.01 0.02
SO3 0.014 0.00
Sedigraph (PSD)
% <2 µm 67 90
% <1 µm 41 83
% <0.5 µm 9 53
% <0.2 µm 4 4
Loss on Ignition 0.51 0.56
Moisture, as received 0.19 0.34
2
Surface Area (m /g) 11.1 25.4
3
Bulk Density (lb/ft ) 18 8.7

14
Table 2. Chemical oxide analysis, weight %, for Type I/II cement and Bogue potential compositions for
the cement.
Component Weight %
Oxide analysis
SiO2 20.66
Al2O3 5.22
Fe2O3 3.64
CaO 62.80
MgO 1.56
Na2O 0.13
K2O 0.45
TiO2 0.26
Mn2O3 0.02
P2O5 0.25
SrO 0.08
BaO 0.04
SO3 2.88
Loss on Ignition 2.01
Moisture N/A
Bouge potential composition
C3S 50.12
C2S 21.43
C3A 7.66
C4AF 11.09

Table 3. Chemical oxide analysis, weight %, for class C fly ash

Component Weight %
Sum of SiO2 , Al2O3 , and Fe2O3 61.09
CaO 24.82
MgO 5.85
Na2O 1.88
K2O 0.51
TiO2 1.35
MnO2 0.05
P2O5 1.24
SrO 0.38
BaO 0.71
SO3 1.69
Moisture content 0.10
Loss on ignition 0.43
Density 2.67

15
 Table 4. Concrete mixture designs for control mixtures and mixtures with SCMs.
1 yd3 or 1 m3
MK MK FA
Mixture w/cm Fine Agg. Coarse Agg. Cement Water Metakaolin Fly ash Superplasticizer
Type (%) (%)
lb kg lb kg lb kg lb kg lb kg lb kg lb kg
1 0.3 - 0 0 793 470 1755 1041 1112 660 334 198 0 0 0 0 3.64 2.16
2 0.3 - 0 25 793 470 1755 1041 835 496 334 198 0 0 278 165 2.48 1.47
3 0.3 235 3 25 793 470 1755 1041 802 476 334 198 33 19 278 165 2.89 1.72
4 0.3 235 5 25 793 470 1755 1041 779 462 334 198 56 33 278 165 3.31 1.96
5 0.3 235 8 25 793 470 1755 1041 745 442 334 198 89 53 278 165 4.55 2.70
6 0.3 349 3 25 793 470 1755 1041 802 476 334 198 33 19 278 165 3.72 2.21
7 0.3 349 5 25 793 470 1755 1041 779 462 334 198 56 33 278 165 4.13 2.45
8 0.3 349 8 25 793 470 1755 1041 745 442 334 198 89 53 278 165 5.78 3.43
9 0.4 - 0 0 1025 608 1755 1041 835 496 334 198 0 0 0 0 2.27 1.35
10 0.4 - 0 25 1025 608 1755 1041 626 372 334 198 0 0 209 124 0.91 0.54
11 0.4 235 3 25 1025 608 1755 1041 599 355 334 198 25 15 209 124 1.36 0.81
12 0.4 235 5 25 1025 608 1755 1041 584 346 334 198 42 25 209 124 1.82 1.08
13 0.4 235 8 25 1025 608 1755 1041 559 332 334 198 67 40 209 124 2.89 1.72
14 0.4 349 3 25 1025 608 1755 1041 599 355 334 198 25 15 209 124 2.27 1.35
15 0.4 349 5 25 1025 608 1755 1041 584 346 334 198 42 25 209 124 3.18 1.89
16 0.4 349 8 25 1025 608 1755 1041 559 332 334 198 67 40 209 124 3.31 1.96
17 0.5 - 0 0 1165 691 1755 1041 668 396 334 198 0 0 0 0 0.00 0.00
18 0.5 - 0 25 1165 691 1755 1041 501 297 334 198 0 0 167 99 0.00 0.00
19 0.5 235 3 25 1165 691 1755 1041 481 285 334 198 20 12 167 99 0.45 0.27
20 0.5 235 5 25 1165 691 1755 1041 468 278 334 198 33 19 167 99 0.91 0.54
21 0.5 235 8 25 1165 691 1755 1041 448 265 334 198 54 32 167 99 1.45 0.86
22 0.5 349 3 25 1165 691 1755 1041 481 285 334 198 20 12 167 99 1.82 1.08
23 0.5 349 5 25 1165 691 1755 1041 468 278 334 198 33 19 167 99 2.69 1.59
24 0.5 349 8 25 1165 691 1755 1041 448 265 334 198 54 32 167 99 2.89 1.72

