Contents

TOPIC ONE:INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER STUDIES ......................................................................... 5

Definition and characteristics of modern computers ......................................................................................... 5
REASONS FOR STUDYING COMPUTER .................................................................................................... 6
Terminologies used in the field of computing. .................................................................................................. 7
Data .................................................................................................................................................................... 7
EDISOFT 0706154525
Data Processing:................................................................................................................................................. 7
Information: ....................................................................................................................................................... 7
Information and communication Technology (ICT).......................................................................................... 8
Unit Two: Evolution of Computers ................................................................................................................... 8
Origin of Computing (Counting and Calculating using devices) ...................................................................... 9
i). The Abacus (3000 BC) .................................................................................................................................. 9
ii). Napier‘s bones (1617) .................................................................................................................................. 9
iii). William Oughtred‘s Slide rule ................................................................................................................. 10
(b) The Mechanical Era ................................................................................................................................... 10
Blaise Pascal's Calculator (1642) ..................................................................................................................... 10
(ii) Leibniz‘s Stepped Reckoner (1694) ........................................................................................................... 10
(iii) Jacquard‘s Loom (1801) ........................................................................................................................... 11
(iv) Charles Babbage‘s Analytical & Difference Engine (1834) ..................................................................... 11
(c)The Electro-mechanical Computers Era (1890 - 1946) ............................................................................... 11
Hollerith's tabulating machine (1890) .............................................................................................................. 11
Howard Aiken‘s Harvard Mark I (1944) ......................................................................................................... 12
The First Computer Debugger ......................................................................................................................... 12
Electronic era (1946 - Today) .......................................................................................................................... 12
The first generation (1946 – 1958): Vacuum Tubes ........................................................................................ 12
The second generation (1958 – 1964): Transistors .......................................................................................... 13
The third generation (1965 – 1970): Integrated Circuits ................................................................................. 14
The fourth generation (1971 – to date): Microprocessors. .............................................................................. 15
The fifth generation (Today to future): ............................................................................................................ 16
Unit Three: Uses and functions of computers.................................................................................................. 19
AREAS OF APPLICATION OF COMPUTERS IN OUR SOCIETY ........................................................... 19
DEMERITS OF USING COMPUTERS IN SOCIETY .................................................................................. 20
Unit Four: Keyboard and Navigation .............................................................................................................. 21
ADVANTAGES OF USING A KEYBOARD FOR DATA ENTRY............................................................. 21
KEYBOARD SHORTCUTS ........................................................................................................................... 21
Unit Five: Categories of Computers ................................................................................................................ 22
CLASSIFICATIONS OF COMPUTERS ........................................................................................................ 22
Topic 2: ............................................................................................................................................................ 25
COMPUTER HARDWARE............................................................................................................................ 25
Input devices. ................................................................................................................................................... 25
PROCESSING DEVICES. .............................................................................................................................. 27
STORAGE DEVICES. .................................................................................................................................... 32
Topic 3: COMPUTER SOFTWARE ............................................................................................................... 37
System software ............................................................................................................................................... 37
Operating System ............................................................................................................................................ 37

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FUNCTIONS OF AN OPERATING SYSTEM. ............................................................................................. 39
CLASSIFICATION OF OPERATING SYSTEMS. ....................................................................................... 42
Factors to consider when choosing an operating system. ................................................................................ 44
SYSTEM UTILITIES. ..................................................................................................................................... 47
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES .................................................................................................................. 47
APPLICATION SOFTWARE ......................................................................................................................... 52
CUSTOM SOFTWARE. ................................................................................................................................. 52
Topic 4: ............................................................................................................................................................ 53
WORD PROCESSING .................................................................................................................................... 53
UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO WORD PROCESSING (THEORY) ............................................................ 53
PURPOSE OF WORD PROCESSING ........................................................................................................... 53
Examples of word processors include: ............................................................................................................ 53
BASIC TERMINOLOGY ............................................................................................................................... 53
COMMON FEATURES OF WORD PROCESSING APPLICATIONS ........................................................ 54
COMMON PARTS OF A WORD PROCESSOR........................................................................................... 54
ADVANTAGES OF USING ELECTRONIC WORD PROCESSORS AS COMPARED TO MANUAL
TYPE WRITERS ............................................................................................................................................. 55
DISADVANTAGES OF USING ELECTRONIC WORD PROCESSORS ................................................... 55
COMMONLY USED WORD PROCESSING KEYBOARD SHORTCUTS ................................................ 57
TOPIC 5: COMPUTER PRESENTATIONS( presentation software) ............................................................ 58
Examples of Presentation Software include: ................................................................................................... 58
Common terms in presentations....................................................................................................................... 58
TOPIC 6: SYSTEM START-UP AND CONFIGURATION ......................................................................... 61
TOPIC 7: COMPUTER COMMUNICATIONS, NETWORKING AND DATA COMMUNICATION ...... 61
Definition of terms used in Networking .......................................................................................................... 62
Network............................................................................................................................................................ 62
Modes of data communication ......................................................................................................................... 64
Simplex transmission: ...................................................................................................................................... 64
Half duplex transmission: ................................................................................................................................ 64
Full duplex transmission: ................................................................................................................................. 64
Factors to consider when selecting a data transmission system ...................................................................... 64
PURPOSE OF NETWORKING ...................................................................................................................... 65
LIMITATIONS (DISADVANTAGES) OF NETWORKING ........................................................................ 66
TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS ......................................................................................................... 67
Local Area Network (LAN). ............................................................................................................................ 67
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN). ............................................................................................................... 67
Wide Area Network (WAN). ........................................................................................................................... 68
Data communication (Transmission) media. ................................................................................................... 68
Network Topologies......................................................................................................................................... 80
Star topology .................................................................................................................................................... 81
Bus topology (Daisy-chain topology) .............................................................................................................. 82
Ring topology................................................................................................................................................... 83
Mesh topology ................................................................................................................................................. 83
Tree (Hierarchical) topology............................................................................................................................ 84
SPREADSHEETS............................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Definition of a Spreadsheet. ............................................................................................................................. 88

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Types of Spreadsheets: .................................................................................................................................... 88
Manual spreadsheet:......................................................................................................................................... 88
Electronic Spreadsheet: .................................................................................................................................... 88
Advantages of Electronic Spreadsheets over Manual Worksheets. ................................................................. 88
Examples of the commonly used Spreadsheet packages ................................................................................. 89
COMPONENTS OF A SPREADSHEET ........................................................................................................ 89
Common features of Electronic spreadsheets. ................................................................................................. 91
TOPIC 9: Web Design ..................................................................................................................................... 92
Web Design software Examples ...................................................................................................................... 93
Terms In Web Designing ................................................................................................................................. 93
TOPIC 10: DATABASES. .............................................................................................................................. 96
What is a Database? ......................................................................................................................................... 96
DATABASE CONCEPTS. .............................................................................................................................. 97
DATA BASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (DBMS)...................................................................................... 97
FUNCTIONS OF A DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM. ................................................................... 97
ADVANTAGES OF USING A DBMS. .......................................................................................................... 98
DISADVANTAGES OF DATABASES. ........................................................................................................ 99
Data types......................................................................................................................................................... 99
Text .................................................................................................................................................................. 99
Memo ............................................................................................................................................................... 99
Number ............................................................................................................................................................ 99
Date/time .......................................................................................................................................................... 99
Currency........................................................................................................................................................... 99
Auto Number ................................................................................................................................................... 99
Yes/No ............................................................................................................................................................. 99
OLE Object ...................................................................................................................................................... 99
Hypertext.......................................................................................................................................................... 99
Lookup wizard ................................................................................................................................................. 99
Database objects............................................................................................................................................... 99
TOPIC 11: ELEMENTARY COMPUTER PROGRAMMING ................................................................... 122
DEFINITION OF TERMINOLOGIES ......................................................................................................... 123
TYPES OF PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES ............................................................................................ 123
DATA TYPES ............................................................................................................................................... 123
PROGRAMMING ERRORS ........................................................................................................................ 124
Compilation errors. ........................................................................................................................................ 124
Run-Time errors. ............................................................................................................................................ 124
Logical errors. ................................................................................................................................................ 124
IMPORTANCE OF PROGRAMMING ........................................................................................................ 124
LIMITATIONS OF PROGRAMMING ........................................................................................................ 124

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TOPIC ONE: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER STUDIES
Senior One Term One
Topic Summary
Unit One: Computers Today.
Unit Two: Evolution of Computers
Unit Three: Uses and functions of computers
Unit Four: Keyboard and Navigation
Unit Five: Categories of Computers
Unit Six: Classification of Computers
Unit Seven: The computer system
Unit Eight: Computer Care and safety

Definition and characteristics of modern computers

What is a computer?
A computer is an electronic device that accepts user input (data), processes it under special instructions
(programs), to produce the desired meaningful output (information).
Alternatively, a computer can be defined as a programmable machine that receives input, stores and
manipulates data, and provides output in a useful format.

Main Characteristics of modern computers

Modern computers today have the following characteristics:
Speed
Computers operate at extremely high speeds . Their speed is measured in millions of instructions per second
(MIPS).
Automation
The computers are automatic. They do not need any supervision in order to do tasks when instructed.
Accuracy
Computers are very accurate. The errors in made computing are due to the users but not technological
weakness. If a user enters wrong data, the computer gives wrong Information. This trend is described as
GIGO (Garbage In, Garbage Out)
Versatility:
Modern Computers can perform different kinds of tasks at the same time. For example you can play music
while typing a document at the same time.
This is also known as multi-tasking.
Diligence (Endurance)
Computers have the ability to perform the same task for a long time without getting tired.
This is because a computer is a machine, and so does not have human behaviors of tiredness and lack of
concentration.
For example, Computers which are used for controlling the satellites.
Adaptability:
Modern Computers can be adapted to comply with different settings and environments.
For example, they can be used as personal computers, for home use, banking, communication,
entertainment, weather forecasting, space explorations, teaching, railways, medicine etc.

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 Need User input
Computers cannot initiate themselves and make the decisions. They need instructions from users to enhance
the process. After all, a computer is only a machine.
Artificial intelligence
Computers are artificially intelligent. i.e They can be programmed to assume capabilities such as learning,
reasoning, adaptation, and self-correction.
For example computers can respond as if they were thinking by playing chess, recognize handwriting and
speech.
However, the computers themselves cannot think. The artificial intelligence is only supported by the power
of the programs installed in them.
Storage ability
For a computer to be able to work, it must have some form of work space where data is stored before being
processed. All information is stored on a hard disk or in the Random Access Memory (RAM).
Reduction of cost
Computers are a short term investment in order to achieve a long term gain.
Though the investment is high, they reduce the cost in the long run. They reduce man power and lead to a
neat and efficient way for solving various tasks.

REASONS FOR STUDYING COMPUTER

To promote creative knowledge for problem solving.
 Computing requires and develops capabilities in solving deep, multidimensional problems requiring
imagination and sensitivity to a variety of fields.
 To acquire skills in the use of IT for enhanced productivity and development.
This is because the dimensions of computing are part of the necessary skills set for an educated person in the
21st century.
With computer studies, a student gets to acquire the following skills:
Technology Skills: Nearly all students will be faced with the need for technology skills when they go to
university or enter the workforce.
Keyboarding Classes: Students learn at a young age how to use computers to generate reports, type essays
and research homework assignments.
Career Preparation: Computer skills learned in school will benefit students during higher education
courses and their careers. Students as young as 12 learn how to create Electronic Spreadsheets, Power Point
presentations, Databases and Website Design.
Online Access: By learning how to use computers, students even in low-income areas have access to the
world at large.
Adult Learning: Students who are introduced to computer courses at an early age adapt quickly to advances
in technology, and typically do not fear additional training and new concepts as adult learners.
 To promote critical and analytical thinking for proactive (hands-on) solutions.
 Computing drives innovation in the sciences such as vaccine research, environmental protection, business,
entertainment and education. Through computer studies, one can make a positive difference in the world.
 To create awareness in a learner about the developments and emerging issues concerning computing and
society.
 Computing is one of those highly evolving fields where it is almost impossible to predict what will happen
in the future.

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 To get jobs.
Computing offers many types of highly rewarding careers. Computer studies provides a foundation that
serves as a competitive advantage in a career, in whatever field one chooses.
Examples of such jobs include: Typists, Computer operators, Computer technicians, System analysts,
Computer programmers, Software engineers, Computer engineers, Database administrators, website masters,
Graphic designers, IT Teachers, etc

Terminologies used in the field of computing.

Data
This refers to the raw facts and figures, which are entered into the computer by the user in a form suitable
for processing.
Data may consist of characters, symbols, sounds and graphics, videos e.t.c.
Data is a collection of raw facts, figures or instructions that do not have much meaning to the user.
Data may be in form of numbers, alphabets/letters or symbols, and can be processed to produce information.
example the figure 10082006 may be input as data and can appear as 10/08/2006 when processed, so
10/08/2006 is an example of information.
TYPES OF DATA.
There are two types/forms of data:
Digital (discrete) data:
Digital data is discrete in nature. It must be represented in form of numbers, alphabets or symbols for it to
be processed by a computer.
Digital data is obtained by counting. E.g. 1, 2, 3 …
A computer like a laptop, calculator, digital camera, and digital watch are categorized under digital devices.
Digital devices are devices that measure and represent data in a discrete or non continuous form.
Analogue (continuous) data:
Analogue data is continuous in nature. It must be represented in physical nature in order to be processed by
the computer.
Analogue data is obtained by measurement. E.g. Pressure, Temperature, Humidity, Lengths or currents, etc
The output is in form of smooth graphs from which the data can be read.
In this case, devices like the thermometer, analog watch, voltmeter, ammeter, weighing scale, and all that
use arms to indicate change are analogue devices.
Analog devices are devices that show information in a continuous or non-discrete form

Data Processing:
It is the process of collecting all items of data together & converting them into information.
Processing refers to the way the data is manipulated (or handled) to turn it into information.
The processing may involve calculation, comparison or any other logic to produce the required result. The
processing of the data usually results in some meaningful information being produced.

Information:
Information is the data which has been refined, summarized & manipulated in the way you want it, or into a
more meaningful form for decision-making.
It refers to the processed data that makes meaning and is useful. For example the figure 10082006 may be
input as data, but once this same figure is converted to the format 10/08/2006, you realize that its a date.
The information must be;
 accurate  complete
 timely  Relevant.
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 Comparison between Data and Information.
Data
Unprocessed (raw) facts or figures.
Not arranged.
Does not have much meaning to the user.
Cannot be used for decision-making.
Information
It is the end-product of data processing
(processed data)
Arranged into a meaningful format.
More meaningful to the user.
Can be used to make decisions.

Information and communication Technology (ICT)

It is the branch of engineering that deals with the use of computers and telecommunications to retrieve, store
and transmit information.
The term information technology(IT) is used to describe the use of computers in business, education and
everyday life.
Data entry
It is the act of in putting data into the computer. This is done by the help of input devices like keyboard,
mouse etc.
Bit
Bit refers to binary digit
This is the smallest unit of data storage.
Nibble
This is an equivalent of 4 bits
A nibble is therefore ½ of a byte
Byte
A byte is a unit of computer memory or digital information, that consists of eight binary digits (bits).
NB. 1 byte stores 1 character.
A byte is therefore an equivalent of 8 bits
A byte is an equivalent of 2 Nibbles
Binary
The number system used to represent digital information in computers where data is expressed by
combinations of the digits 0 and 1, corresponding to power states "off" and "on" respectively.
Computer Memory
This acts as a store for digital Data, processed information and programs in a computer system.
RAM (Random Access Memory) is temporary and volatile working memory that contains all the work in
progress, since the user last saved to disk.
RAM changes constantly as the computer is used for different tasks and is lost when the computer is
switched off.

