CELL STRUCTURE  Production of ATP

 Store Calcium (calcium homeostasis)

EUKARYOTIC CELLS  Regulation of innate immunity
 Nucleus (contains cell genome ‘genotype’)  Apoptosis (store caspases)
Nucleoplasm; gelatinous matrix  Stem cell regulation
Nuclear membrane; nuclear pores (selective permeability)  Structures:
Chromosomes; linear DNA (double helix)  Outer membrane
Nucleolus; site of ribosomal RNA synthesis - (porins) Movement of ions, in& out of the mitochondrion
 Matrix
 Cytoplasmic Structures - Contains enzymes from Krebs Cycle (TCA) and fatty acid
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) cycles (DNA, RNA, ribosomes & calcium granules).
 network of membrane-bound channels - Final electron acceptor is oxygen
 highly convoluted system of membranes - Electron transport chain produces ATP called oxidative
 interconnected & arranged to form transport, network of tubules and phosphorylation
flattened sacs in the cytoplasm  Inner membrane
 2 types: - (enzyme -ATP synthase) transport proteins that regulate
 Rough ER = Eukaryotic 80S ribosomes (Prokaryotic 70S ribosomes) metabolites in & out of the matrix
Major producer of glycoproteins - Arranged to Cristae; an inner fold membrane, which
 Smooth ER = No ribosomes increases surface area for energy production via oxidative
Lipid synthesis & some carbohydrates phosphorylation (ADP is phosphorylated to ATP)
Golgi Complex/Apparatus/Body - Simple fission; has DNA & 70S ribosomes
 Only organelle named after discoverer; Camillo Golgi 1898
Plastids: Chloroplasts
 Communicates w/ ER
 Photosynthesis
 Stacked membranes to chemically modify & sort products of ER
 Only in plant cells
 Proteins received are processed & transported to lysosomes, plasma
membranes or secretions  Contains green photo pigment called chlorophyll
 “packaging plants” helps process and package proteins & lipid molecules, to
Lysosomes & Peroxisomes
be exported from cells
 Lysosomes
Mitochondria - contains degradative enzymes called lysozymes; w/ch breaks down
foreign materials via phagocytosis & may destroy the entire cells
 “Powerhouse of the cell”
process called autolysis
 Major site of ATP synthesis
 Peroxisomes
 .75µm-3µm
 5 Roles:
 - contains oxidative enzymes called catalase; w/ch generates ATP
production (prominent in mammalian liver cells)
Cytoskeleton
 3D structure that fills the cytoplasm or systems of fibers
PROKARYOTIC CELLS
 3 primary fibers: (supports, strengthen & stiffen the cell)
 Microfilaments (3nm-6nm diameter)
- defining & maintaining cell shape; gliding/motility;
contraction & cytokines
 Intermediate filaments (10nm)
- cells’ tensile strength
 Microtubules (20nm-25nm)
- cell structure, motility & division, maintaining cell
structure via microfilaments to form spindle fibers for
separating chromosomes during mitosis
(Both consists of microtubules, halo protein cylinders, tubulin, surrounded by a membrane.
The arrangement of microtubules is called 9 + 2 system; 9 peripheral pairs of microtubules,
surrounding 2 singles central microtubules)
→ Most common: Bacteria & Archaea
→ Lack membrane-enclosed organelles
→ 3 categories:
 External structures
 Cell envelope
 Internal structures
 Intracellular Structures: CYTOPLASM
→ for cell growth, metabolism and replication.