16
 Table 5. Tests conducted and cast specimen dimensions.
Description Designation Dimensions
in mm
Chloride content of raw
FM5-516 N/A N/A
materials
Slump C 143 N/A N/A
Early age free shrinkage C 157 3x3x11.25 prisms 76x76x286 prisms
Compressive strength C 39 3x6 cylinders 76x152 cylinders
Sulfate resistance C 1012 1x1x11.25 prisms 25x25x286 prisms
Alkali-silica reaction C 1260 1x1x11.25 prisms 25x25x286 prisms

Table 6. SCMs used in Wiggins’ Mixtures

Replacement Level
SCM Type
Mix 1 Mix 2 Mix 3 Mix 4 Mix 5 Mix 6 Mix 7 Mix 8 Mix 9
Fly ash 0 15 30 0 0 15 15 30 30
Metakaolin 0 0 0 5 10 5 10 5 10

17
Table 7. Chemical oxide analysis, weight %, cement and Bogue potential compositions for the five
cements different in chemical composition.
Oxide Analysis
Weight %
Cement 1 Cement 2 Cement 3 Cement 4 Cement 5
Component Moderate
Low High Low High
C3A/Mod and
C3A C3A Na2Oeq Na2Oeq
Na2Oeq
Low Mod High Low High
SiO2 21.00 20.98 19.29 20.44 20.13
Al2O3 3.62 4.72 5.62 5.24 5.48
Fe2O3 3.47 2.99 2.82 3.99 3.26
CaO 62.52 63.56 64.21 63.22 60.93
MgO 4.29 2.24 0.86 1.05 2.45
SO3 2.43 2.61 3.54 3.74 4.00
Na2O 0.231 0.165 0.257 0.069 0.344
K2O 0.404 0.523 0.464 0.343 0.866
NaO2 eq. 0.50 0.509 0.562 0.295 0.91
P2O5 0.054 0.335 0.256 0.092 0.157
TiO2 0.172 0.241 0.614 0.318 0.214
SrO 0.050 0.035 0.231 0.065 0.194
Mn2O3 0.064 0.150 0.040 0.079 0.173
Cr2O3 0.005 0.008 0.014 0.012 0.025
LOI 1.69 1.44 1.79 1.33 1.78
LSF 92.6 98.4 92.5
Silica Ratio 2.72 2.29 2.21
Aluminum Ratio 1.58 1.99 1.31
Bogue potential composition
C3S 59 55.9 62.9 50.4 42
C2S 16 18.0 7.9 20.6 26
C3A 4 7.5 10.1 7.1 9
C4AF 11 9.1 8.6 12.2 10
NaO2 eq. 0.50 0.509 0.562 0.295 0.91

18
 Table 8. Mix designs for early free shrinkage tests
1 yd3 or 1 m3
MK MK
Mixture w/cm Fine Agg. Coarse Agg. Cement Water Metakaolin
Type (%)
lb kg lb kg lb kg lb kg lb kg
1 0.4 - 0 1025 608 1755 1041 835 496 334 198 0 0
2 0.4 235 8 1025 608 1755 1041 768 456 334 198 67 40
3 0.4 349 8 1025 608 1755 1041 768 456 334 198 67 40

Table 9. Concrete mixture designs for control mixtures and mixtures with SCMs at 8% by weight
replacement for cement. Amounts shown are required to produce one cubic yard or one cubic meter of
concrete.
1 yd3 or 1 m3 Theoretical
w/cm Water Coarse (SSD) Fine (SSD) Cement SCM Density
lb kg lb kg lb kg lb kg lb kg lb/yd3 kg/m3
Control 340 201 1709 1014 1127 668 850 505 -- -- 4026 2388
0.4
w/ SCM 340 201 1709 1014 1127 668 782 464 68 41 4026 2388
Control 340 201 1709 1014 1279 759 680 403 -- -- 4008 2377
0.5
w/ SCM 340 201 1709 1014 1279 759 626 372 54 31 4008 2377
Control 340 201 1709 1014 1374 815 567 336 -- -- 3990 2366
0.6
w/ SCM 340 201 1709 1014 1374 815 522 310 45 26 3990 2366

Table 10. ASR testing Jobe aggregate gradation.

Sieve Mass retained (gm) % (from total)
#8 145.20 10.00
#16 363.00 25.00
#30 435.60 30.00
#50 435.60 30.00
#100 72.60 5.00
Total 1452.00 100.00

19
 Table 11. Mortar mixture designs for ASTM C 1260 (ASR test).
Amounts / 4 mortar bars
MK Fine aggregates Cement Water MK FA
Mixture w/cm % MK % FA
Type (gm) (gm) (gm) (gm) (gm)
ASR-1 0.47 - 0 0 1452 645 303 0 0
ASR-2 0.47 - 0 25 1452 484 303 0 161
ASR-3 0.47 235 3 25 1452 465 303 19 161
ASR-4 0.47 235 5 25 1452 452 303 32 161
ASR-5 0.47 235 8 25 1452 432 303 52 161
ASR-6 0.47 349 3 25 1452 465 303 19 161
ASR-7 0.47 349 5 25 1452 452 303 32 161
ASR-8 0.47 349 8 25 1452 432 303 52 161