Unit Two: Evolution of Computers

To trace the origin and explain evolution of computers:
 Origin of Computing
 Mechanical era
 Electro-mechanical era
 Electronic era (including Computer Generations)
To identify and compare the different developments in the evolution computers
The word Evolution comes from the Latin word, ‗ēvolvō‘ which literally means; to ‗unroll‘, or to ‗unfold‘.

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 Evolution of computers refers to the historical developments through which computers and technology have
passed, from the time they started to exist in ancient forms to their current state.
Knowledge about the history/evolution of computers gives us a deeper understanding of the origin and the
gradual Mechanical to Electro-mechanical to Electronic technological changes, that have brought about the
kind of computers we see today, and helps us to predict how they will be in future.

Origin of Computing (Counting and Calculating using devices)

The origin of computing started with the early man who used fingers, stones, sticks, marks on walls, sand,
e.t.c.
The word ‗compute‘ was derived from two Latin words; ‗com’, which means ‗together‘ and ‗putare’, which
may mean ‗add, calculate, count, or estimate‘.
Over the centuries, people have developed an amazing variety of data processing tools and techniques.
Examples of Ancient counting and calculating devices include
 The abacus,
 Napier’s bones,
 Slide rule.

The beginning or foundation of computing devices is the abacus, which was developed in 3000 BC by
Chinese (about 5000 years ago).
It was built out of wood and beads.
It has two decks. Each bead in the upper deck is equal to 5 units while Each bead in the lower deck is equal
to 1 unit.
Only beads in the middle position are counted.
The abacus helps people keep track of numbers as they do the computing. It is quick but has no storage
capabilities.

i). The Abacus (3000 BC)

The abacus is still in use today by schools and shopkeepers in Asia. Blind children are taught to use the
abacus to perform calculations.
The abacus is an excellent substitute for teaching other base numbering systems, since it easily adapts itself
to any base.

ii). Napier’s bones (1617)

 John Napier was a Scottish mathematician and inventor. Napier is famous for creating the decimal point. In
1617, the last year of his life, Napier invented a tool called ―Napier's Bones‖.
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 Napier's bones were multiplication tables written on strips of bones, ivory, silver, or wood. The invention
was used for simplifying multiplication, division, and taking square roots and cube roots.
 It had a set of rods, allowing computations up to 100,000,000.
 The left (or ―index‖)rod is fixed to the case. It is numbered from 1 to 9.
 The movable rods are numbered at the top.
 The numbers down the rods show the product of the number at the top times the corresponding numbers on
the index rod.

iii). William Oughtred’s Slide rule

In 1622, William Oughtred created the slide rule which originally circular and was based on logarithms. It
was the primary calculator for engineers throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries.
With a common accuracy of only three digits, the slide rule, was not suited to situations where accuracy was
needed such as in accounting.
The slide rule is an analog device and it is still widely used.
Before 1642, all computations were done by humans.
Manual devices used then could just aid the users to keep track of numbers as they did the computing.

(b) The Mechanical Era

In the Mechanical Era (Period) however, machines had gears and Wheels.
The popular mechanical developments of computers in this period include:
 Blaise Pascal's Calculator (1642),
 Leibniz‘s Stepped Reckoner (1694),
 Jacquard‘s Loom (1801), and
 Charles Babbage‘s Analytical & Difference Engine (1834).
This era also saw the development of the world's first computer programmer Ada Byron Lovelace (1815-
1852)

Blaise Pascal's Calculator (1642)

Pascal, Blaise (1623-62), was a French philosopher, mathematician and physicist.
In 1642, at the age of 18, he invented the first mechanical calculator to speed arithmetic calculations for his
father, a tax official.
Numbers were dialed in on the metal wheels on the front of the calculator.
The solutions appear in the little windows along the top.

(ii) Leibniz’s Stepped Reckoner (1694)

 The Stepped Reckoner was a digital mechanical calculator invented by German mathematician Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz around 1672 and completed in 1694.
 It was the first calculator that could perform all four arithmetic operations: addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division.
 Its complex gear work, however, was a bit beyond the manufacturing technology of the time;
 Mechanical problems, in addition to design defects in the carry mechanism, prevented the machines from
working reliably.

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 (iii) Jacquard’s Loom (1801)
In 1801, Joseph Marie Jacquard (1752-1834) of France made the first successful automatic draw loom by
means of a series of instructions given to the threads by a punched card system.
 The loom could produce complex patterns and pictures in silk and other materials.
 By 1812, the punched card device was attached to 18,000 looms in Lyons.
 The Jacquard loom was a technological break- through.
 J. M. Jacquard even received a pension from Napoleon for his invention.

(iv) Charles Babbage’s Analytical & Difference Engine (1834)

He invented two engines.
 the first being the difference engine
 and the second the analytical engine
 The concept of today's computers (Input - Process - Output) was first visualized by Charles Babbage in 1834
in England.
 His idea for the Analytical Engine consisted of 4 parts:
 an input device,
 a mill (processing unit),
 a storage device
 and an output device.
 It used punched-card system derived from the jacquard loom for input, processing and output
 Variable punched cards transported numbers back and forth from the mill.
 It decided what operation to use, addition, subtraction, multiplication, or division
 He is therefore regarded as the father of computers.

The First Computer Programmer

 Ada Byron Lovelace (1815-1852) was the world's first computer programmer.
 In 1842, Ada was asked to write a scientific interpretation of the Analytical Engine and its operations.
 These extensive writings on the Analytical Engine later became known as the first explanation of computer
programming.
 A computer language, Ada, was later named after her by the Ada Joint Program Office in 1964

(c)The Electro-mechanical Computers Era (1890 - 1946)

Before 1890, Electricity was not used by computers.
As Electricity availability was becoming widespread, it was involved in the use of computational devices.
The popular developments of computers in the Electro- mechanical era include:
 Hollerith's tabulating machine (1890)
 Howard Aiken‘s Harvard Mark I (1944)
 Program ―debugging‖

Hollerith's tabulating machine (1890)

 Herman Hollerith (1860 –1929) was an American statistician who developed a mechanical tabulator based
on punched cards to rapidly tabulate statistics from millions of pieces of data.
 He decided to use punched cards to represent the data gathered for the USA population census of 1890, and
to read and collate this data using an automatic machine.
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 Hollerith‘s machine used a set of spring loaded wires suspended over the punched card reader.
 When the wires were pressed onto the card, punched holes allowed wires to complete electric circuits.
 The cards were coded for age, state of residence, gender, and other information
 The census results were "... finished months ahead of schedule and far under budget".

Howard Aiken’s Harvard Mark I (1944)

While a professor of Physics at Harvard University, Howard Aiken was supported by IBM to build an
electro-mechanical computer which began computations for the U.S. Navy Bureau of Ships.
 The computer was called the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator – (ASCC) by IBM but Aiken
renamed it the Mark I
 It was very reliable, much more so than early electronic computers.
 The computer had mechanical relays (switches) which flip-flopped back and forth to represent mathematical
data.
 It was huge, weighting some 35 tons with 500 miles of wiring.

The First Computer Debugger

Dr. Grace Murray Hopper was a lady in the U.S. Navy Bureau of Ships, who worked with Howard Aiken
from 1944 and used his machine for gunnery and ballistics calculation
One day, the program she was running gave incorrect results and, upon examination, a bug (moth) was
found blocking one of the relays.
The First Computer Bug
 The bug was removed and the program performed to perfection. Since then, a program error in a
computer is known as a bug.
 Debugging is a process of finding and correcting errors, in a computer program or a piece of electronic
hardware.

Electronic era (1946 - Today)

Application of mechanical gears in Computers stopped in the Electro-mechanical era.
Computer evolution since 1946 has been categorized into five generations.
Each generation had a major characteristic development (commonly referred to as Hallmark) and distinct
characteristics in terms of Physical setup, Technology, Software, and Set-backs of the computers.
and therefore a computer generation can be defined as;
i. A stage in which all computers had similar characteristics, size, technology and software.
ii. stages of development of computers with technology and distinct characteristics
iii. a period in which all computers came with the same hallmark(major technology)

The first generation (1946 – 1958): Vacuum Tubes

Hallmark:
 The computers used vacuum tubes.
 The vacuum tube was an extremely important step in the advancement of computers.
 Its purpose was to act like an amplifier and a switch.
 Without any moving parts, vacuum tubes could take very weak signals and make the signal stronger
(amplify it)
 The first generation (1946 – 1958): Vacuum Tubes
Physical setup:

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 Physically, First generation computers were very large. Machines with hundreds of thousands of vacuum
tubes were built, taking up space of several floors in big buildings. They weighed about 30 tons
Technology:
 They used punched cards and paper tape for input.
 They used magnetic drums for memory.
 They had memory size of approximately 2kilobytes of RAM.
 They used binary number system.
 Speed was about 10,000 instructions per second.
Software:
First generation computers used machine language, the lowest-level programming language understood by
computers.
Setbacks:
 They broke down frequently (Required standby technicians)
 Needed very many people to operate due to their huge size.
 High level of training was required before use
 They produced a lot of heat and burned out.
 They consumed a lot of power
 They produced a lot of noise.
 They had limited primary memory, and so they were very slow.
 They were very expensive to buy, setup and maintain.
 They were not portable
 Manual assembly of individual components into one functioning unit required.
 Air conditioning required
Examples of first generation computers:
 ENIAC - Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (1946) was the first electronic digital computer. It
had over 18,000 vacuum tubes.
 EDVAC - Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic computer (1947) was built for the U.S. Army's Ballistics
Research Laboratory
 The UNIVAC (1951) (UNIVersal Automatic Computer) was the first general-purpose electronic digital
computer designed for commercial use.

The second generation (1958 – 1964): Transistors

Hallmark:
 They used transistors.
 A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals. It is made of a solid
piece of semiconductor material.
 The invention of the transistor replaced the vacuum tube and paved the way for smaller and cheaper
computers.
Physical setup:
 The computers reduced in size as compared to first generation computers, and could now fit in one room.
 A typical second-generation computer contained 10,000 transistors hand soldered and connected by wires.
Technology:
 They still used punched cards for input and printouts for output
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 Memory size expanded to approximately 32kilobytes
 The computers increased in processing speed and reliability - Speed was about 30,000 instructions per
second
 Transistors consumed less power as compared to vacuum tubes
 Memory moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology, in which Hard disk storage was now
available. (see figure)

Software:
Second generation computers used assembly and high level programming languages such as FORTRAN
(FORmulaTRANslator) which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words.
Setbacks:
 They produced less noise but their cost was still very expensive.
 High level of training was required before use.
 Transistors gave much heat that could damage other components.
 Commercial production was difficult and costly.
 The computers could still run only one application program at a time (Multi-tasking was not possible)
 Air-conditioning was required.
 Manual assembly of individual components into a functioning unit was required.
Examples of second generation computers:
IBM 305 RAMAC.(1956), was the first commercial computer that used a moving head hard disk drive
(magnetic disk storage) for secondary storage. RAMAC stood for "Random Access Method of Accounting
and Control".
The IBM 1401, - was a variable word length decimal computer that was announced by IBM on October 5,
1959
The CDC 6600 was a mainframe computer from Control Data Corporation, first delivered in 1964. It
remained the world's fastest computer from 1964–1965.

The Third generation (1965 – 1970): Integrated Circuits

Hallmark
Integrated Circuits. An integrated circuit (IC) was just a combination of thousands of transistors and tiny
wires onto a small "chip" made of semi-conductor material such as silicon
Physical setup
 The computers extremely reduced in size due to fabrication of various circuit elements in a single chip.
 As a result, the computer could now fit onto a desk and the monitor became the largest visible part of the
computer.
 For the first time, Electronic computers became accessible to a mass audience because they became cheaper.
Technology:
 The keyboards and monitors replaced punched cards for input and output.
 Magnetic hard disks were developed for storage purposes
 Memory size expanded to approximately 2 megabytes of RAM
 The computers became more reliable because of elimination of soldered joints and need for fewer inter-
connections.
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 Speed increased to 5 million instructions per second
 Integrated Circuits consumed a lower electric power.
 The noise produced by the computers reduced drastically.
Software:
 Simple programming languages like BASIC were introduced.
Multi-tasking was now possible. (Users interfaced with an operating system which could run different
applications at the same time.)

Setbacks:
 Highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacture of IC chips.
 They required Air-conditioning in many cases due to the heat produced.
 If any component in an IC fails, the whole IC has to be replaced by a new one.
 Operations were at a low voltage because ICs function at fairly low voltage.
 Quite delicate in handling as these cannot withstand rough handling or excessive heat
Examples of third generation computers:
Popular developments in the third generation include:
The PDP-8 was the first commercially successful minicomputer. It sold more than 50,000 systems for
$18,000.
The HP-2115 which was made by Hewlett-Packard (HP)
Fast minicomputers such as IBM 360 series and ICL 19000 series
Another very good development that came up in this generation (1969) was The Advanced Research
Projects Agency Network (ARPANET),the world's first operational packet switching network
The ARPANET is the core network of a set that came to become the global Internet.
The network was created by a small research team at the United States Department of Defense.

The fourth generation (1971 – to date): Microprocessors.

Hallmark:
 They used microprocessors
 Microprocessors are VLSI devices.
 Very-Large-Scale Integration (VLSI) is the process of creating integrated circuits by combining thousands
of transistors into a single chip.
 The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated circuits were
rebuilt onto a single silicon chip.
 Invention of the microprocessor was made by a team at Intel Corporation.
Physical setup:
 The physical size of computers kept on reducing generation to generation.
 With the development of micro-chips, what in the first generation filled an entire floor could now fit in the
palm of the hand.

Technology:
 The fourth generation computers saw the development of the mouse and handheld input devices.
 The Fourth generation computers were more powerful, they could be linked together to form networks.

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 A vast variety of Storage memory media used such as Floppy disks (1971),Optical Compact Discs(1982),
USB flash drive disks(2000), etc.
 Memory size progressively expanded up to more than 8 Gigabytes of RAM
 The computers became very reliable.
i.e. Computers can work for a long time
without breaking down.
 There has been development of extremely fast computers referred to as super computers with speeds over
100 million instructions per second.
 Further developments in this fourth generation include the merging of Telecommunication and Computing
Technology.
 They don‘t require air conditioning because they have inbuilt cooling mechanisms.
 This generation also saw the development of Laptop and Palmtop computers which were portable and
suitable for mobile business.
Software:
 Operating systems based on the Graphical User Interface (GUI) were developed.
 A GUI is a user Interface in which visual images such as icons and buttons are used to issue commands.
 Microsoft Windows 1.0 was released by Bill Gates‘ Microsoft Corporation on November 20, 1985.
 Setbacks:
 Highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacture of VLSI chips.
 In a microprocessor chip, the various components are part of a small semi-conductor chip and the individual
component or components cannot be removed or replaced, therefore, if any component in a microprocessor
fails, the whole microprocessor has to be replaced by a new one.
 Operations at low voltage as microprocessors function at fairly low voltage.
 Quite delicate in handling as these cannot withstand rough handling or excessive heat
Examples
 The Xerox Alto (1973) was the first computer to use a GUI.
 The IBM 5100, portable computer that appeared in September 1975.
 The Apple Macintosh (1984 ), was a mouse-driven computer at a much cheaper price.
The fifth generation (Today to future):
Artificial Intelligence and Robotics.
Hallmark:
Artificial intelligence (AI) is the ability of machines to have human capabilities, such as the five senses (to
see, hear, feel, taste, smell), plus, understanding, communication, reasoning, learning, learning from past
experiences, planning, and problem solving.
In future, computers are to be applicable in almost every imaginable place at home, office, factory, church,
etc.
Physical setup:
The physical size of computers in this generation can be customized to any shape of interest – be it as small
as a pen or in the shape of a human being.
Artificial Intelligence and Robotics.
The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that respond to natural language input and are
capable of learning and self-organization.
Technology:
 There is use of coordinated parallel processing; where computers have many microprocessors being used
side by side.