 Plasma Membrane aka: Cell/Cytoplasmic/Cellular membrane  Intracellular Structures: NUCLEOID & BACTERIAL CHROMOSOMES
→ “skin” around the cell → bacterial chromosomal DNA (genophore lacks chromatin) is contained
→ Semipermeable lipid bilayer & protein transport (entering/exiting) → No membrane-bound nucleus
→ Organize & package chromosomes, similar to histones
 Cell Wall → Under light microscope via Feulgen Staining
→ Cell rigidity, strength & protection against mechanical stress → Visualized on electron micrograph at high magnification
→ Not found in animals & heterotrophic protists
→ Cellulose; cell walls of algae  Intracellular Structures: PLASMIDS
→ Chitin; cell walls of fungi → Small extra-chromosomal DNA
→ contains genes for antibiotic resistance or virulence
 Motility Organelles → provide a level of genetic flexibility
→ 2 basic structures: → from one bacterium to another via conjugation & transduction
 Cilia → Types of bacterial plasmid (Based on function)
- short, hair-like; only in eukaryotic cells; sweeping or pendular i. Fertility (F) plasmid
movement; locomotion, feeding & circulation  Conjugation
 Flagella - Transfer genetic information
- long, whip-like; both in eukaryotic & prokaryotic cells; undular - No cellular reproduction
movement; locomotion only - Pili/Fimbriae are responsible
 ii. Resistance (R) plasmid  Cell Envelope: PLASMA (CELL) MEMBRANE
- R factor contains antibiotic or drug resistance gene → regulates the flow of substances in and out of the cell (selective permeable
iii. Virulence plasmid membrane)
- Host of plasmids or bacterium becomes pathogenic → Site of many metabolic reactions such as respiration, fermentation, and
iv. Degradative plasmid photosynthesis
- Digestion of unusual substances (toluene or salicylic acid) → excretion of hydrolytic enzymes and pathogenicity proteins and chemotactic agents
v. Col plasmid → Phospholipid bilayer
- Genes that kill other bacteria (Bacteriocin – E. coli) - surrounding the cytoplasm
- Formed w/ protein linkage
 Intracellular Structures: RIBOSOMES (POLYSOMES) - Ability to move in membrane place
→ Site of translation; Protein synthesis → Movement:
→ Polysomes are ribosomes bound to mRNA that synthesize proteins  Passive
→ Ribosomes are constructed from proteins w/ RNA - occur w/out cellular energy
→ Antibiotics interfering with translation causes faulty protein synthesis  Active
→ Sedimentation rate of 70S - requires the cell to expend energy
→ Translate genetic code to amino acid  Group translocation
→ Antibiotics: - moved w/o change in structure
 Streptomycin
- stops protein synthesis via 30S subunit (e.g. Tuberculosis)  Cell Envelope: CELL WALL
 Tetracycline → outer covering of most cells
- kills gram-positive & gram-negative organisms via 30S subunit → protects the bacterial cell from osmotic lysis and gives it shape
 Chloramphenicol → Major component of bacterial CW:
- binds to 30S subunits  Peptidoglycan (murein/mucopeptides) = [polysaccharides + proteins]
 Linezolid → composed of long chains of alternating molecules of N-acetylglucosamine (NAG) and
- for gram-positive organisms, binding to initial step process of N-acetylmuramic acid (NAM)
protein synthesis → anchor appendages like the pili & flagella and protrude through the wall to the
outside
 Intracellular Structures: INCLUSION BODIES → Target site of some antibiotics:
→ Inclusions: non-living components of the cell (e.g. Penicillin = kills bacteria via binding beta lactam ring to DD-transpeptidase,
→ Vesicles: rigid gas-filled vacuoles (common in aquatic photosynthetic bacteria) inhibiting cross-linking activity and prevent new cell formation)
→ Serve as important identification characters for bacterial pathogens → Gram Staining (Most common differential stain) 2 Major Classes:
* Ex: Corynebacterium diphtheriae (metachromatic granules or volutin) = Babes Ernst bodies,  Gram Positive (dark blue or violet)
used to degrade and as source of phosphates for nucleic acid & phospholipids synthesis - Thicker
- Contains peptidoglycan
 - Lipid content is low, decolorizing the cell and its cell wall dehydrates
& shrinks, w/ch closes the pores to prevent the stain from exiting
 Gram Negative (pink)
- Thinner peptidoglycan layer
- Has lipid component that dissolves w/ CV Iodine complex wash due
to decolorization process
- Added w/ alcohol or acetone: CVI complex leach out & unstained
- Added w/ counterstain: CVI complex is accepted (gram-positive will
not accept or receive)
→ Contain large amounts of waxes (mycolic acids linked to arabinogalactan)
→ Noted in tubercle bacillus (found in mycobacterium spp.)
→ Hydrophobic structure that renders bacteria resistance
[Why acid-fast? If a dye is introduced into these cells by brief heating or treatment
with detergents, it cannot be removed by dilute hydrochloric acid, as in other
bacteria]
 Cell Envelope: MYCOPLASMAS
→ NO cell walls
→ Lacks target for cell-wall inhibiting agents (resistant to penicillin)