Table 12. Chloride content test results

Type of Metakaolin Specimen Cl- (ppm) Cl- (%)
Specimen 1 39.59 0.00396
Specimen 2 41.36 0.00414
MK 235 Specimen 3 30.37 0.00304
Average 37.11 0.00371
Standard deviation 05.90 0.00059
Specimen 1 84.85 0.00849
Specimen 2 60.26 0.00603
MK 349 Specimen 3 71.14 0.00711
Average 72.08 0.00721
Standard deviation 12.32 0.00123

20
 Table 13. Price List of Metakaolin

Amount of MK Cost ($)/ton

Item
ordered West of
Georgia East coast California
Mississippi
Material Price 480 480 480 480
packaging 12 12 12 12
20 tons
Freight 20 50 100 165
Total 512 542 592 657
Material Price 420 420 420 420
packaging 12 12 12 12
240-375 tons
Freight 20 50 100 165
Total 452 482 532 597
Material Price 392 392 392 392
packaging 12 12 12 12
375-700 tons
Freight 20 50 100 165
Total 424 454 504 569
Material Price 330 330 330 330
packaging 12 12 12 12
> 700 tons
Freight 20 50 100 165
Total 362 392 442 507

Table 14. Price List of Other Concrete Materials

Material Cost ($)/ton
Portland Cement Type I/II 90
Fly ash Class C 37
Superplasticizer 4100
Coarse Aggregates 11
Fine Aggregates 13

21
Figure 1. – Particle size distribution of LISA2 where the actual particle distribution in a mixture is
compared to the Modified Andreassen Model.

22
 Wiggins Mixes
7000
6500 6128
6000 5759

5500 5131
Compressive Strength (psi)

5000 4652 4648

4467
4500 4135
3839
4000
3433
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
(a) 0
0% FA, 15% FA, 30% FA, 0% FA, 0% FA, 15% FA, 15% FA, 30% FA, 30% FA,
0% MK 0% MK 0% MK 5% MK 10% MK 5% MK 10% MK 5% MK 10% MK
Mixtures

Wiggins Mixes
0.32
0.28 0.28
0.28

0.24 0.22
0.21
0.20
Coeffcient q

0.17 0.17
0.16
0.12 0.12
0.12

0.08
(b) 0.05
0.04

0.00
0% FA, 15% FA, 30% FA, 0% FA, 0% FA, 15% FA, 15% FA, 30% FA, 30% FA,
0% MK 0% MK 0% MK 5% MK- 10% MK- 5% MK- 10% MK- 5% MK- 10% MK-
235 235 235 235 235 235

Mixtures

Figure 2. (a) Compressive strength and (b) q coefficient predicted by the Modified Andreassen Model for
Wiggins’s mixtures.

23
Figure 3. Isothermal calorimetry results showing the effect of metakaolin content on (a) rate of heat
evolution and (b) cumulative heat evolved per gram of cementitious material.

24
Figure 4. Isothermal calorimetry results showing the effect of MK type on the rate of heat evolution, and
the cumulative heat evolved per gram of cementitious material at w/cm or 0.40 and different fly ash
contents.

25
 4,5 250
(a) Cement Low C3A (Cemex-Calif T5)
Cement Low C3A (Cemex-Calif T5) & 8% MK 235
4 Cement Low C3A (Cemex-Calif T5) & 8% MK 349

200
3,5
Rate of heat evolution (mW/g)

Cumulative Rate evolution (J/g)

150
2,5

2
100

1,5

1
50

0,5

0 0
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72
Age (h)

4,5 250
Cement Mod C3A & NaO2 eq (Holcim-Ada,OK)
(b) Cement Mod C3A & NaO2 eq (Holcim-Ada,OK) & 8% MK 235
Cement Mod C3A & NaO2 eq (Holcim-Ada,OK) & 8% MK 349
4

200
3,5

3
Cumulative Rate evolution (J/g)
Rate of heat evolution (mW/g)

150
2,5

2
100

1,5

1
50

0,5

0 0
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72
Age (h)

26
 4,5 250
(c)
Cement High C3A (Holcim-Artesia)
Cement High C3A (Holcim-Artesia) & 8% MK 235
4 Cement High C3A (Holcim-Artesia) & 8% MK 349

200
3,5
Rate of heat evolution (J/g)

Cumulative Rate evolution (J/g)

150
2,5

2
100

1,5

1
50

0,5

0 0
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72
Age (h)

4,5 250
(d) Cement Low (Na2.O)eq (Cemex-Clinchfield)
Cement Low (Na2.O)eq (Cemex-Clinchfield) & 8% MK 235
4 Cement Low (Na2.O)eq (Cemex-Clinchfield) & 8% MK 349