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 We shall see the development of many gadgets like remote control and optical input devices.
 Secondary Storage Hard disk drives which can store Terabytes of Data.
 RAM will continue to increase to 8GB, 16GB, 32GB, 64GB,128GB e.t.c.
 The computers to become 99% reliable.
 More development of Notebook and Mobile computers which can store power for a long time, hence
becoming too mobile.
 More networking containing millions of interconnected 4th Generation computers.
 Molecular computers expected, Composed of millions of DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid ) strands in plastic
tubes.
 Information-processing tools-such as enzymes and proofreading mechanisms are going to be taken in large
numbers of DNA molecules and used as biological computer processors.
 Diligent Robots will be highly used in many areas such as factories where repetitive tasks are done.
 Computers to have Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology.
Software:
 Fifth-generation programming languages (5GLs) will be used.
 5GLs are based around solving problems using controls given to the program, rather than using an procedure
written by a programmer,
 They contain visual tools to help develop the programs.
 Visual Basic is an example of a 5GL
 There will be a wide variety of computer Operating Systems and Application programs designed to solve
specific tasks in a user-friendly manner.
Setbacks and Demerits of Fifth Generation Computers
 Computer Obsession and addiction is seriously spoiling the writing and thinking abilities of human beings.
 Computer Crime such as hacking and online theft is on the rise due to misuse of 5th Generation computer
technology.
 Robotics in the fifth generation will cause unemployment as machines take on the jobs people could do.
 Examples of fifth generation computers:
 TOSY Ping Pong Playing Robot (2007) is a humanoid robot designed to play table tennis against a human
being.
 Hospital Robots are becoming more useful to hospital staff; from supporting surgeons to paying bedside
visits to patients.
 The iPad (2010) is a tablet computer designed and marketed by Apple Inc., with a flat touch screen. It is
primarily operated by touching the screen rather than using a physical keyboard.

SUMMARY TABLE FOR THE ELECTRONIC ERA WITH COMPUTER GENERATIONS

GENERATION(Perio 1ST (1946- 2ND (1958- 3RD (1964- 4TH 5TH
d) 1958) 1964) 1971) (1971 TO (TODAY TO
DATE) FUTURE)

Hall mark Vacuum Transistors Integrated Microprocesso Artificial Intelligence

Tubes Circuits rs and Robotics
(LSI (VLSI
devices) devices)

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Physical Size Could fill Could fit in Could now Mobile Can be customized to
entire a single fit onto a Computers any shape of interest
floor of room desk Could fit in the
Large palm of the
Buildings hand.

Input Punched Punched Keyboard Keyboard, Voice Recognition,

Cards Cards Mouse Touch, Sensors, e.tc.

Primary Memory 2Kilobyte 32Kilobyte 2Mega Continued Will continue to

(RAM) s s Bytes increasing. Up increase to 16, 32,
to 8GB 64,128 e.t.c.

Secondary Storage Magnetic Magnetic Magnetic A variety of Hard disks with a lot
Drum Core Hard Disks Storage media (Terabytes) of
eg, Floppy Memory,
Optical Internet hard drives,
Compact Discs Micro memory cards
and USB flash
drives

Processing Speed 10,000 30,000 5 MIPS 100MIPS Multiprocessors,

instructio instructions with Billions of
ns per per second instructions per
second. second.

Software Machine Assembly Simple Operating Fifth-generation

Language and high programmin systems with a programminglanguag
level g languages Graphical User es (5GLs)
programing like BASIC Interface
languages (GUI)
wereDevelope
d.

Multitasking Not Not Possible Possible Possible

possible possible

Noise, Heat, Power Too much Noise & Air Computers No noise, little
consumption Power conditionin now have power consumption,
consumptio g still internal no heat!
n reduced. required to cooling
heat. mechanisms.

Examples ENIAC, IBM 305 PDP-8 HP- Xerox Alto, iPad , Hospital
EDVAC RAMAC 2115 IBM 5100 Robots
UNIVAC IBM1401, Apple TOSY
CDC6600 Macintosh

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Unit Three: Uses and functions of computers
AREAS OF APPLICATION OF COMPUTERS IN OUR SOCIETY
Computers are applied in the areas of Education, Research, Business, Health, Communication,
Military/security, Home and Entertainment / leisure.
Uses of computers in the area of Education
In teaching, we use Computer Assisted Instructions
(CAI) by use of Interactive whiteboards, and
projectors, in class.
Computer Aided Learning (CAL) gives access to
On-screen learning materials. Students learn at their
own pace and can repeat a lesson they didn‘t
understand.
Computer Aided Assessment (CAA) helps teachers
to reduce the time and the labour to mark students‘
books and answer scripts.
Error free School Timetables can be generated using Uses of computers in the area of Research
special timetable computer software.
With Use of School Administration and
Management Systems (SAMS), Records
management is made easier because all details of
learners can be held on computer, and easily
retrieved, reducing administrative costs.
Students‘ Progressive Report cards can be produced
electronically by use of computers instead of hand
written ones.
Distance learning through computer based training.
People can study online and get awards such as
degrees without going to class.
Teachers use simulation software to visualize and
demonstrate difficult or dangerous experiments in
class.
Use of special facilities for students with disabilities Buying and selling of Computers and their
like text to speech and speech recognition to help
blind students.
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Interactive Multimedia packages on DVDs can
clearly demonstrate and explain abstract concepts.
Schools use computers to create school websites for
sharing information with the public.
Productivity tools like desktop publishing and
presentation software are used in projects and other
school activities.
Computers are used for calculating mathematical
arithmetic by students and teachers in class.
Digital computers are also used for telling and
managing time in schools
They have made searching the literature and
references easier through use of electronic databases
on the World Wide Web.
For example an online encyclopaedia such as
Wikipedia has over 15 times as many words as
compared to printed Encyclopaedia and dictionaries.
Computers have tools such as Spell checking, copy-
and-paste, etc., which make compiling and editing
research work easier.
Uses of computers in the area of Business
Computers enable people to Work from home, using
computers connected to the employer's network or
via the Internet. This is known as Telecommuting.
Computers have created more jobs such as
Computer technicians, Computer teachers, etc.
components is a source of income to individuals,
and companies.
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Through, Computer Aided Design (CAD), scale
drawings, and excellent designs can be created
easily.
Computers are used for sending and receiving
Mobile Money and making worldwide money
transfers.
Banks use Computers to manage transactions and
Automatic Teller Machines ATMs for 24 hour
banking.
Uses of computers in the area of Health
Hospitals use computers for managing and storing
Records electronically, rather than paper files.
Hospital Administration is also aided by printing
labels, allocating beds; make appointments, staff
rotas, e.t.c.
Internet helps us get Web sites for information on
health care, treatments, conditions, etc.
Monitoring/Diagnosis such as Heart rate, blood
pressure, etc. is aided by Computer Expert systems.
Medical Training is facilitated by Simulation
software and on-line data sources.
Uses of computers in the area of Communication
E-mail: Electronic Mail sent from one person to
other using connected computers helps a lot in the
area of communication.
Video Conferencing enables people in different
locations to conduct meetings as if they are in the
same location.
Computers are used for Faxing, Sending an image
of a document electronically.
Computers enable people to send voice, image, text
data though Telephones and mobile cell phones:
Social Networks such as Facebook and Twitter
enable people to stay in touch with their relatives,
friends and interests.
Uses of computers in the area of
security/Military
Computers aid monitoring security through cameras,
Automatic number plate recognition, e.tc.
Communication systems are widely used in the
military to coordinate the personnel.
Some computer systems can detect temperatures and
alarm in case of danger of fire outbreaks.
Computers are used for capturing data for Police
National Computer Databases, vehicle number
plates, criminal‘s fingerprints, etc.
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Computers are used to detect presence of illegal
devices such as bombs.
Computers are also used for controlling dangerous
weapons such as missiles.
Uses of computers at home
Computers are used for doing School Assignments
(Home Work)
Computers are used for Managing household
finances
Computers are used for Accomplishing Work
related tasks.
Uses of computers in the area of Entertainment /
leisure
Computers introduced completely new type of
entertainment like Computer games.
Computers are also used in Cinema halls and
podiums for faster instant audio and video playback
and presentation though projectors.
Computers are used in the entertainment industry to
produce Music, Edit Video, CD burning, etc.
Computers are used for instant audio playback
functions such as parties.
DEMERITS OF USING COMPUTERS IN
SOCIETY
Risk of addiction. Many people don't care about
anything else because they spend many hours in
front of computer.
Eye Strain. Using computer for long can be very
harmful to the eyes.
Over dependence. Our creativity, skills and
reasoning can decrease when we are too dependent
to the computer.
For instance, with email replacing the hand-written
letter, Onscreen Art designing instead of Hand
drawing Art etc.
Computer can destroy the culture of a certain group
of people in the society, especially youths.
Expensive. Computers are still costly because the
initial costing and maintenance cost of a computer
are very high.
Need for Extra Training. Use of computers require
additional training before use of computers and their
programs.
There is dehumanizing of people. Excessive use of
computer for communication with others threatens
to reduce the intensity of personal bond that often
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develops between people. For instance, the
telephone calls
Computers have led to unemployment of people
such as Tellers, shop workers, postal workers; since
many manual/repetitive jobs have been replaced by
computers like ATMs
Electronic fraud: Stealing money electronically
through practices like Credit card cloning
Impact on Environment: Computer manufacturing
processes and computer waste are depleting natural
resources and polluting the environment.
Hacking: Unauthorized access into computers
possibly leads to access information compromising
privacy. E.g. Wiki leaks.
Software Piracy: Stealing software, not paying for
licenses through cracking.
Presence of Viruses: You may lose all your
programs, files, documents folders and other data on
your computer because of virus infection on the
computer.
Moral Decay: The internet has websites with
content such as pornography, which have a bad
impact on the users especially the young children.
Computers are delicate and they must be given a
great care.

Unit Four: Keyboard and Navigation

This is an input device with keys labeled with letters, numbers and symbols for entry of data when a user
presses the keys.
The keys on a traditional key board can be categorized into groups
Function keys; Labeled F1 to F12, they are mainly used as shortcut to specialized operation in application
program e.g. F1is used to get online help
Typing keys: Consist letters of alphabet A-Z, tab, caps lock, special characters like <> = / enter and space
and back space keys
Special keys; Are mostly used in combination with other keys as a short cut to commands. They include
control(Ctrl), Alt, Shift, and Esc
Navigational (arrow) keys. These are used as a mouse with the keyboard.

ADVANTAGES OF USING A KEYBOARD FOR DATA ENTRY

Entering data and instructions with a keyboard is generally faster than with pointing devices like the mouse,
light pen, stylus pen, and joystick.
They are usually supplied with the computer and therefore do not need to be bought independently like other
devices e.g the digital camera.
Key boards are more reliable and usually produce fewer errors than other input methods. such as voice input
and optical character recognition (OCR)

KEYBOARD SHORTCUTS
Microsoft Word Formatting
Ctrl + P Print Ctrl + Z Undo
Ctrl + S Save Ctrl + Y Redo
CTRL+B Make text bold Ctrl + C Copy
CTRL+I Italicize Ctrl + V Paste
CTRL+U Underline Ctrl + X Copy + delete
Shift + F3 Change case of letters
Ctrl+Shift+> Increase font size
Ctrl+Shift+< Decrease font size