 Cell Envelope: OUTER MEMBRANE  External Structures: FLAGELLA

→ Second lipid bilayer → act like propellers; to help bacteria move towards nutrients, away from toxic
→ Less permeable than plasma membrane chemical or towards the light
→ Composed of lipopolysaccharides [LPS]; acts as endotoxin → Undular movement
→ 3 structures: → Made up of protein subunits called flagellin
 O antigen (O polysaccharide) → Basal region/body is embedder in the plasma membrane
- Outermost structure → Arrangements:
- Triggers immune response  Monotrichous – single flagellum
 Core polysaccharide  Amphitrichous – flagellum at each end
- Both Core polysaccharide & Lipid A anchors the polysaccharide into  Lopotrichous – clusters of flagella at the poles of the cell
the outer membrane  Peritrichous – flagella distributed over the entire surface of the cell.
 Lipid A (endotoxin) → Hook region connects the basal body to the filament
- Large amount can trigger toxic shock, causing body wide (Gram-Positive: 2 basal body rings
inflammatory response Gram-Negative: 4 basal body rings)
→ Lipopolysaccharides:
- stabilize outer membrane  External Structures: FIMBRIAE & PILI
- block access to other parts of the cell wall → Fimbriae
- host response to pathogenic gram-negative bacteria - short bristle-like proteins
(e.g. E. coli 0157 – O side chain detect a specific strain of E. coli via serologic or - attach to surfaces and to other cells
immunologic tests; primary cause of hemolytic uremic syndrome, w/ch is a deadly → Pili
bacterium that causes diarrhea & kidney failure)
- longer, less numerous protein
- aid in attachment to surfaces
 Cell Envelope: ACID FAST CELL WALL - w/out pile, bacteria can’t infect or attach to the host or solid surfaces
* F pilus or sex pilus - transfer of DNA between bacterial cell [Conjugation]  Germination
* Type IV pili - generate movement) - Return to vegetative state

 External Structures: GLYCOCALYX  Cellular Division: BINARY FISSION

→ Sticky coating
→ protection, attachment to surfaces and formation of biofilms
→ 2 forms:
 Capsule
- highly organized rigid structure
- polysaccharide layer that envelopes the cell
- enhance ability of bacterial pathogens to cause disease
- provide protection from phagocytosis
- attachment to the surfaces
 Slime layer
- Same as capsule; But is a disorganized loose structure
→ Most bacteria divide by binary fission (asexual reproduction) into 2 equal progeny
cells:
 For this process to occur;
- the cell must grow over its entire surface until the time of cell
division, when a new hemispherical pole forms at the division
septum in the middle of the cell
 For the cell to divide in half;
the peptidoglycan structure must be different in the hemispherical cap than in the straight portion
of the cell wall, and different wall-crosslinking enzymes must be active at the septum than
elsewhere

 External Structures: ENDOSPORES

→ Dormant, tough, non-reproductive structure
→ Germination -> vegetative cells
→ Resistance:
 UV and Gamma radiation
 Desiccation
 Lysozyme
 Temperature
 Starvation
 Chemical
→ Bacillus and Clostridium (gram-positive)
→ Killed using autoclaving
→ disinfectants
→ Relationship:
 Sporulation
- Endospore formation
- Deflation of some nutrients (carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus) and
form spores