200
3,5

3
Rate of heat evolution (mW/g)

Cumulative Rate evolution (J/g)

150
2,5

2
100

1,5

1
50

0,5

0 0
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72
Age (h)

27
 4,5 250
(e) Cement High (Na2.O)eq (Lehigh-Allenown)
Cement High (Na2.O)eq (Lehigh-Allenown) & 8% MK 235
4 Cement High (Na2.O)eq (Lehigh-Allenown) & 8% MK 349

200
3,5

3
Rate of heat evolution (mW/g)

Cumulative Rate evolution (J/g)

150
2,5

2
100

1,5

1
50

0,5

0 0
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72
Age (h)

Figure 5. Rate of evolution and the cumulative heat involved for (a) Cement with low proportion in C3A,
(b) Cement with moderate proportion in C3A and Na2Oeq, (c) Cement with high proportion in C3A, (d)
Cement with low proportion in (Na2O)eq, and (e) Cement with low proportion in (Na2O)eq

Figure 6. Test setup for measuring chloride content of metakaolin

28
Strain gage Thermal probe

Shrinkage mold End pin

Seats

Figure 7. Early Shrinkage test setup

1.E-04 Control (Strain) 3

MK 235 (Strain)
MK 349 (Strain) 2.5
8.E-05 Control (Temp.)
MK 235 (Temp.)

Temperaturechange from the initial

MK 349 (Temp.) 2
6.E-05
1.5
4.E-05
1
2.E-05 0.5
Strain

(oC)
0.E+00 0
-2.E-05 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 -0.5
-1
-4.E-05
-1.5
-6.E-05
-2
-8.E-05 -2.5
-1.E-04 -3
Time (Hrs)

Figure 8. Early shrinkage of concrete measured using embedded low modulus strain gages

29
 14000
(a) Control
25% FA
12000 25% FA + 3% MK 235
25% FA + 5% MK 235
Compressive strength (psi)
25% FA + 8% MK 235
25% FA + 3% MK 349
10000 25% FA + 5% MK 349
25% FA + 8% MK 349

8000

6000

4000

2000

0
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

14000
(b) Control
12000 25% FA
25% FA + 3% MK 235
Compressive strength (psi)

25% FA + 5% MK 235
25% FA + 8% MK 235
10000 25% FA + 3% MK 349
25% FA + 5% MK 349
25% FA + 8% MK 349
8000

6000

4000

2000

0
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

30
 14000
(c) Control
25% FA
12000 25% FA + 3% MK 235
25% FA + 5% MK 235
Compressive strength (psi)

25% FA + 8% MK 235
10000 25% FA + 3% MK 349
25% FA + 5% MK 349
25% FA + 8% MK 349
8000

6000

4000

2000

0
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

Figure 9. Average peak compressive strength for (a) w/cm=0.30, (b) w/cm=0.40, and (c) w/cm=0.50
110
(a)

90
Increase over 1-day CONTROL strength (%)

70

50
Control
25% FA
30 25% FA + 3% MK 235
25% FA + 5% MK 235
25% FA + 8% MK 235
25% FA + 3% MK 349
10 25% FA + 5% MK 349
25% FA + 8% MK 349

-10 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30

-30
Time (days)

31
 140

(b)
120
Strength Relative to 1-day Strength of Control (%)

100

80

Control
60 25% FA
25% FA + 3% MK 235
40 25% FA + 5% MK 235
25% FA + 8% MK 235
25% FA + 3% MK 349
20
25% FA + 5% MK 349
25% FA + 8% MK 349
0
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30
-20

-40

-60
Time (days)

190
170 (c)
Strength Relative to One-day Control Strength (%)

150
130

110
90

70
Control
25% FA
25% FA + 3% MK 235
50 25% FA + 5% MK 235
25% FA + 8% MK 235
30 25% FA + 3% MK 349
25% FA + 5% MK 349
10 25% FA + 8% MK 349
-10 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30
-30

-50
-70
Time (days)

Figure 10. Rate of compressive strength development, shown as a percent increase over 1-day control
strengths for (a) w/cm=0.30, (b) w/cm=0.40, and (c) w/cm=0.50

32
 14000 1-day Strength 3-day Strength
(a) w/cm=0.30 7-day Strength 28-day Strength

12000

10000
Strength (psi)

8000

6000

4000

2000

0
Mix-01 Mix-02 Mix-03 Mix-04 Mix-05 Mix-06 Mix-07 Mix-08
Mixture

0.40
(a) w/cm=0.30
0.35

0.30
Range for HPC (Kumar and Santhanam, 2003)
0.25
q coefficient

0.20

0.15

0.10

0.05

0.00
Mix-01 Mix-02 Mix-03 Mix-04 Mix-05 Mix-06 Mix-07 Mix-08
Mixture
Figure 11. (a) Compressive strength and (b) q coefficient predicted by the Modified Andreassen Model
for ternary blends described in Table 4 with w/cm of 0.30.