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Unit Five: Categories of Computers
Computers can be categorized according to the
process they use to represent data.
People communicate through speech by combining
words into sentences. Human speech is analog
because it uses continuous (wave form) signals that
vary in strength and quality. Most computers are
digital.
Computer categories are basically three:
1. Digital computers
2. Analog computers
3. Hybrid computers
An Analog Computer is a computing device that
uses continuously changing values to represent
information.
It generally deals with physical variables such as
temperature, weight, voltage, pressure, speed, etc.
The results given by the analog computers are
approximate since they deal with quantities that
vary continuously.
Almost all of the measuring devices are ―Analog
computers‖.
Examples of Analog computers
Thermometers,
Voltmeters, and Ammeters
Speedometers, Barometers
Traditional automatic watches
The slide rule is a hand-operated analog computer
Digital Computers
These are computers that use discrete
(discontinuous) values, i.e. binary digits (0, 1) to
represent data.
The binary digits simply mean the presence or
absence of an electric pulse/ voltage.
The state of being on is represented by 1 and off is
represented by 0.
Although digital representations are discrete, the
information represented can be either discontinuous,
such as numbers, and letters, or continuous, such as
sounds, images, and other measurements of
continuous systems.
Digital computers are more accurate and work at a
very fast rate.
Examples of Digital Computers Include:
All Personal computers (PCs)
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Laptops,
Digital Watches
Hybrid Computers
A hybrid computer combines the desirable features
of analog and digital computers. A hybrid computer
accepts analog signals and converts them to digital
for processing.
It is mostly used for automatic operations of
complicated physical processes and machines.
Now-a-days analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog
converters are used for transforming the data into
suitable form for either type of computation.
A MODEM( MODulator DEModulator) is the
device used in the first case to convert digital
signals to analog signals and DEModulation to
mean changing analog signals to digital form
Hybrid computers are mainly used for specialized
tasks.
Examples of Hybrid computers
Digital petrol pumps are an example of hybrid
computers.
They measure physical quantities and represent its
values in digital form.
Unit Six: Classification of Computers
CLASSIFICATIONS OF
COMPUTERS
Computers are classified according to their purpose,
according to the kind of data they process or types
of data they use, and also according to the size of
the machine and the speed of its internal operations.
Speed of operation is often the most important
consideration in deciding which equipment to
choose for a particular task. With today's machines,
It is generally true that the bigger the machine, the
faster the operating speed.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF COMPUTERS BY
PURPOSE
Digital computers may be utilized for either special
or general purposes.
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1. General-Purpose Computers -these machines
have the capability of dealing with variety of
different problems, and are able to act in response to
programs created to meet different needs. A general-
purpose computer is one that has the ability to store
different programs of instruction and thus to
perform a variety of operations.
2. Special-Purpose Computers - as to the name
implies, is designed to perform one specific tasks.
The program of instructions is built into, or
permanently stored in the machine. Specialization
results in the given task being performed very
quickly and efficiently. Most special purpose
computers have the capability of performing just
one task. They are frequently referred to as
"dedicated," because of their limitations to the
specific task at hand.
CLASSIFICATION BY TYPE OF DATA
HANDLED
There are essentially two different types of
computer processing. Each is made possible by a
different kind of circuitry ,and each is suitable
for different purposes.
1. Analog Computers - The name analog comes
from the word "analogous", meaning similar.
Analog computers are used for scientific,
engineering, and process control purposes. Because
they deal with quantities that are
continuously variable., they give only approximate
results. This types of computer provides an analog
or simulation of the object or system it represents. It
is especially useful for solving problems that
involve relationships between variable quantities in
systems that change with time. The analog computer
may express changing relationships in output in the
form of graphs. It is able to create such pictures
because it responds to changes in electrical voltages
that match changes in variable quantities.
2. Digital Computers - Is a machine the specializes
in counting. It operates by counting values that are
discrete, or separate and distinct, unlike the
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continuous quantities that can be measured by the
analog computer. Digital Computers are used for
both business data processing and accuracy. The
basic operation performed by a digital computer is
addition. It can store the sums of addition problems
as they accumulate, and can complete a single
calculation in a fraction of a nanosecond. The
digital computer is capable of storing data as long as
needed, performing logical operations, editing input
data, and printing out the results of its processing at
height speed.
3. Hybrid Computers - Although both analog and
digital computers are extremely used in widely
accepted in various industries, manufacturers have
attempted to design a computer that combines the
best features of both types. This special-purpose
machine called a hybrid computer. combines the
measuring capabilities of the analog computer and
the logical and control capabilities of the digital
computer. It offers an efficient and economical
method of working out special types of problems in
science and various areas of engineering. Some
Hybrid machines contain special equipment to
convert analog voltages into digital voltages, and
vice-versa.
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
ACCORDING TO CAPACITY
The term "capacity" refers to the volume of work or
the data processing capacity a computer can handle.
Their performance is judged by the:
1. Amount of data that can be stored in memory
2. speed of internal operation of the computer
3. Number and type of of peripheral device.
4. Amount and type of software available for use
with the computer The capacity of early generation
computers were determined by their physical size-
the large the size, the greater the volume. In
computer terms, size and speed of operation are at
present proportionate to each other. Generally,
though, recent, technology is tending to create
smaller machines, making it possible to package
equivalent speed and capacity in a smaller format.
Computer System Classification
1.MICROCOMPUTERS:
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The mass production of silicon chips since 1971 has
made it possible to put a "brain" into all sorts of
machines. One such machine is the microcomputer.
This machines has takes fullest advantage of the use
of large-scale integration on silicon chips. The
microprocessors literally contain computer on a chip
that can pass through the eye of needle.
Microcomputers memories are generally made
of semiconductors fabricated on silicon chips. It is a
digital computer system under the control of a
stored program that uses a microprocessor, a
programmable read-only memory (ROM), and a
random-access memory (RAM), The ROM defines
the instructions to be executed by the computer
while RAM is the functional equivalent of computer
memory.
2.MINICOMPUTERS:
Technological advances in the 1960's enabled
manufactures to respond to the growing demand for
a similar stand-alone machine, the minicomputer, to
handle task that large computers could not perform
economically. Minicomputer system (or small
mainframe computers) provide faster operating
speeds and larger storage capacities than
microcomputers systems. They can support a large
number of high-speed input/output devices. Several
desk drives can be used to provide online access to
large data files as required for direct- access
processing. Operating system developed for
minicomputer systems generally support both
multiprogramming and virtual storage. This means
that many programs can be run concurrently. This
type of computer system is very flexible and can be
expanded to meet the needs of users. Minicomputers
usually have from 8k to 256K memory storage
locations, and a relatively established applications
software. although the minicomputer is not as
UNIT SEVEN: THE COMPUTER SYSTEM
A system can be defined as a collection of
interrelated components that work together towards
a collective goal. The function of a system is to
receive inputs and transform them into outputs.
Computer System
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powerful as the medium or large-size computer, it is
quite close.
3.MEDIUM-SIZE COMPUTERS= it provide faster
operating speeds and larger storage capabilities than
small computer systems. They can support a large
number of high-speed input-output devices, and
several disk drives can be used to provide online
access processing. Also support both
multiprogramming and virtual storage. This allows
the running of a variety of programs concurrently.
Medium-size computer system is very flexible; they
can be expanded to meet the needs of users.
The possibility of increasing the data processing
capability of a computer by adding devices, such
additional memory, and other peripheral devices, is
called expandability.
4.MAINFRAME COMPUTERS:
Are the ultimate in system sophistication, flexibility,
and speed. They usually contain full control systems
with minimal operator intervention. Large computer
systems range from single- processing
configurations to nationwide computer based
networks involving general large computers. Large
computers have storage capacities from 512K to
819K, and these computers have internal operating
speeds measured in terms of nanoseconds, as
compared to smaller computers where speed in
terms of microseconds.
5.SUPERCOMPUTERS= The biggest and fastest
machines today are the supercomputers that are used
when billions or even trillions of calculations are
needed. These machines are essential for
applications ranging from nuclear weapon to
accurate weather forecasting. Supercomputers are
machines that have capabilities far beyond even the
traditional large scale systems. Their speed is in
the 100-million-instructions-per-second range
A computer system is a collection of entities/
devices that work together to process data and
manage information using computers.
Information System
An information system is a system that accepts data
resources as input and processes them into
information products as output.
24

Components of a computer system
A computer system consists of three main
components namely;
People (live ware/ orgware)
People are required for the operation of all computer
systems. These people resources include end users
and specialists.
End users (also called users or clients) are people
who use computer system or the information it
produces. They can be accountants, salespersons,
engineers, clerks, customers, or managers. Most of
us are information system end users.
Computer Specialists are people who develop and
operate computer systems. They include systems
analysts, programmers, computer operators etc.
Topic 2:
COMPUTER HARDWARE
Hardware devices. These refer to tangible
components of a computer which can be touched
and felt. These include;
Input devices
Processing devices
Output devices
Storage devices
Communication devices
Input devices.
These are ones which feed data into the computer
for further processing to make meaningful
information. These are;
 Keyboard.
An electronic device that is used to enter alpha
numeric data by pressing keys. Keyboard is the
most common and very popular input device which
helps to input data to the computer. The layout of
the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter,
although there are some additional keys provided
for performing additional functions. Keyboards are
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Hardware
Computer hardware includes all physical or tangible
components of a computer system. Examples of
computer hardware are:
Central Processing Unit
Input devices e.g. keyboard, mouse
Output devices e.g. printers and monitors
Secondary storage devices e.g. hard disks and flash
disks
Software
Computer software refers to the instructions that tell
the computer hardware how to perform a task.
Unit Eight: Computer Care and safety
of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now
keyboards with 104 keys or 108 keys are also
available for Windows and Internet. It consists of
the following parts as follows
S.No Keys & Description
1. Typing Keys
These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit
keys (09) which generally give the same layout as
that of typewriters.
2. Numeric Keypad
It is used to enter the numeric data or cursor
movement. Generally, it consists of a set of 17 keys
that are laid out in the same configuration used by
most adding machines and calculators.
3. Function Keys
The twelve function keys are present on the
keyboard which are arranged in a row at the top of
the keyboard. Each function key has a unique
meaning and is used for some specific purpose.
4. Control keys
25
These keys provide cursor and screen control. It
includes four directional arrow keys. Control keys
also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up,
Page Down, Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt),
Escape(Esc).
5.Special Purpose Keys
Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys
such as Enter, Shift, Caps Lock, Num Lock, Space
bar, Tab, and Print Screen.
QN. Give the function of each part of the keyboard
as mentioned above.
 Mouse.
Hand-operated electronic pointing device that
controls the coordinates a cursor on a computer
screen as one moves it around on a pad; on the
bottom of the device is a ball that rolls on the
surface of the pad. The basic function of a mouse
are; Pointing, selecting objects, moving objects
through dragging, scrolling pages up and down,
drawing diagrams, giving commands etc.
Mouse operations include;
Clicking. This refers to pressing the left button and
releasing it quickly
Double clicking. This is the pressing the left mouse
button twice and realizing it quickly.
Right clicking. This refers to the pressing the right
mouse button once and releasing it.
Scrolling. This is the act of moving pages of a
document up and down on the computer screen. It is
done by rolling the ball.
Advantages
 Easy to use
 Not very expensive
 Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of the
keyboard. QN. Mention any three types of Mice as
used in computers
Desktop mouse. This is known as mechanical mouse
commonly used o desktop and tower computers. It
has got 2or 3 push buttons plus a ball on its
underside and the rollers inside.
How it works is that; when a mouse is moved, the
ball is made to move and the signal is sent to the
CPU through the cord/ wire and the pointer is made
Compiled by Eddy Musenze 0788120598
to move accordingly Limitation: however it is
normally affected by dust which slows down the
speed of the ball‘s movement and hence the rollers
eventually the pointer‘s movement is affected. But
this can be solved by cleaning the dust around the
ball, the roller after the opening the underside parts.
Optical mouse. This uses a laser beam of light to
send signals to the CPU so as to move the pointer on
the screen. An optical mouse resembles and works
like desktop mouse but however it has no balls and
rollers but has 3 push buttons like those of desktop
mouse.
Cordless mouse. This is the recent invention in
mouse technology. It is termed as wireless mouse
because it doesn‘t have the cord/ physical wire. This
mouse works on the basis of an installed program in
the computer which make it to sense it as it is
brought closer to the computer.
Track ball mouse. This is a small pointing device
normally seen on laptops. It is embedded within the
systems unit with the keyboard of a laptop. It has a
free small rolling ball fixed on its top which is rolled
with the index fixed finger to move the pointer on
the screen.
Touch pad mouse. This appointing device found on
modern laptops just like a track ball, it is also
embedded within the systems unit. It has got a glass-
like pad just below the keys.
 Scanners. Scanner is an input device, which
works more like a photocopy machine. It is used
when some information is available on paper and it
is to be transferred to the hard disk of the computer
for further manipulation. Scanner captures images
from the source which are then converted into a
digital form that can be stored on the disk. These
images can be edited before they are printed. Pen
pocket readers also use this scanner principle to read
lines of texts which are displayed on screen.
 Light pens. Light pen is a pointing device similar
to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item
or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of
a photocell and an optical system placed in a small
tube. When the tip of a light pen is moved over the
monitor screen and the pen button is pressed, its
photocell sensing element detects the screen
26
location and sends the corresponding signal to the
CPU.
NOTE. Light pens are used in PDAs
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog
information into digital form. Digitizer can convert
a signal from the television or camera into a series
of numbers that could be stored in a computer. They
can be used by the computer to create a picture of
whatever the camera had been pointed at. Digitizer
is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet as it
converts graphics and pictorial data into binary
inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for fine
works of drawing and image manipulation
applications.
 Barcode readers. This one of the electronic
technologies developed with the help of scanning
barcodes and identifying optical characters on the
products which are in most cases in form of bars and
with the help of light containing much sensitive
detector identifies and recognizes bars in form of
texts which are later fed in the computer for further
manipulation. Barcode readers can be seen in
extensive supermarkets to identify certain items and
their prices.
 Voice recognition equipment. These refer to all
types of micro phones which are used to record and
capture sound. Most of multimedia computers have
this capability. These are mostly used by musicians
to record and editing sound.
 Joysticks. This a pointing device which is
operated by tilting its vertical hand sideways,
forward and backwards to control the position of the
cursor on the screen. This looks as the jeer leaver of
the car.
It employs the same principle of the mouse but this
is bit more free than a mouse. It has got a button
which is used for selecting objects on the screen.
The function of the joystick is similar to that of a
mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided
Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.
Compiled by Eddy Musenze 0788120598
PROCESSING DEVICES.
Processor. The processor is the main ―brain‖ of a
computer system. It performs all of the instructions
and calculations that are needed and manages the
flow of information through a computer. It is mostly
called the CPU (central processing unit), although
this term can also be used to describe a computer
case along with all of the hardware found inside it.
Another name for the processor is a computer
―chip‖ although this term can refer to other lesser
processors (such as the BIOS). Processors are
continually evolving and becoming faster and more
powerful. The speed of a processor is measured in
megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz). An older
computer might have a processor with a speed of
1000 MHz (equivalent to 1 GHz) or lower, but
processors with speeds of over 2 GHz are now
common. One processor company, Intel, made a
popular series of processors called Pentium. Many
reconditioned computers contain Pentium II,
Pentium III, Pentium IV, duo core processors and
core I processors such as i3, i5 and recent invention
of core i7 which is the fastest on the market.
Features of the CPU
 CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.
 CPU performs all types of data processing
operations.
 It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions
(program).
 It controls the operation of all parts of the
computer.
. It is classified into 3 parts i.e.
 The register. This is a special high speed storage
area within the CPU. All the data must be presented
to the register before being processed. For example
if 2 numbers are to be added both have to be first be
registered and the result has to be plugged in the
register. ( the register can contain address of a
memory location where data is stored rather than the
actual data if set)
- NOTE: The number of registers the CPU has and
the size of each determine s the power and speed of
the CPU e.g., 32bit CPU is one which registers 32
bit wide there4 each CPU instruction can
manipulate32 bits of data.
27
- The clock speed or clock rate of a CPU is defined
as the frequency at which a processor executes
instructions or processes data.
- The system clock. is an internal clock that
generates a signal that is used to synchronize the
operation of the CPU and the movement of data
around the other components of the computer
- Register holds a piece of data at a time and inside
the CPU.
Examples of registers are;
 Accumulator register. This temporarily holds
the results of the last step of ALU.
 Instruction register. This temporally holds an
instruction in it before it is interpreted into a form
that the CPU can understand it.
 An address register. This temporarily holds the
next piece of data waiting to be processed.
 Storage register. This temporary holds a piece of
data that it is on in its way to and from the CPU and
main memory.
 The arithmetic logic unit (ALU). This part of the
CPU held responsible for carrying out arithmetic
and logic operations such as addition, subtraction,
division, multiplication etc. The ALU carries all the
logical and arithmetic processing. It records all the
instructions and processes data.
This unit consists of two subsections namely,
 Arithmetic Section
 Logic Section
Arithmetic Section Function of arithmetic section is
to perform arithmetic operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division. All
complex operations are done by making repetitive
use of the above operations.
Logic Section Function of logic section is to
perform logic operations such as comparing,
selecting, matching, and merging of data.
Logic operation refers to the ability to compare all
the 2 quantities or numbers to determine which is
greater or equal or less or than the other. It also
measures, tests the existence of the condition
encounter during the processing of an application
understanding the instructions accordingly.
The control unit (brain). This unit controls the
operations of all parts of the computer but does not
carry out any actual data processing operations.
Compiled by Eddy Musenze 0788120598
Functions of this unit are −
 It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data
and instructions among other units of a computer.
 It manages and coordinates all the units of the
computer.
 It obtains the instructions from the memory,
interprets them, and directs the operation of the
computer.
 It communicates with Input/Output devices for
transfer of data or results from storage.
 It does not process or store data.
 NOTE; Peripheral devices are called so because
they operate outside the CPU and the main memory.
The control unit also determines where instructions
are to be executed and operation
to be performed and where the instruction is to be
located.
It fetches data from the main memory and puts it in
proper order for the processor and
also sends the processed results back to the main
memory.
It extracts instructions from the main memory and
decides and exerts them calling on ALU when
necessary.
SPECIAL PURPOSE MEMORIES. A part from the
RAM and ROM, There are other several types of
special memories found within the systems unit.
These memories are very vital because they
generally increase the performance of data and
instructions moving in and out of the CPU. These
memories include;
Buffer.
This is a temporary holding place that may be put in
the CPU or built input and output devices. This is
because the CPU is very fast compared to the input
devices. Buffer provides temporary storage so that
the CPU is set free from doing other activities
instead to wait for all data to be entered or
information to be output. .e.g. since a printer cannot
work at the speed of the CPU, the printer buffers
temporarily, holds the output to be printed hence
forcing the CPU to perform other functions. Buffer
can hold more than one piece of data at a time.
Cache Memory.
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor
memory which can speed up the CPU. It acts as a
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buffer between the CPU and the main memory. It is
used to hold those parts of data and program which
are most frequently used by the CPU. The parts of
data and programs are transferred from the disk to
cache memory by the operating system, from where
the CPU can access them.
Advantages
 Cache memory is faster than main memory.
 It consumes less access time as compared to main
memory.
 It stores the program that can be executed within a
short period of time.
 It stores data for temporary use.
Disadvantages
 Cache memory has limited capacity.
 It is very expensive.
1. Expansion slots. These are empty sockets
connections found on the mother board where other
components are plugged to allow an extended life/
service of the computer e.g. You can plug in sound
card, video cards, memory chips, network cards etc.
these are connected to the buses which carry data
to and from the processor.
Peripheral hardware. Peripheral hardware is the
name for the computer components that are not
found within the computer case. This includes input
devices such as a mouse, microphone and
keyboard, which carry information from the
computer user to the processor, and output devices
such
as a monitor, printer and speakers, which display or
transmit information from the computer back to
the user.
Ports A port is a physical docking point using which
Serial Port (left)
Parallel Port (right)
PS/2 Ports
VGA Port
TRS (mini-jack)
PS/2 Port
 Used for old computer keyboard and mouse
 Also called mouse port
 Most of the old computers provide two PS/2 port,
Compiled by Eddy Musenze 0788120598
an external device can be connected to the
computer. It can also be programmatic docking
point through which information flows from a
program to the computer or over the Internet.
Characteristics of Ports A port has the following
characteristics −
 External devices are connected to a computer
using cables and ports.
 Ports are slots on the motherboard into which a
cable of external device is plugged in.
 Examples of external devices attached via ports
are the mouse, keyboard, monitor, microphone,
speakers, etc.
88 Let us now discuss a few important types of ports
−
Universal Serial Bus (or USB) Port
 It can connect all kinds of external USB devices
such as external hard disk, printer, scanner, mouse,
keyboard, etc.
 It was introduced in 1997.
 Most of the computers provide two USB ports as
minimum.
 Data travels at 12 megabits per seconds.
 USB compliant devices can get power from a USB
port.
Parallel Port.
This long and slender port is also no
longer commonly used, but was the most common
way of attaching a printer to a computer until the
introduction of USB ports (see below). The most
common parallel port has holes for 25 pins, but
other models were also manufactured.
VGA Port
 It is termed as video graphic array
Ports
USB Ports
USB Ports
Phone/Modem Jacks (top)
Ethernet Port (bottom)
each for the mouse and keyboard
Firewire Port
 Transfers large amount of data at very fast speed.
 Connects camcorders and video equipment to the
computer.
 Data travels at 400 to 800 megabits per seconds.
29
 Invented by Apple.
 It has three variants: 4-Pin FireWire 400
connector, 6-Pin FireWire 400 connector, and 9-Pin
FireWire 800 connector.
 Ethernet. Connects to a network and high speed
Internet.
 Connects the network cable to a computer.
 This port resides on an Ethernet Card.
 Data travels at 10 megabits to 1000 megabits per
seconds depending upon the network bandwidth.
Digital Video Interface, DVI port
 Connects Flat panel LCD monitor to the
computer's high-end video graphic cards.
 Very popular among video card manufacturers.
Output devices.
As the name sounds, these are devices which bring
out computer held information either on a soft
copy or hardcopy form.
NOTE; The difference between soft copy and hard
copy forms of output.
- Soft copy refers to computer held information in
intangible form. This form of output is neither
touched nor felt but is visible.
- Main examples are; monitors, loud speakers and
the projectors
- While hard copy refers to output that is in physical
form i.e. touched and felt.
The following are output devices
Printers.
These are devices which bring out computer held
information on hard copy form. The printer is the
most convenient device which can bring out
computer held information on a hard copy form
However, printers are categorized depending on the
way how they bring computer held information
i.e. touching the print medium or not. These are;
Impact printers. These are printers whose print head
touch the print medium during the process of
printing. They have print head which strike ink on
the media to produce an image or text on the paper.
These among others include daisy wheel, dot matrix
character, line printers etc.
Compiled by Eddy Musenze 0788120598
i. Dot matrix printers are capable of printing 40-300
characters per second and can also be used to
produce graphics though they are of poor quality.
ii. Character printers. These are ones which print a
single character per second. These printers are not
so commonly used because they are very slow
compared to other impact printers.
The advantage with them is that they can with stand
dusty environment though however they have a
poor quality output and worst of it all they are noisy
during the operation.
iii. Daisy wheel printers. These are ones which use a
wheel as a print head which rotates the hammer
and strikes the back side of the spoke and presses it
against the paper to print a character. Daisy
wheels can be best for printing letters. Daisy wheels
have become much more obsolete due to changes
in technology as they cannot be used to print
graphics, very slow during the process of printing
and
producing a lot of noise.
iv. Line printers. As the name sounds, these print
about 300 lines per minute and are much faster
compared to character printer. However, their
disadvantage is that due to their poor quality output,
they are not good for printing graphics .
Evaluation of impact printers
 They are relatively cheap compared to non-
impact printers
 They are can be used for different sizes of papers
such as A4s, A5s etc.
 However, they produce a lot of noise, they are
poor quality.
 They are very low processing speed compared to
non-impact printers.
Non-impact printers. These are ones whose print
head doesn‘t touch the print medium during the
process of printing. They have a high light intensity
known as laser which strike the paper thus creating
an in image. They are the most commonly used
printers because of their good quality output.
Examples include;
i. Laser jet printer. This is the most common printer
which is largely used in in institutions, government
and in businesses to print out documents. This is
30
because they have high quality printing output. forced out as it grows larger. These tiny holes of the
Laser jet have high light intensity which strike it on print head where ink passes are known as nozzles.
the paper thus creating an image. The advantage of Examples are; CanonBJC200
it is that they have high printing quality output even Evaluation of non- impact printers
on an ordinary paper, they are generally quiet and  Non-impact printers are very fast in printing.
faster though however they are the most expensive  They have a high quality output unlike the impact
and their tonner is so much hazardous to the printers
environment once exposed to it.  They produce less noise
Inkjet Printers Inkjet printers are non-impact  However, they are very expensive to purchase
character printers based on a relatively new and their maintenance cost is so high
technology. They print characters by spraying small  They are fit for specific papers which make them
drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high not compatible.
quality output with presentable features. They make
less noise because no hammering is done and these Differences between impact and non- impact
have many styles of printing modes available. Color printers
printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet Impact printers Non-impact
printers can produce multiple copies of printing printers
also.  Noisy during operation  Quiet
Advantages They are relatively cheap compared to during operation
laser printers They produce less noise They produce  Heads touch the print medium  Don‘t touch
high quality colored output the print medium
Disadvantages They have a low printing speed  Relatively cheap  Expensive
unlike the laser jet.  Relatively slower  More faster
They require specific papers (customized)  With stand dusty environment  Cant with
ii. Thermal jet printers. These are non- impact stand dusty environment
printers which use the thermal technology to print
characters on the paper. They use print heads which Plotters.
contain a hitting element called dot heaters. These These are ones that are used to produce heavy
dot heaters cause dots to appear on special papers. graphics such as maps, images etc. used by
These dots are created on papers in form of engineers in
characters architectural works accurately and thin or
Advantages meandering lines for relative drawings. They can be
- Consume less power compared too much more as the printer though for it
- Produce clear image has a pen like print head that can be accurately
- Generally quiet as they don‘t have any moving drawn bot
parts However, they use specialized papers since
ordinary ones would be burnt. -they are expensive Loud Speakers.
since their print heads can‘t be serviced once a Speakers are the most common devices that are used
single dot heater fails. - Their printing media have to produce sound on the computers with the
are short life span. help of sound cards. The quality of output produced
iv. Bubble jet printers. These are also known by a loud speaker is measured in watts of power
thermal ink jet printers which work by spraying tiny per output.
dots of ink on the print surface. These droplets of
ink are forced out inform of bubbles. The bubbles Monitors.
are formed because of hitting of the ink pump which Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit
makes the ink to form a bubble and this bubble is (VDU), are the main output device of a computer. It