33
 10000 1-day Strength 3-day Strength
(b) w/cm=0.40 7-day Strength 28-day Strength
9000
8000
7000
Strength (psi)

6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
Mix-09 Mix-10 Mix-11 Mix-12 Mix-13 Mix-14 Mix-15 Mix-16
Mixture

0.40
(b) w/cm=0.40
0.35

0.30
Range for HPC ( Kumar and Santhanam, 2003)
0.25
q coefficient

0.20

0.15

0.10

0.05

0.00
Mix-09 Mix-10 Mix-11 Mix-12 Mix-13 Mix-14 Mix-15 Mix-16
Mixture
Figure 12. (a) Compressive strength and (b) q coefficient predicted by the Modified Andreassen Model
for ternary blends described in Table 4 with w/cm of 0.40.

34
 8000 1-day Strength 3-day Strength
(c) w/cm=0.50 7-day Strength 28-day Strength
7000

6000
Strength (psi)

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
Mix-17 Mix-18 Mix-19 Mix-20 Mix-21 Mix-22 Mix-23 Mix-24
Mixture

0.40
(c) w/cm=0.50
0.35

0.30
Range for HPC ( Kumar and Santhanam, 2003)
0.25
q coefficient

0.20

0.15

0.10

0.05

0.00
Mix-17 Mix-18 Mix-19 Mix-20 Mix-21 Mix-22 Mix-23 Mix-24
Mixture
Figure 13. (a) Compressive strength and (b) q coefficient predicted by the Modified Andreassen Model
for ternary blends described in Table 4 with w/cm of 0.50.

35
 7 Highly flowable mixes limit
(LISA2 manual) Superpalsitizer
dosage
6 Highly flowable mixes limit
S i 2
Superplasticizer dosage (lb/yd )
3

(Kumar and Santhanam, 2003)

5

0
0.13 0.15 0.17 0.19 0.21 0.23 0.25 0.27 0.29 0.31 0.33 0.35

q coefficient
Figure 14. Relationship between q value and superplasticizer dosage required to meet target slump.

14000 Control (ASTM)

25% FA + 5% MK 235 (ASTM)

12000
25% FA + 5% MK 349 (ASTM)
Compressive strength (psi)

10000

8000

6000

4000

2000

0
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

Figure 15. Comparison between the ASTM fog room and the insulated box curing regimes at w/cm=0.30

36
 0.080
(a)
0.070
Control
8% MK235
0.060 8% MK349
Length change (%)

8% SF
0.050 15% MK235
15% MK349
15% SF
0.040

0.030

0.020

0.010

0.000
0 56 112 168 224 280 336 392
Age (days)

0.090
(b)
0.080

0.070 Control
8% MK235
8% MK349
Length change (%)

0.060
8% SF
15% MK235
0.050 15% MK349
15% SF
0.040

0.030

0.020

0.010

0.000
0 28 56 84 112 140 168 196 224 252 280 308 336 364 392
Age (days)
Figure 16. Mortar bar expansion due to sulfate exposure, w/cm=0.485 (a) exposure to Na2SO4 and (b)
exposure to MgSO4

37
 Control
0.90
25% FA
25% FA + 3% MK235
0.80 25% FA + 5% MK235
25% FA + 8% MK235
0.70

0.60
length change (%)

0.50

0.40

0.30

0.20 Fail

0.10
Pass

0.00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Age (Days)

Control
0.90
25% FA
25% FA + 3% MK349
0.80 25% FA + 5% MK349
25% FA + 8% MK349
0.70

0.60
length change (%)

0.50

0.40

0.30 Fail

0.20 Pass

0.10

0.00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Age (Days)

Figure 17. Expansion due to alkali-silica reaction, w/cm=0.47 for (a) MK 235 ternary blends, (b) MK
349 ternary blends

38
 0.020 Control
a) w/cm = 0.30 25% F.A.
25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
0.016 25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
25% F.A. + 8% MK 349
0.012
Cost ($ / psi)

0.008

0.004

0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

0.032 Control
b) w/cm = 0.40 25% F.A.
25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
0.028 25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
0.024 25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
25% F.A. + 8% MK 349
0.020
Cost ($ / psi)

0.016

0.012

0.008

0.004

0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

39
 Control
0.048 c) w/cm = 0.50 25% F.A.
25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
0.044 25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
0.040 25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
0.036 25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
25% F.A. + 8% MK 349
0.032
Cost ($ / psi)

0.028
0.024
0.020
0.016
0.012
0.008
0.004
0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

Figure 18. Cost effectiveness of concretes when 20 tons or less of metakaolin are ordered in the State of
Georgia (a) w/cm = 0.30, (b) w/cm = 0.40, and (c) w/cm = 0.50.