31
Compiled by Eddy Musenze 0788120598
forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are
arranged in a rectangular form. The sharpness of the
image depends upon the number of pixels. There are
two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.
 Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)
 Flat-Panel Display
Cathode ray tube monitors. The CRT display is
made up of small picture elements called pixels. The
smaller the pixels, the better the image clarity or
resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel
to form a whole character, such as the letter ‗e‘ in
the word help.
A finite number of characters can be displayed on a
screen at once. The screen can be divided into a
series of character boxes - fixed location on the
screen where a standard character can be placed.
Most screens are capable of displaying 80 characters
of data horizontally and 25 lines vertically.
Advantages of CRTs
 They produce a fast and rich color output.
 Can be viewed from a wide angle.
 They are cheaper than LCD monitors
Disadvantages of CRTs
 They emit high electromagnetic radiation.
 They consume a lot of power.
Liquid crystal displays (LCDs). These use liquid
crystals to create images on the screen. They have
flat panel technology. LCDs are the most commonly
used now days because of their best quality
resolutions, consumption rate of power is low
compared CRTs and their portability however they
are much more expensive compared to CRTs.
Advantages of LCDs over CRTs
 They are more portable than CRTs
 They emit less little electromagnetic radiation
 They occupy a small space compared to CRTs.
 They emit less light.
 They consume less power.
Disadvantages of LCDs compared to CRTs
 They have a narrow viewing angle.
 They are more expensive.
 They don‘t have a clear resolution than those of
CRTs.
Compiled by Eddy Musenze 0788120598
Characteristics of monitors
 Size. This refer to the screen size which is
measured in inches such as 16 inch or size is also
measured basing on portrait or land scape.
 Resolution. This refer to how densely the dots on
the screen are packed. The dots are called picture
elements (pixels). The pixels on the screen make
pictures. The higher the pixels, the higher the
resolution NOTE: a pixel refers to dots in a graphic
image Chrome refer to color and poly means one
and there4 poly chrome means many colors i.e.
something displayed in a way it appears in real
sense
Projectors. These are softcopy outputs which are
used to display information on a wide screen. The
projectors are connected to the computer and the
projected to a white wall especially for the audience
prsentaion, home cinemas etc..
QN : Define the following terms as used in display
devices
I. Refresh rate
II. Video adapter (video card)
III. resolution
Note: Refresh list refers to the number of times a
display hardware updates its buffer.
This is measured in seconds.
STORAGE DEVICES.
These are ones which store data and information
which has been fed in the computer. They are
sometimes called back up devices. The storage of
information on medias is called saving. There are
two kinds of storage i.e. primary and permanent
storage.
Primary storage devices. Are ones which store data
temporarily as it is being entered in the computer.
These are often termed as called main memories.
These store data and instructions that are accessed
by the central processing unit (CPU). There are two
kinds of primary storage devices i.e. RAM and
ROM
RAM (random access memory)
The RAM well known as the heart of the computer.
It is used to store data and instructions that one is
currently working on. It is also used to store
32
programs which are being used at that particular
time. It
acts as work space where all other activities are
carried out.
This means that when so many programs are opened
at the same time, the computer will tend to be
slow as if one had so many files on the working
table.
NOTE; the speed of the computer depends largely
depends on the size of the RAM. The higher the
size of the RAM, the faster the speed of the
computer.
Characteristics of RAM
- It takes the 70% of the main memory
- It is a temporary storage and there4 its contents
can be erased when power goes off.
- The contents of the RAM can be changed or
removed.
- It is volatile i.e. loose data when power goes off.
- The contents of the RAM are user defined.
- It is measured in bytes.
RAM is of two types −
 Static RAM (SRAM)
 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
Static RAM (SRAM) The word static indicates that
the memory retains its contents as long as power is
being supplied. However, data is lost when the
power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM
chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors.
Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage,
so SRAM need not be refreshed on a regular basis.
There is extra space in the matrix, hence SRAM
uses more chips than DRAM for the same amount
of storage space, making the manufacturing costs
higher. SRAM is thus used as cache memory and
has very fast access.
Characteristic of Static RAM
 Long life
 No need to refresh
 Faster
 Used as cache memory
 Large size
 Expensive
 High power consumption
Compiled by Eddy Musenze 0788120598
Dynamic RAM (DRAM) DRAM, unlike SRAM,
must be continually refreshed in order to maintain
the data. This is done by placing the memory on a
refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred
times per second. DRAM is used for most system
memory as it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are
made up of memory cells, which are composed of
one capacitor and one transistor.
Characteristics of Dynamic RAM
 Short data lifetime
 Needs to be refreshed continuously
 Slower as compared to SRAM
 Used as RAM
 Smaller in size
 Less expensive
 Less power consumption
ROM (Read only memory).
The ROM is also another primary storage however
it can never be erased or edited. It contains set of
instructions that guide the operation of the computer
i.e. booting files and others which enable the
proper running of the computer. These sets of
instructions are written on during the manufacturer‘s
time and are embedded within the computer system
and there4 they are kept permanent even when
power is off. The computer and the user read these
instructions and can‘t neither write nor change
them
Characteristics of ROM
o Its contents can be read but can‘t be written to;
that is why it is called read only memory. However
there are specific ROM which have been
manufactured and can be written to after its contents
have
been deleted.
o It is nonvolatile and there4 can‘t lose power when
power goes off.
o It stores instructions permanently. These are called
firmware.
o Its contents are permanent and ther4 cannot be
changed
33
o It occupies the least percentage of the memory i.e.
30%
Types of ROM
MROM (Masked ROM) The very first ROMs were
hard-wired devices that contained a pre-
programmed set of data or instructions. These kind
of ROMs are known as masked ROMs, which are
inexpensive.
PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory) PROM
is read-only memory that can be modified only once
by a user. The user buys a blank PROM and enters
the desired contents using a PROM program. Inside
the PROM chip, there are small fuses which are
burnt open during programming. It can be
programmed only once and is not erasable.
EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only
Memory) EPROM can be erased by exposing it to
ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40 minutes.
Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function.
During programming, an electrical charge is trapped
in an insulated gate region. The charge is retained
for more than 10 years because the charge has no
leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet
light is passed through a quartz crystal window (lid).
This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the
charge. During normal use, the quartz lid is sealed
with a sticker.
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable
Read Only Memory) EEPROM is programmed and
erased electrically. It can be erased and
reprogrammed about ten thousand times. Both
erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms
(millisecond). In EEPROM, any location can be
selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs can
be erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing the
entire chip. Hence, the process of reprogramming is
flexible but slow.
Advantages of ROM
 Non-volatile in nature
 Cannot be accidentally changed
 Cheaper than RAMs
 Easy to test
 More reliable than RAMs
 Static and do not require refreshing
 Contents are always known and can be verified
Compiled by Eddy Musenze 0788120598
Over view of RAM and ROM
 Random access memory
 Can be erased
 It is volatile
 Its size can be changed or increased.
 Stores data temporary
 Read only memory
 Can’t be erased
 Non volatile
 Its size can’t be changed or increased.
 Stores data and instructions permanently.
Permanent storage; these are ones which seemingly
store information permanently so as to be used for
further references. Frequently external devices are
commonly used because of their reliability i.e.
anything may happen to the computer such as
system crashing. This process of storing on external
disks is called backing.
These are;
1. Hard disk.
This is the main computers storage where
documents and files are stored before being output.
They a rigid magnetic tapes which are mounted
permanently within the drive. These have a high
storage capacity which range from kilo bytes (KB),
megabytes (MB), gigabytes (GB), terra bytes (TB),
and petabytes (TB).
Advantages
 They store vast amounts of information compared
to any storage device. Though they vary in size .i.e.
20GB, 40GB, 80GB, 160GB and up to 500GB.
 Information on hard disk can survive for a very
long time since they are always in use though
however some of them fail to work due to over long
period of time without being used.
 Hard disks are secure as they reside inside the
computer system.
Disadvantages
 They may fail to work due to violent shaking and
vibrations. This is why it is advised not to move
system unit when the power is on.
 They are easily attacked by viruses which makes
data loss especially if the system is unprotected.
 Information on hard disc is easily hacked once
hackers invade the computer
 They are expensive in terms of costs.
34
 They are difficult to carry as they reside inside the  They store large amounts of information on a
computer. This has made the transfer of information relatively small space.
difficult. With the recent changes in technology,  They are relatively cheap compared to hard discs
external hard discs have been introduced on the Demerits.
world market which has eased the transfer of heavy  Their destruction rate is so high since a single
files from one pc to another. scratch on the disc can lead to data loss.
Units of the computer held information  They store less information compared to hard
Information kept in computer memory in form of discs.
binary digits. These are represented by 0 and 1‘s  In case of any theft, information can‘t be regained
Every word or character is stored in the computer as back.
binary digit i.e. 0 or 1. These binary digits are  They are most cases affected by viruses
abbreviated as BITS
 CDs and DVD ROMS are read only and this in
Bit. This refers the standard unit of a computer
long run affects editing.
memory.
 Some CD types may not be round by all computer
A sequence of 8bits is called a BYTE
e.g. for a computer to read DVD‘s. It must have a
Byte refers to the smallest unit of the computer
DVD drive which is not common in most computers
memory/ storage capacity.
today.
A nibble. This refer to a collection of four
Types of CDs and DVDs CD-ROM & DVD ROM.
characters.
No data can be written to these but they are only
There4; 1nibble=4characters
read. Data on these can be hardware. The user
1byte =8bits The following table lists some higher
cannot change these instructions on CD but just read
storage units −
them. This is why they are known as read only
memory. CD-R & DVD-R Both of these accept
1. Kilobyte (KB) 1 KB = 1024 Bytes
recording only once and the information written on
2. Megabyte (MB) 1 MB = 1024 KB
them can never be edited or deleted. This means a
3. GigaByte (GB) 1 GB = 1024 MB
single reading means they automatically becomes a
4. TeraByte (TB) 1 TB = 1024 GB
CD-ROM and DVD-ROM automatically. CD-RW
5. PetaByte (PB) 1 PB = 1024 TB
& DVD- RW These are ones which accept and
QN. How many bits are the word ―topologies?‖
allow one to delete information on them and re use
them. This why they are called re-writable.
2. Compact disks (CD-ROM), Digital versatile
However they are very much expensive and very
disks (DVD-ROM) etc.
scarce in current market.
Compact discs well known as CDs have come up
with high storage and have replaced the floppy
3. Floppy disks.
disks. They are optical in nature used to hold pre-
These are small plastic magnetic disks enclosed in a
recorded texts, graphics and sound. They are
stiff envelope with a radial slit; used to store data
external devices which store large amounts data
and information for a microcomputer. Floppy disks
which is about 700mbs and new
have a small size of 3.1 inch and have a low storage
103 discs well known as DVDs have backed the size
capacity of about 32KBs where less information
of CDs thus the size increasing to Gigabytes. These
such as word processing, spread sheets etc. Cn be
have the capacity of transferring large files.
stored. They are noted for their slow speed and their
Advantages.
cheap price. The floppy disks are inserted in a
 They are portable thus transfer of information
mechanism called floppy disk drive. This
from one computer to another is possible.
drive spins on a high speed as data is being written
 They are reliable or read. They are found in 3 basic sizes;
 Information on them can last for over 100years. 8 inches, 3.5 inches and 2 inches. These might be
35
Compiled by Eddy Musenze 0788120598
either double density (DD) or high density diskettes
(HDD) which are cross all the 3sizes. However, the
first 2sizes i.e. 2inch and 3.5 inch diskette are
slower and slowly disappearing from the market.
The 3.5 hdd are now common ones with the
capacity
of 1.44s
Advantages of floppy
 They are portable hence the transfer of
information from one computer to another is
possible.
 They carry numerous sizes of data compared to
their size. The floppy disk is 3.5 inch in diameter
and
it can fit in a shirt pocket but can carry a whole rim
of texts.
 Data on floppy can be accessed within a short
time.
Disadvantages
 It can lose data so quickly once the magnetic
media is exposed to magnetic field.
 They store less information compared to other
devices.
 They are so expensive since their destruction rate
is so high. Thus resulting into purchasing new ones.
How to care and maintain disks
 Don‘t fold or spindle them.
 Don‘t put them near magnetic field such as
radios, speakers, CPU etc.
 Don‘t drop it on hard surfaces such as floors.
 Keep them from intensive heat.
 Remove them from the drive be4 turning off the
computer.
 Never expose them to direct sunlight for a long
period of time.
4. Flash discs. These are of recent technology which
are being used to store and ease the transfer of large
files from one computer to another. They are much
more like hard disks but for them are
external. Unlike the floppy discs, the flash disks
have a high storage capacity ranging from 1GB to
64GB thus easing the transfer of files. However,
flash discs have been blamed for their major spread
of viruses via computers. This is because viruses do
attach themselves on files being transferred from
one computer to another.
Compiled by Eddy Musenze 0788120598
5. ZIP disks. These are related to hard disks that can
be removed from their drives. They are medium
storage devices which are similar to a floppy disk
drive but using disks with a much larger capacity.
(100, 250, or 750 MB, compared to a normal floppy
disk capacity of 1.44 MB). These are most
commonly used for storage of files on the internet
and have eased the sharing of the files by the same
users connected via the same network.
6. Punched cards. These are among the first forms
of storage devices in computer. They were mainly
used in the 1 st and 2nd generation of computers.
They are flat consisting of rows and columns. For
storage, the card would be put in the computer and
would punch rows into rows of characters to show
data stored. To read the word, the computer would
just put a hole together to make a word.
Disadvantages of punched cards
- Due to the fact that they were made of paper, they
would be easily get destroyed by moisture,
cockroaches etc.
- Their storage capacities were very small .i.e. just
for few sentences made of 24 characters long.
- Storing punched cards was very bulky as few
sentences would only be stored.
Storage media drives
A drive refers to a slot of opening where a disk is
inserted in the computer system.
Drives are hardware components which enable the
computer user to read and write on storage
Medias. They enable the computer users to back up
files and programs for future use.
QN; distinguish between saving and backing up
During the write process, the drive rotates or spins
the media and in the process the drive converts
electric signals that represent data into magnetic
field on the media.
When reading data from the disk, the drive spins the
disk and magnetic field that represent data are
backed into electric signals.
Various medias for storage have got their respective
drives in which they are contained during their
real write process. The drives are represented by
letters of alphabets plus a colon;
DRIVE TYPE DRIVE LETTER
36
3.2 Floppy disk drive (FDD) (A :)
5.2 Floppy drive (B :)
Hard disk drive (HDD) (C :)
CD (D :)
Flash (E-Z)
Communication devices
 Cards. This term is used to describe important
tools that allow your computer to connect and
communicate with various input and output devices.
The term ―card‖ is used because these items are
relatively flat in order to fit into the slots provided in
the computer case. A computer will probably have a
sound card, a video card, a network card and a
modem.
 Data buses. These are highway on which data
travels to different ports of the computer using data
buses. Data can move from the keyboard to the main
memory and to the monitor so that it can be
observed by a user.

Topic 3: COMPUTER SOFTWARE

COMPUTER SOFTWARE
Defn:
Software is a collection of instructions that enable the user to interact with a computer, its hardware, or
perform tasks.
It‘s a set of instructions that command hardware devices on what to do.
It is classified into,
Illustration of the divisions in software;

software

application
system software
software

special purpose general purpose

operating system programming
utility software software(tailor software(off the
software languages
made software) shelf software)

System software
This refers to programs that control the way the
computer operates.
The system software are embedded within the
computer system and these are well known as
computer programs. The system software is
classified into 3;
I. Operating system software
II. System utilities (utility programs)
III. Programming languages.
Operating System
Definition.
An Operating system is a set of programs that is
used to manage the basic hardware resources of a
computer.
This is the main program that controls the execution
of user applications, and enables the user to access
the hardware & software resources of the computer.

37
Compiled by Eddy Musenze 0788120598
When the computer is switched on, the OS
programs run & check to ensure that all parts of the
computer are functioning properly.
Operating system‘s platform.
In a data processing environment, the user sees a
computer as a group of application programs that
enable him/her to accomplish specific tasks.
However, application programs do not use the
hardware devices directly. They send messages
through the operating system which has the
capability to give instructions to the hardware to
perform a particular task.
The user communicates his/her intentions to the OS
through the use of a special instruction set known as
Commands.

User

(Runs Application programs)

Application software

(Send users requests to the OS)

Operating system

(Receives & controls execution of Application programs)

Hardware

(Receives & executes OS commands)

As in this diagram, the OS is a layer of software on
top of the bare hardware, and is used to manage all
parts of computer hardware & also act as an
interface between the user & the computer.
The OS monitors & controls computer operations so
that the user can do useful work on the computer,
and it also enables Application programs use the
hardware in a proper, orderly and efficient way.
NB. The programs that make up the Operating
system are too large to fit in main memory at one
time. These programs are usually installed on a
direct access backing storage device, such as the
hard disk.
When the Supervisor needs a particular program, it
is read from the disk & loaded into the RAM
memory, where it can be executed.