0.020 Control
a) w/cm = 0.30 25% F.A.
0.018 25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
0.016 25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
0.014 25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
25% F.A. + 8% MK 349
0.012
Cost ($ / psi)

0.010

0.008

0.006

0.004

0.002

0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

40
 0.032 Control
b) w/cm = 0.40 25% F.A.
25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
0.028 25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
0.024 25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
25% F.A. + 8% MK 349
0.020
Cost ($ / psi)

0.016

0.012

0.008

0.004

0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

Control
0.048 c) w/cm = 0.50 25% F.A.
25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
0.044 25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
0.040 25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
0.036 25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
25% F.A. + 8% MK 349
0.032
Cost ($ / psi)

0.028
0.024
0.020
0.016
0.012
0.008
0.004
0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

Figure 19. Cost effectiveness of concretes when 240-375 tons of metakaolin are ordered in the State of
Georgia (a) w/cm = 0.30, (b) w/cm = 0.40, and (c) w/cm = 0.50.

41
 0.020 Control
a) w/cm = 0.30 25% F.A.
0.018 25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
0.016 25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
0.014 25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
25% F.A. + 8% MK 349
0.012
Cost ($ / psi)

0.010

0.008

0.006

0.004

0.002

0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

0.032 Control
b) w/cm = 0.40 25% F.A.
25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
0.028 25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
0.024 25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
25% F.A. + 8% MK 349
0.020
Cost ($ / psi)

0.016

0.012

0.008

0.004

0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

42
 Control
0.048 c) w/cm = 0.50 25% F.A.
25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
0.044 25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
0.040 25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
0.036 25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
25% F.A. + 8% MK 349
0.032
Cost ($ / psi)

0.028
0.024
0.020
0.016
0.012
0.008
0.004
0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

Figure 20. Cost effectiveness of concretes when 375-700 tons of metakaolin are ordered in the State of
Georgia (a) w/cm = 0.30, (b) w/cm = 0.40, and (c) w/cm = 0.50.

0.020 Control
a) w/cm = 0.30 25% F.A.
0.018 25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
0.016 25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
0.014 25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
25% F.A. + 8% MK 349
0.012
Cost ($ / psi)

0.010

0.008

0.006

0.004

0.002

0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

43
 0.032 Control
b) w/cm = 0.40 25% F.A.
25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
0.028 25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
0.024 25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
25% F.A. + 8% MK 349
0.020
Cost ($ / psi)

0.016

0.012

0.008

0.004

0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

Control
0.048 c) w/cm = 0.50 25% F.A.
25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
0.044 25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
0.040 25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
0.036 25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
25% F.A. + 8% MK 349
0.032
Cost ($ / psi)

0.028
0.024
0.020
0.016
0.012
0.008
0.004
0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

Figure 21. Cost effectiveness of concretes when more than 700 tons of metakaolin are ordered in the
State of Georgia (a) w/cm = 0.30, (b) w/cm = 0.40, and (c) w/cm = 0.50.

44
 0.020 Control
a) w/cm = 0.30 25% F.A.
25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
0.016 25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
25% F.A. + 8% MK 349
0.012
Cost ($ / psi)

0.008

0.004

0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

0.032 Control
b) w/cm = 0.40 25% F.A.
25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
0.028 25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
0.024 25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
25% F.A. + 8% MK 349
0.020
Cost ($ / psi)

0.016

0.012

0.008

0.004

0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

45
 Control
0.048 c) w/cm = 0.50 25% F.A.
25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
0.044 25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
0.040 25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
0.036 25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
25% F.A. + 8% MK 349
0.032
Cost ($ / psi)

0.028
0.024
0.020
0.016
0.012
0.008
0.004
0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

Figure 22. Cost effectiveness of concretes when 20 tons or less of metakaolin are ordered in the east
coast area (a) w/cm = 0.30, (b) w/cm = 0.40, and (c) w/cm = 0.50.

0.020 Control
a) w/cm = 0.30 25% F.A.
25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
0.016 25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
25% F.A. + 8% MK 349
0.012
Cost ($ / psi)

0.008

0.004

0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

46
 0.032 Control
b) w/cm = 0.40 25% F.A.
25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
0.028 25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
0.024 25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
25% F.A. + 8% MK 349
0.020
Cost ($ / psi)

0.016

0.012

0.008

0.004

0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

Control
0.048 c) w/cm = 0.50 25% F.A.
25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
0.044 25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
0.040 25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
0.036 25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
25% F.A. + 8% MK 349
0.032
Cost ($ / psi)

0.028
0.024
0.020
0.016
0.012
0.008
0.004
0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

Figure 23. Cost effectiveness of concretes when 240-375 tons of metakaolin are ordered in the east coast
area (a) w/cm = 0.30, (b) w/cm = 0.40, and (c) w/cm = 0.50.