An OS consists of a special program called a Reasons why an Operating system is

Supervisor (Kernel/ Executive), which is stored in needed in a computer (why
ROM of the Main Memory. The Supervisor/Kernel
operating systems were developed).
contains the most necessary commands and
 Modern computer systems are so complex &
procedures & controls the running of all other
fast such that they need internal control.
programs, each performing a particular service.
38
Compiled by Eddy Musenze 0788120598
 To ensure that the full system software facilities
are readily available.
 Due to the complexity of systems, jobs need to
be controlled in what they are allowed to do for
security.
 To increase the throughput, i.e., to increase the
amount of data that can be processed through the
system in a given period of time.
 Improve communication between the user & the
computer.
 To make complex tasks very simple for the user
to carry out.
 It helps the computer to correct any problem that
might occur.
 When an error occurs that can cause the
computer to stop functioning, a diagnostic
message is displayed. The meaning of the
message is then checked in the computer
operations manual.
 Reduces job setup time.
 When one job is running, other programs can be
read onto the job queue. The Input/Output
devices can also be made ready without delay.
 Most computers allow many programs to be run
& also many users to use the system at the same
time.
Devices/ resources under the control of
an Operating System
A computer is composed of a set of software-
controlled resources that enable movement, storage
and processing of data & information.
As a resource manager, the OS manages the
following basic resources/ devices: -
 Processor.
 Main memory (RAM).
 Secondary storage devices.
 Input/ Output devices and their Ports.
 Communication devices and their Ports.
 Files.
FUNCTIONS OF AN OPERATING SYSTEM.
The OS creates a working environment in which the
user can run programs. The general functions of the
operating system are:
Compiled by Eddy Musenze 0788120598
Processor management
The processor is a scarce resource. It executes tasks
called processes.
A Multi-tasking computer system can run several
applications simultaneously. At times, several tasks
may require processing, hence creating competition.
However, the CPU can only execute one program at
any one time.
Therefore, access to the CPU must be carefully
controlled & monitored. The OS must decide,
which program will be allowed into the system, and
for how long.
To do this, the OS arranges the tasks according to
priority and has the ability to stop a particular task
to allow the processor to service another task.
Memory allocation & loading of
programs.
Programs must be loaded into memory before they
can be executed, and moved out of memory when
they are no longer required. Therefore, before
processing starts, the OS ensures that the programs
are transferred into the available memory location in
the Main memory from the backing store, e.g. a
disk.
At any one given time, a number of tasks may
require the memory so that they can be accessed &
processed by the computer. The computer memory
is a scarce resource, and therefore, the OS must
determine which task will remain in memory
awaiting for execution and which one will be sent
back to secondary storage to wait.
The OS keeps track of what parts of memory are in
use and by which program, and what parts are free.
The OS also handles the data files used by the
programs that are being executed by the CPU.
In addition, the OS ensures that storage space is
provided for data generated by programs & during
data transfer operations such as, disk copying or
printing.
Input/ Output devices & ports
management.
Every computer has many Input & Output (I/O)
devices. The OS controls the input from & output
to the various devices. It also tries to monitor the
39
state of each I/O device and signals any faults
detected.
During the course of their execution, programs will
request the use of an Input or Output device. In a
multi-user system, conflicts are likely to occur when
one program requests a device that is being used by
another program. Therefore, the OS will control
allocation of I/O devices and attempt to resolve any
conflicts that arise.
Because most input/output devices are slower than
the processor, the OS has to control the flow of data
from the time of input to the time the user receives it
as information. It ensures that the right data reaches
the processor at the right time.
The OS also defines the various input/output ports
found on the computer, e.g., printer port.
Management of secondary storage
devices.
The OS manages the storage & retrieval of data on
secondary storage devices. It also utilizes the free
space on hard disks to enhance the performance of
the computer by temporarily holding tasks on it that
were in RAM ready for processing but have to wait
for some time.
Management of communication
devices & ports.
Communication refers to how the various devices
and programs in & out of the computer system send
& receive messages from one another and from the
processor.
The OS controls the communication process
between the various tasks & the computer.
To achieve external communication, an external
device is usually connected to a communication port
using cables or wireless communication media.
File management.
The OS is concerned with the logical organization
of the information (the File System) and provides a
means through which files can be sorted, retrieved
& shared.
It also provides a means of protecting data files &
programs against unauthorized access and
corruption.
Compiled by Eddy Musenze 0788120598
Job scheduling.
The OS arranges & loads programs in order to
provide a continuous sequence of processing & also
provide the appropriate responses to events.
The processor can handle only one task at a time.
Therefore, in a situation where more than one
application program is occupying the main storage,
the OS has to determine which task will be
processed first and ensures that the one that is
currently being processed is closely monitored to
avoid wasting time in the processor.
The jobs are allocated priorities so as to ensure that
there is continuous processing until all the jobs
within the memory are executed. This ensures that
the CPU does not remain idle at any given instance.
Some of the job scheduling functions include:
Controlling the loading & running of programs.
Communicating directly with users and/or the
operator.
Dealing with user commands to organize files and
run programs.
NB: A Job is a group of tasks taken as a unit of
work for a computer, e.g., one or more computer
programs, files, & instructions, to the operating
system.
Job sequencing
The OS keeps a list of jobs/tasks currently being run
and monitors them as they move in & out of the
processor. It also arranges them in a particular order
to make it easy for the processor to execute them
and to know how & when to fetch instructions &
data for each task.
Resource control and allocation
The OS controls the selection & operation of
hardware devices used for input, output and storage.
The OS determines which task uses a particular
resource and at what time. To do this, it gives each
resource a unique identification number called an
Interrupt number so that, when two tasks request to
use a resource at the same time, the one with higher
priority interrupt is granted control.
This prevents an undesirable situation called
deadlock that occurs when a particular task holds a
needed resource & refuses to release it for use by
other tasks.
40
Error reporting & correction routines
The OS has many ways of reporting to the user of
any errors that occur during program execution. It
does this by monitoring the status of the computer
system & performing error checks on both hardware
and software.
When the user makes an error, the OS through the
Kernel determines the cause of the error, and prints
diagnostic messages on the screen suggesting
appropriate routines of how the error can be
corrected.
In case of a fatal error that cannot be corrected, the
program will be suspended permanently. E.g., the
user program will prematurely terminate when it
encounters an illegal operation, such as, dividing a
no. by 0 or if it attempts to read a data file that had
not been opened.
Interrupt handling
An Interrupt is a break from the normal sequential
processing of instructions in a program.
Each hardware device communicates to the
processor using a special number called the
Interrupt Request number (IRQ). Therefore, when
an interrupt occurs, control is passed to the Kernel,
which determines the cause of the interrupt. The
processor stops executing the current program to
wait for the corrective response of the user. Control
is returned to the program that was interrupted once
corrective action has been taken.
Some causes of Interrupt.
An Interrupt caused by Power failure.
The Kernel saves vital information using the dying
power supply so that it can be restarted when power
is returned.
Arithmetic or logic errors.
When the ALU detects that an error has occurred,
(e.g., the output may be requested to a non-existent
device) it generates a signal that causes an interrupt.
Control is transferred to the Kernel, which indicates
the appropriate error correction routines.
Hardware malfunction, e.g. parity errors.
The I/O control for each device & its associated
hardware normally takes care of parity checking. If
a parity error is detected, the Kernel is notified by
an interrupt.
Compiled by Eddy Musenze 0788120598
Device driver - a software that the OS uses to
control a specific piece of hardware.
Interfaces the user to the system‘s
hardware.
The OS provides quick means of communication
between the computer user & its programs.
The user requests the services of the OS by use of
commands & the OS communicates the messages
regarding the processing to the user through, either
the screen or printer. Thus, a form of ‗conversation‘
is established between the OS & the computer user.
Logging & accounting.
The OS keeps records (internal logs) on how the
computer‘s resources, e.g., CPU time, memory
usage, & the peripherals are being used. It also
keeps a complete record of all that happens during
processing (usually in the form of a printed log).
The OS protects hardware, software & data from
improper use. They ensure that application
programs use the hardware in an efficient way.
Examples of operating systems:
DOS (Disk Operating System).
Windows operating system.
MacOS (Macintosh).
Unix.
Linux.
Characteristics of an operating system.
An OS should have the following characteristics:
Reliable.
The OS should be at least as reliable as the hardware
on which it runs. If a software or hardware error
occurs, the system should be able to detect the error
and either try to correct the problem or try to
minimize the damage to the users of the system
from the error.
Protected.
A user doesn‘t want other users to interfere with
him. Therefore, the system should protect users
from being affected both by errors of other users
and by malicious attempts at tampering.
Efficient.
The OS is usually a complex program that uses a
large part of the hardware resources for its own
41
functions. The resources consumed by the OS are
not available for users.
Therefore, the system itself should be very efficient,
& should manage user‘s resources to minimize their
idle time.
Convenient.
Systems should be designed keeping users in mind.
Therefore, an OS should be flexible & convenient to
use. In addition, in order to allow the sharing of
resources, the OS must be in complete control of the
allocation of the computer resources.
Predictable.
User demands on the system are generally
unpredictable. At the same time, users prefer to get
service that does not vary widely over extended
periods of time. An estimate as to when the user
will get his input should be given.
Revision Questions
Name two major reasons why it became necessary
to use an Operating system.
(a). Identify FOUR resources that the Operating
system should manage.
(b). What function should the Operating system
perform to manage each of the resources above?
List and explain any five general functions of an
operating system.
What is meant by the term Job in computer studies?
Name four examples of operating systems.
CLASSIFICATION OF OPERATING
SYSTEMS.
The OS determines determine the type of processing
that a computer system is able to perform, since it
controls the allocation & use of the computer
resources.
Operating systems can be classified according to:
Number of tasks that the system can perform
concurrently.
Single-tasking (program) operating system.
Multi-tasking operating system.
Number of users the system can support at the same
time.
Single-user operating systems.
Multi-user operating systems.
Compiled by Eddy Musenze 0788120598
Human Computer interface (i.e., how the user & the
computer interact).
Command line.
Menu driven interface.
Graphical user interface (GUI).
Classification according to tasks
handled concurrently.
Single-tasking OS.
Single-tasking OS allows only one user-program in
the main memory to be processed at a particular
time.
This means that, the user can only run one
interactive program at a time. The user must then
exit from the program before loading & running
another program.
Example of a single user OS;
MS-DOS.
Multi-tasking (Multiprogramming) OS.
A Multi-tasking OS allows a single CPU to
execute/process more than one program, all of
which are in memory, at the same time.
Each program is allocated a time-slice. In this case,
the programs take turns at short intervals of
processing time. The CPU switches its attention
between programs as it receives requests for
processing, executing statements from one program,
and then from another.
The programs to be run are loaded into the memory
and the CPU begins execution of the first one.
When the request is satisfied, the second program is
brought into memory and execution starts on the
second program, and so on.
Note. In multi-programming, the computer is able to
work on several programs at the same time. It
works on the programs on sequence, one after the
other, and that at any given instant it executes
instructions from one program only. However, the
computer works so quickly that it appears to be
executing the programs simultaneously.
Classification according to number of
users.
Single-user OS.
42
A single-user OS is designed to be used by only one
person. It allows only one user/person to operate
the machine at a time in an interactive,
conversational mode, and runs only one user
program at a time, e.g. MS-DOS.
Multi-user (or multi access) OS.
A multi-user OS allows more than one user ( many
people) to interactively use/access the computer at
the same time.
Examples;
UNIX,
Novell Netware,
Ms-Windows 2000,
Ms-Windows NT,
Linux, etc
Classification according to Human
Computer Interface (HCI).
The term Human Computer Interface (HCI) refers
to the method of interaction between the computer
& the user, and determines how easily the user can
operate the computer.
The HCI enables communication to & from between
the user and the computer.
User-friendliness.
HCI is expected to be ―user-friendly‖, i.e., it should
be one that the end-user finds helpful, and easy to
learn & use.
Features/characteristics of a user-friendly HCI.
It should be relatively easy for the user to try to start
using the system.
The system should be self-contained, so that the
user is not forced into accessing manuals.
The amount of effort & the information required for
the user to get the system complete required tasks
should be minimal.
The system should be robust & reliable, i.e., the user
should be protected from unexpected system
actions, including system failures.
The system should be able to adjust to different
levels of expertise between users & also as users
grow in competence.
The user should be made to feel in control of what is
going on.
Compiled by Eddy Musenze 0788120598
The system should behave in a logical & consistent
manner, enabling the user to reason about what is
going on and apply what has been learned.
Types of User interfaces.
There are different types of Human Computer
Interfaces:
 Command driven interface.
 Menu driven interface.
 Graphical User Interface (GUI).
Command driven interface.
This is an interaction between the user & the
computer that requires the use of commands
The user types a command at the prompt found on a
command line. The computer then reads
instructions from the command line and executes
them.
Example;
To copy a file called Fruits.Dat from Hard disk C to
Floppy disk A using MS-DOS; type
C:\ >COPY Fruits.Dat A:\ (press the Enter key for
the command to be executed).
Commands enable the user to quickly instruct the
computer what to do.
Command-driven software is more flexible, but it is
more difficult to learn. The user must know what
commands are available, what they do & how they
should be typed. For this reason, commands are
most popular with experienced technical persons,
such as computer Operators, Programmers or in
situations where the end-user continually works
with the same program and has therefore mastered
the commands.
To make commands more user-friendly, the
following points need to be observed: -
The command words used should be descriptive
VERBS that clearly convey the intended action,
e.g., PRINT, COPY, RENAME, DELETE, etc.
Unique abbreviations should be provided for more
experienced users, e.g., PRI, COP, REN, DEL,
CHKDSK, etc.
Multiple items on a single command line should
ALWAYS be separated by blank spaces.
E.g., PRINT can be used in the following ways: -
PRINT Report1 – prints the named document on the
default printer.
43
PRINT Report1 Report2 Report3 – prints the three
documents on the default printer.
Examples of Command line interfaces:
MS-DOS,
Early versions of PC-DOS, OS/2, and UNIX.
Disadvantages of using command driven
interfaces
 They are more difficult to learn.
 The user must know the command to type.
 It is less user-friendly.
 It is not easy to use, i.e., one is required to
master the command format/syntax.
Menu driven interface
This type of interface provides the user with a list of
program commands displayed on the screen to
choose from & a simple means of selecting between
them.
To activate a choice in the menu, one can use the
Enter key, or move the cursor until it is positioned at
the desired choice & then press the activation key so
that the system can start acting upon the information
given.
This interface is suitable for beginners and
infrequent users who may have difficulties in
remembering commands.
There are 2 types of menus: -
Pull-down menus – are special types of menu used
mostly in Windows.
Pop-up menus & Pop-down menus. These menus
are made to appear above or below an item on the
screen in order to elicit/obtain a choice from a user.
Later versions of DOS have a menu driven interface
called the DOS Shell or DOS Editor.
Advantages of Menu driven interfaces
Menus provide many options to select from.
The user is presented with a choice and therefore,
does not need to master any commands.
They are easier to use.
Graphical User Interface (GUI)
This is an interaction between the user & computer
that involves issuing of commands to the computer
by activating certain small graphic images displayed
on the screen called Icons.
Compiled by Eddy Musenze 0788120598
To issue a command, the icons can be selected using
a pointing device like a Mouse.
GUI is mostly found on Workstations or PCs fitted
with graphic adapters able to support high-
resolution graphics.
Examples of GUI based OS;
Presentation manager of OS/2,
Ms-Windows, Linux, Apple Macintosh.
Features of a graphical user interface.
 Programs are represented graphically by use of
Icons.
 Commands are selected and issued using
pointing devices, e.g., Mouse, trackball.
 There is use of pull-down menus.
 Programs open by displaying windows.
Advantages of using GUI based OS
 They are user friendly.
 Easy to learn & use.
Revision Questions
What criteria are used to classify types of operating
systems?
(a) Differentiate between multi-user and
multitasking operating systems.
(b) State any computer software that can be
classified as a Multi-user operating system.
Name three types of user interfaces employed by
different commercial Operating systems.
(a) Differentiate between command-line
interface and graphical user interface operating
systems based on the way commands are entered.
(b) State two main advantages of GUI
interfaces.
Factors to consider when choosing an operating
system.
The following factors should be considered when
choosing an operating system for a computer;
 Hardware configuration of the computer, e.g.,
RAM memory size, hard disk capacity, type of
processor, etc.
 Basic design of the computer, - i.e., is it an IBM
or IBM compatible, or an Apple computer?
 Hardware compatibility.
44
 User needs (requirements), i.e., the applications
intended for the computer.
 User friendliness or Human computer interface,
i.e., is it Command line based, Menu-driven or a
Graphical user interface?
 Availability in the market, e.g. Microsoft
Windows based OS are very common.
 Portability.
 Cost – how expensive the OS is.
 Reliability, i.e., can it run without crashing or
hanging (stop responding to commands).
 The method of communication with the
computer, e.g. the number of peripherals.
 The method of operating the computer.
WINDOWS OPERATING SYSTEMS.
Windows operating system was developed as a
Graphical User Interface (GUI) for PCs running on
MS-DOS.
It provides a friendly interface that allows the users
to enter commands by pointing and clicking at
objects that appear on the screen using a pointing
device, e.g., a Mouse or a trackball. These graphical
capabilities make a program easier to use.
Microsoft Windows takes its name from the on-
screen ―Window‖ that it uses to display information.
A Window is a rectangular portion/ area of the
screen that Windows sets aside for a specific task.
A Window is a rectangular area on a display screen
in which text and graphical images may be
displayed.
Examples of Windows operating systems:
Microsoft Windows 95, 98, 2000 Professional,
2003, NT, Millennium (Me), XP, and Vista.
Linux, UNIX, MacOS, OS/2.
Common features of Windows operating systems:-
They all have similar user-interfaces. For example;
Windows.
Pointing device – a device such as a mouse or
trackball, that enables the user to select objects on
the display screen.
Pointer – a symbol (arrow) that appears on the
display screen, and can be used to select objects &
commands.
Icons – small graphical pictures that represent
commands, files, or applications. By moving the
Compiled by Eddy Musenze 0788120598
pointer to the icon and pressing a mouse button, one
can execute a command or convert the icon into a
window.
Buttons – items used to initiate a process in an
application.
Menus – they provide choices that let the user
execute commands by selecting them.
Desktop – this is the area on the display screen
where icons are grouped.
It is user-friendly. Windows is menu driven, hence
easy to operate, because the options used in
particular applications are usually displayed on the
screen in form of Icons.
All Windows operating system support multiple
users & have the ability to Multi-task, i.e., they
allow one to run more than one program at the same
time, each in its own window.
It is easy to exchange information between
Windows applications, i.e., it is easy to transfer or
copy information from one program to another.
All Windows applications share a common set of
commands. For example, Open, Save, Print, etc &
therefore, you don‘t need to learn a different set of
commands for each application.
Ability to handle long file names, e.g., Windows 95
and later versions accept file names of up to 255
characters including spaces.
Most Windows operating systems have Plug and
play (PnP) features. They automatically accept a
new hardware once it is connected to the computer.
Advantages of Windows Operating
Systems
 It is easy to open programs, find documents, and
switch between programs.
 Windows provide facilities such as the Windows
Explorer, which enable one to browse through &
manage you files, folders, and drives easily.
 Windows can support long file names, making it
easier to find and organize files.
 Windows has improved Video, CD & sound
capabilities, and can fully support MS-DOS-
based games.
 Windows makes it easier to install new
hardware devices onto the system. It is able to
recognize and sets up a certain Plug-and-Play
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 hardware whose card has been inserted in the
computer automatically.
 Windows allows true Multitasking, i.e. it allows
the user to run more than one (several) program
at the same time, each in its own window.
 Windows is user-friendly, i.e., it is menu driven,
hence easy to operate, because the options used
in particular programs are usually displayed on
the screen in form icons.
 Windows supports a wide choice of networks &
transmission protocols. It also has facilities for
sharing files & devices.
 Windows has facilities that allow people to work
with all types of electronic communications,
e.g., it allows people to send text messages,
transfer files, and also hold digital live face-to-
face conversations with family friends &
business associates around the world.
Differences between Ms-Windows & Disk Operating System.
Ms-Windows MS-DOS
 There are icons
 Uses both the Mouse & Keyboard as Input devices.
 There is use of Menus.
 User-friendly.
 Windows fully supports networking.
 Requires a computer with high memory size.
 Windows can support DOS, i.e. it is possible to run
DOS-based programs in Windows.
 Uses Multi-coloured screen.
 It is a Multi-user OS.
 It is a multi-tasking OS, i.e. can support more than 1
program at a time.
 Comes in different versions.
 Uses folders for storage of files.
Review Questions
Give FOUR advantages of which Windows based Operating system software has over Disk Operating
System software.
(a). List Four types of Windows versions.
(b). Why is Windows termed as a friendly Operating system?
List four key features of the Windows Operating environment.
Compiled by Eddy Musenze 0788120598
 Windows includes My Briefcase, a file
synchronization tool & a utility for transferring
files over a direct cable link or dial-up
networking.
 All Windows applications share a common set
of commands. E.g., Open, Save, Print, etc &
therefore, there is no need to learn a different set
of commands for each application.
 Windows allows movement of text or items
from one program to another. i.e., it is easy to
exchange information between Windows
applications.
 Windows has facilities that enable the computer
to save power resources by putting the computer
on standby or hibernation.
 Windows includes a Help system that makes
your computer easier to use. It helps you find
answers to your questions easily, or get up-to
date technical support from the WWW.
 No Icons
 Only the Keyboard is used as Input device.
 It is command-based.
 Not user-friendly.
 DOS cannot support networking.
 Uses less memory compared to Windows.
 DOS cannot support Windows, i.e. it is not possible to run
Window-based programs in MS-DOS.
 Uses monochrome (1 coloured) screen.
 It is a single-user OS.
 It is a single-tasking OS, i.e. can only support one
program at a time.
 MS-DOS is an operating system by itself.
 Uses Directories to organize files.
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SYSTEM UTILITIES.
These programs are specifically designed to another.
maintain the performance. Unlike the operating 4. Tracing & Debugging utility.
system, This is a utility which eases the detection and
system utilities work on foundation set by the removing of burgs in the computer. Burgs refer
operating system. Thus, one can say that a computer errors in a program.
can work without system utilities but can‘t work 5. Merging utility.
without the operating system. This is because it is a This is the ones which allows one to combine
platform for other programs to operate. These different files into one.
include; 6. Renaming utility.
This the one which allows one to re-allocate another
1. Antivirus. name to file.
This is one which detect and scan and remove 7. Backup.
viruses from the computer. These among 8. Compression
others include, Avast, Smad vr, rising etc. 9. disk defragmenter
2. File sorting utility. 10 disk partition
This is a utility which is used to re-arrange files in 11. disk scanner
the pre-determined sequence
i.e. depending on the dates, ascending, descending,
file size. QN. Assess the functions of utility program as one
3. Copying utility. of the system software programs?
This is a utility which allows one to reproduce a
document/file from one location to

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
A programming language is a notation for writing computer programs which are
specifications of a computation or algorithms
It can also be referred to as a software that allows a user to write a series of instructions to
define a particular task, which will then be translated to a form that is understood by the computer.
They are a means of communicating with the processor.
• A programming language is a language that a computer can understand
• It provides a programmer an environment to write and execute programs.
• A number of programming languages exist but the choice mainly depends on the nature of the
problem at hand and the programmer‘s ability to use the language.
Programming Languages are broadly categorized into two i.e.
1. Low level language
2. High level language

Low Level language (LLL):

These are low-level languages because they are closely associated with processor than high-level
language, which are near to the programmers.