47
 0.020 Control
a) w/cm = 0.30 25% F.A.
0.018 25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
0.016 25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
0.014 25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
25% F.A. + 8% MK 349
0.012
Cost ($ / psi)

0.010

0.008

0.006

0.004

0.002

0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

0.032 Control
b) w/cm = 0.40 25% F.A.
25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
0.028 25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
0.024 25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
25% F.A. + 8% MK 349
0.020
Cost ($ / psi)

0.016

0.012

0.008

0.004

0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

48
 c) w/cm = 0.50 Control
0.048 25% F.A.
25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
0.044 25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
0.040 25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
0.036 25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
25% F.A. + 8% MK 349
0.032
Cost ($ / psi)

0.028
0.024
0.020
0.016
0.012
0.008
0.004
0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

Figure 24. Cost effectiveness of concretes when 375-700 tons of metakaolin are ordered in the east coast
area (a) w/cm = 0.30, (b) w/cm = 0.40, and (c) w/cm = 0.50.

0.020 Control
a) w/cm = 0.30 25% F.A.
25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
0.016 25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
25% F.A. + 8% MK 349
0.012
Cost ($ / psi)

0.008

0.004

0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

49
 0.032 Control
b) w/cm = 0.40 25% F.A.
25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
0.028 25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
0.024 25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
0.020 25% F.A. + 8% MK 349
Cost ($ / psi)

0.016

0.012

0.008

0.004

0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

Control
0.048 c) w/cm = 0.50 25% F.A.
25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
0.044
25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
0.040 25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
0.036 25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
0.032 25% F.A. + 8% MK 349
Cost ($ / psi)

0.028
0.024
0.020
0.016
0.012
0.008
0.004
0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

Figure 25. Cost effectiveness of concretes when more than 700 tons of metakaolin are ordered in the east
coast area (a) w/cm = 0.30, (b) w/cm = 0.40, and (c) w/cm = 0.50.

50
 0.020 Control
a) w/cm = 0.30 25% F.A.
25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
0.016 25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
25% F.A. + 8% MK 349
0.012
Cost ($ / psi)

0.008

0.004

0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

0.032 b) w/cm = 0.40 Control

25% F.A.
25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
0.028 25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
0.024 25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
25% F.A. + 8% MK 349
0.020
Cost ($ / psi)

0.016

0.012

0.008

0.004

0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

51
 c) w/cm = 0.50 Control
0.048 25% F.A.
25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
0.044 25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
0.040 25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
0.036 25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
25% F.A. + 8% MK 349
0.032
Cost ($ / psi)

0.028
0.024
0.020
0.016
0.012
0.008
0.004
0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

Figure 26. Cost effectiveness of concretes when 20 tons or less of metakaolin are ordered in the west of
the Mississippi River area (a) w/cm = 0.30, (b) w/cm = 0.40, and (c) w/cm = 0.50.

0.020 Control
a) w/cm = 0.30 25% F.A.
25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
0.016 25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
25% F.A. + 8% MK 349
0.012
Cost ($ / psi)

0.008

0.004

0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

52
 0.032 Control
b) w/cm = 0.40 25% F.A.
25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
0.028 25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
0.024 25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
25% F.A. + 8% MK 349
0.020
Cost ($ / psi)

0.016

0.012

0.008

0.004

0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

c) w/cm = 0.50 Control

0.048 25% F.A.
25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
0.044 25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
0.040 25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
0.036 25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
25% F.A. + 8% MK 349
0.032
Cost ($ / psi)

0.028
0.024
0.020
0.016
0.012
0.008
0.004
0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

Figure 27. Cost effectiveness of concretes when 240-375 tons of metakaolin are ordered in the west of
the Mississippi River area (a) w/cm = 0.30, (b) w/cm = 0.40, and (c) w/cm = 0.50.

53
 0.020 Control
a) w/cm = 0.30 25% F.A.
25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
0.016 25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
25% F.A. + 8% MK 349
0.012
Cost ($ / psi)

0.008

0.004

0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

0.032 b) w/cm = 0.40 Control

25% F.A.
25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
0.028 25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
0.024 25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
25% F.A. + 8% MK 349
0.020
Cost ($ / psi)

0.016

0.012

0.008

0.004

0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

54
 c) w/cm = 0.50 Control
0.048 25% F.A.
25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
0.044 25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
0.040 25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
0.036 25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
25% F.A. + 8% MK 349
0.032
Cost ($ / psi)

0.028
0.024
0.020
0.016
0.012
0.008
0.004
0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

Figure 28. Cost effectiveness of concretes when 375-700 tons of metakaolin are ordered in the west of
the Mississippi River area (a) w/cm = 0.30, (b) w/cm = 0.40, and (c) w/cm = 0.50.

0.020 Control
a) w/cm = 0.30 25% F.A.
25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
0.016 25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
25% F.A. + 8% MK 349
0.012
Cost ($ / psi)

0.008

0.004

0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

55
 0.032 Control
b) w/cm = 0.40 25% F.A.
25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
0.028 25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
0.024 25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
25% F.A. + 8% MK 349
0.020
Cost ($ / psi)

0.016

0.012

0.008

0.004

0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

Control
c) w/cm = 0.50
0.048 25% F.A.
25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
0.044 25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
0.040 25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
0.036 25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
25% F.A. + 8% MK 349
0.032
Cost ($ / psi)

0.028
0.024
0.020
0.016
0.012
0.008
0.004
0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

Figure 29. Cost effectiveness of concretes when more than 700 tons of metakaolin are ordered in the west
of the Mississippi River area (a) w/cm = 0.30, (b) w/cm = 0.40, and (c) w/cm = 0.50.

56
 0.020 Control
a) w/cm = 0.30 25% F.A.
25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
0.016 25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
25% F.A. + 8% MK 349
0.012
Cost ($ / psi)

0.008

0.004

0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

0.032 b) w/cm = 0.40 Control

25% F.A.
25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
0.028 25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
0.024 25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
25% F.A. + 8% MK 349
0.020
Cost ($ / psi)

0.016

0.012

0.008

0.004

0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

57
 c) w/cm = 0.50 Control
0.048 25% F.A.
25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
0.044 25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
0.040 25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
0.036 25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
25% F.A. + 8% MK 349
0.032
Cost ($ / psi)

0.028
0.024
0.020
0.016
0.012
0.008
0.004
0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

Figure 30. Cost effectiveness of concretes when 20 tons or less of metakaolin are ordered in California
(a) w/cm = 0.30, (b) w/cm = 0.40, and (c) w/cm = 0.50.

0.020 Control
a) w/cm = 0.30 25% F.A.
0.018 25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
0.016 25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
0.014 25% F.A. + 8% MK 349

0.012
Cost ($ / psi)

0.010

0.008

0.006

0.004

0.002

0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

58
 0.032 b) w/cm = 0.40 Control
25% F.A.
25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
0.028 25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
0.024 25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
25% F.A. + 8% MK 349
0.020
Cost ($ / psi)

0.016

0.012

0.008

0.004

0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

c) w/cm = 0.50 Control

0.048 25% F.A.
25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
0.044 25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
0.040 25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
0.036
25% F.A. + 8% MK 349
0.032
Cost ($ / psi)

0.028

0.024
0.020
0.016
0.012

0.008
0.004

0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)
Figure 31. Cost effectiveness of concretes when 240-375 tons of metakaolin are ordered in California
(a) w/cm = 0.30, (b) w/cm = 0.40, and (c) w/cm = 0.50.

59
 0.020 Control
a) w/cm = 0.30 25% F.A.
25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
0.016 25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
25% F.A. + 8% MK 349
0.012
Cost ($ / psi)

0.008

0.004

0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

0.032 b) w/cm = 0.40 Control

25% F.A.
25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
0.028 25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
0.024 25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
25% F.A. + 8% MK 349
0.020
Cost ($ / psi)

0.016

0.012

0.008

0.004

0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

60
 c) w/cm = 0.50 Control
0.048 25% F.A.
25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
0.044 25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
0.040 25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
0.036 25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
25% F.A. + 8% MK 349
0.032
Cost ($ / psi)

0.028
0.024
0.020
0.016
0.012
0.008
0.004
0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

Figure 32. Cost effectiveness of concretes when 375-700 tons of metakaolin are ordered in California
(a) w/cm = 0.30, (b) w/cm = 0.40, and (c) w/cm = 0.50.

0.020 Control
a) w/cm = 0.30 25% F.A.
25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
0.016 25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
25% F.A. + 8% MK 349
0.012
Cost ($ / psi)

0.008

0.004

0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

61
 0.032 Control
b) w/cm = 0.40 25% F.A.
25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
0.028 25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
0.024 25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
25% F.A. + 8% MK 349
0.020
Cost ($ / psi)

0.016

0.012

0.008

0.004

0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

c) w/cm = 0.50 Control

0.048 25% F.A.
25% F.A. + 3% MK 235
0.044 25% F.A. + 5% MK 235
0.040 25% F.A. + 8% MK 235
25% F.A. + 3% MK 349
0.036 25% F.A. + 5% MK 349
25% F.A. + 8% MK 349
0.032
Cost ($ / psi)

0.028
0.024
0.020
0.016
0.012
0.008
0.004
0.000
1 3 7 28
Time (days)

Figure 33. Cost effectiveness of concretes when more than 700 tons of metakaolin are ordered in
California (a) w/cm = 0.30, (b) w/cm = 0.40, and (c) w/cm = 0.50.

62