For instance, programmers are required to write all program instructions in the 0s and 1s of binary
code and to specify storage locations for every instruction and item of data used.

47
Compiled by Eddy Musenze 0788120598
There are two types of low-level language
1. Machine language/code
2. Assembly language/code

Machine Language
It is also referred to as 1st generation language and difficult to learn and not user friendly to humans.
Programming in machine code is very tiresome and very many errors are likely to occur. Instructions
are in 0s and 1s in binary format for example 1 6 byte machine = 1010000000001001.
VALUE BINARY
A 01000001
B 01000010
C 01000011
Advantages of machine code language
 Programming in this particular language is done at the level which the computer understands thus no
needs of using a language translators.
Disadvantages machine code language
 Tiresome
 Subjected to a number of errors
 It is not easily understood by user
 High volume of work hence time consuming
 It is very difficult to transfer programs from one computer to another, since the language depends on a
particular machine (processor), which has its own language code
QN: Define the term machine cycle?
Machine cycle The steps performed by the computer processor for each machine language instruction
received. The machine cycle is a 4 process cycle that includes reading and interpreting the machine
language, executing the code and then storing that code.
Four steps of Machine cycle
1. Fetch - Retrieve an instruction from the memory. 2. Decode - Translate the retrieved instruction into a
series of computer commands.
3. Execute - Execute the computer commands.
4. Store - Send and write the results back in memory.

Assembly language (2ND Generation). These are 2nd generation languages that were developed to
overcome the difficulties of understanding and using machine languages.
They use English like tags called Mnemonics.
To make machine code language readable and show that they were a symbolic operation codes.
Mnemonics are basically shortened to 2 or 3 letter words such as;
Add for addition.
Sub for subtraction
Programs written in assembler language require an assembler to convert them into machine language
that the computer can understand.
Like machine language, assembly language is also machine dependent and there4 a program written
for one computer can‘t be used for another.
Advantages of assembly language machine language.
 Programs can‘t be written more easily than the  It had a closer control over a computer hardware

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and executes efficiently.
 It is useful for writing operating systems and game
programs which require fast and efficient use of the
CPU.
Disadvantages.
 They are designed for specific machines and
specific processor.
 Programming using these languages is laborious.
High level languages.
These are ones which can be easily understood by
the programmer and make programming easier
simpler. This is because they can be easily be
understand by the humans. These were a
requirement of the assembly language. They have
fewer instructions thus take less time. They are
classified as 3rd,4th 5th, html.
These languages are called problem oriented/
machine independent. Thus during coding a
programmer focuses on coding a program rather
than considering how a computer works.
These include;
 Third generation (3GLs)
 Fourth generation (4GLs)
 Object oriented programming language (OOPL)
 Web scripting language (WSL)
In high level language, fewer instructions are
written and there4, a lot is done in less time.
3RD Generation Language
Third generation languages specify instructions as
brief statements that are more like natural language
than assembly language. Programming is done in
brief English statements. They are used for specific
operations like business and science. Important
third-generation languages include FORTRAN,
COBOL, C, BASIC and PASCAL.
The question of which language is best is one that
consumes a lot of anytime and energy among
computer professionals. This is because every
language has its strength and weaknesses. For
example;
FORTRAN (Formula Translator)
This is a programming language developed in 1956
for scientific and mathematical application. It
good language for processing numerical data, it is
widely acceptable and understood. writing
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scientific mathematical and engineering applications
because of its simplicity but however it
disadvantage is that it is not efficient to produce
reports, difficult to use on other applications other
than scientific and engineering.
Pascal
By Pascal Braise; a programming language used on
PCs and used to teach sound programming
practices in computer science courses.
It is very good for writing well-structured and
readable programs, but it is not as flexible as the C
program language.
C
It was developed at AT & T‘s bell labs in the early
1970s.It is used primarily by professional
programmers to create operating system and
application software, especially for PCs.
It is the most portable general purpose language in
the business world. It has versions like C, C+, and
C++
C+ +
C++ embodied powerful object-oriented features,
originally developed to enhance the C language.
C++ power major software like Firefox, win amp
and adobe programs. It is used to develop system
software, high performance server and client
application soft wares and video games but however
a complex and difficult to learn.
BASIC (Beginners all symbolic instructions code).
This was developed as a means of introducing non
science students to the fundamental of
programming.
It is a general-purpose programming language used
with PCs and for teaching programming
Advantages of BASIC
 It is so popular and basically for designing
business applications
 It is the simplest and easiest of all programming
languages.
 It has self-teaching menus I several books
Disadvantages
 BASIC is in different version with so little
compatibility.
 It is not a standard language since it specializes in
business applications.
49
COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language)
 Major programming language designed in the
early 1960s for business applications. This was
produced to enable efficient software to be designed
for business applications. Example is
payroll and accounting and stock control
Advantages of COBOL
 Enables easy production of reports to
programmers.
 It is compatible on different types of computers.
 It is fairly easy to understand.
Disadvantage.
 It takes longer to learn and its coding is lengthy
Fourth Generation Language
These were designed to make programming easier
with a variety of software tools that enable end
users to develop software applications with minimal
or no technical assistance. Examples include
query languages, report generator, graphic language,
and application generators. 4GLs can be easily
written with the use of simple, sentence-like
commands, such as SELECT NAME FROM
RECORDS
WHERE NAME=―JOHN‖;
A fourth Generation language should have the
following features:
 It should be easy to learn and use
 It should contain an online help facility to users.
 It should be usable interactively.
 It should be suitable for documentation design
work
 It should be fault tolerant. (i.e. any mistake in data
entry should be dealt with easily)
Advantages of fourth generation language
 It enhances the end user computing, so limiting
the work of information system (IS) staff.
 It taps user creativity
 It diffuses IT throughout the organization
 It vastly increases programmer productivity, even
though it uses more hardware resources
Disadvantages of fourth Generation language
 Over enthusiastic use by users might overload the
main hardware resources.
 The information systems department get over
loaded by training requirements
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 Program written in 4th generation language makes
less efficient use of computer processing power
and memory. This can have the effect of slowing
down the execution of a program to unacceptable
levels.
 They are often very expensive to buy.
Python is also a high level server side scripting
language for websites and mobile apps.it is
considered a fairy easy language for beginners due
to its readability and compact syntax, meaning
developers can use fewer lines of code to express a
concept than they would in other languages. It
powers the web apps for Instagram, Pinterest and
radio through its associated web frame works.
SQL, Structured query language is a special purpose
language for managing data in relational data
base management systems. It is most commonly
used for its ―Query‖ function, which searches
informational databases. SQL was standardized by
the American national standards institute (ANSI)
and the international organizational for
standardization (ISO) in the 1980s
JAVA is a class- based, object oriented
programming language developed by sun micro
systems in
the 1990s. it is one of the most in demand
programming languages, a standard for enterprise
software,
web based content, games and mobile apps as well
as the android O/s. java is designed to work across
multiple software programs, meaning a program
written on mac o/s x could also be run on windows
The choice of which language to use depends on the
type of computer the program is to run on, what
sort of program it is, and the expertise of the
programmer.
Fifth Generation Language
These types of languages are normally used in
intelligent knowledge based systems such as robots.
These can manipulate various facts and rules to
reach a conclusion, unlike the 4th generation
language
that manipulates numbers, or data. They generally
think as humans and are extensively used in
artificial intelligent projects like the recent mars
50
exploration.
HTML (Hyper Text Mark-up Language)
This is one of the main programming languages
used in creating web pages for the internet/intranet.
This language allows programmers to compose text
or data, pictures, sounds and videos etc. on the
screen display. It also allows the programmers to
add attachments, which enable linkage to different
web pages on the Internet.
Language Processors
However, we shall know that the computer only
understands machine language. It is difficult to
write
and maintain programs in machine level language.
The programs written in the code of high level and
low level language need to be converted into
machine level language using language processors.
These are programs that translate high-level
language codes into low-level language codes that
the
processor can easily understand.
Language processors include;
1. Assemblers
2. Compilers
3. Interpreters
4. Linkers
Assemblers. These are ones which are used to
convert the code of low level language (assembly
language) into machine language. This is most
commonly used in microprocessors. They are
further divided into two types; one pass assembler is
the assembler which assigns the memory address to
the variables and translates the source code into
machine code in the first pass simultaneously. A
two pass assembler is the assembler which reads the
source code twice. In the first pass it reads all
variables and assigns them memory addresses. In
the second pass, it reads the source code and
Compiled by Eddy Musenze 0788120598
translate the code into object code.
Interpreters.
An Interpreter refers to the program which translate
statement/ line of a program into machine code at
a time.
Compilers
A Compiler translate the whole program in high
level language into machine code before the
program
is run. A compiler is more intelligent than an
assembler. It checks all kinds of limits, ranges,
errors etc. but its program run time is more and
occupies a larger part of the memory. It has a slower
speed because it undergoes the entire program and
translates the entire program at once into machine
code language. If a compiler runs on a computer and
produces the machine codes for the same computer,
then it is called self-compiler or resident compiler.
Linkers
Computer programs are usually developed in
modules or sub routines which gives program
segments meant to carry out the specific relevant
tasks. Therefore, the Linker is service software that
accepts the separately translated program modules
as its input and logically combines them into one
logical
module known as the load module that has got all
the required bits and pieces for the translated
program to be obeyed by the computer hardware.
Loaders; loader is a program that loads machine
codes of a program into the system memory.
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APPLICATION SOFTWARE
These refer to a set of programs which are designed to solve user‘s specific problems. Application software
is categorized into,
- Customized/specific/bespoke application software
- General purpose/ off shelf software application software.
CUSTOM SOFTWARE.
Custom (bespoke) software is tailor-made software,
which is developed at a user's request to perform
specific functions.
Advantages
 Custom software generally produces the most
efficient systems as it can provide support for the
specific needs of the business which might not be
available in the off the shelf software and will
provide greater efficiency or better customer
service.
 It is more flexible to use than off shelf such as
spreadsheets as it is constructed by software
professionals that can implement functionality for
wide range of business needs.
Disadvantages
 The main disadvantage of custom software are
development time and cost. With spreadsheets or an
off the self-software package, a user can get benefits
quickly but with custom software the user needs to
go through software development processes that
may take a lot of time.
 Custom software is often several times the cost of
other two options and will normally include an
ongoing maintenance cost. This will often make
custom software infeasible for smaller businesses.
Compiled by Eddy Musenze 0788120598
These higher costs can be insignificantly in larger
businesses where smaller efficiency increases can
relate to larger labor cost savings or where custom
software offers larger boost.
 Some software that are designed specifically for
certain businesses may not be compatible with other
general software. This is something that can prove
to be a major stumbling block to many business
men.
General purpose application software.
A general purpose software application well known
as ―off the shelf‖ refers to software designed to
solve a wide range of problems. It is largely used in
homes, schools, etc. this type of software tries to be
jack of all trades. It provides so many features that
the majority of all users will want such as
formatting, creating charts, creating tables etc.
Examples of general purpose include
 Word processors. This is an application that
provides the user with tools needed to write and edit
and format text and to send it to a printer. Examples
of word processors include word pad, Microsoft
word, word perfect, and word pro, etc.
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Topic 4:

WORD PROCESSING
WORD PROCESSING

UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO WORD PROCESSING (THEORY)

Word processing is the art of creating, saving, Text editors are mainly used to create small notes,
editing, formatting and printing text and graphic memos and programs. Examples of common text
documents using electronic word processors. editors are: Notepad, Notepad++, Gedit etc.

PURPOSE OF WORD PROCESSING BASIC TERMINOLOGY

Word processors are mostly used for writing letters, TypefaceA typefaceis the shape of the characters.
reports, projects, books, essays, memos, resumes Some common typefaces are Times New Roman,
(CVs) etc. Arial,and Tahoma.
Line Spacing refers to the amount of vertical
Examples of word processors include:
white space between two lines of text, from baseline
AbiWord
to baseline. Line spacing is measured in points.
Apache OpenOffice Writer
KWord Text Alignment refers to the way lines of text
LibreOffice Writer are arranged relative to the edges of a block of text.
LyX There are four types of alignment: left, centre, right,
Ted and justify. Justification is the process of aligning
Apple Pages text in a document to both the left and right margins
Atlantis Word Processor at the same time. Justified text may have extra
Final Draft spaces between letters within words, so that
FrameMaker paragraphs appear as a block with an even right-
Gobe Productive margin ending.
Kingsoft Writer Indent: An indent is the amount of white space set
Lotus Word pro in between the margin and the beginning of text.
Microsoft Word Examples of indents include the first line indent,
Microsoft Works hanging indent and right indent.
Microsoft Write Formatting Text Formatting text is the process of
QuickOffice changing the appearance of text in a
TextMaker document.Formatting text involves using commands
ThinkFree Office like bold, italics, underlining, changing font colour,
WordPad etc.
WordPerfect etc. Editing text:This refers to the process of making
NB: Text editors are simple word processors that are changes to the content of an existing document.
generally used to type without any special Editing text involves commands like cut and paste,
formatting. overtype, undo, insert, and delete.
Copy – To place selected text on the clipboard,
without removing it from its current location.
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Compiled by Eddy Musenze 0788120598
Cut – To remove selected text from its current
position and place it on the clipboard.
Copy and paste duplicated text, while Cut and paste
moves text to a new location.
The clipboard The Clipboard is an area of memory
in which you can store copied or cut text, graphics
or any other items temporarily before being pasted
into other locations.
The paste special feature helps to avoid pasting text
with all its formatting. The paste special feature
provides more control over what to paste.
Header- The header refers to text that appears in the
top margin of all pages in a document.
Footer - The footer refers to text that appears in
the bottom margin of all pages in a document.
Ruler - You can use the ruler to set the indent,
margin and tab markers. Avoid using the space bar
to align text!
Tabs Stops– tab stops are places where text can
be made to line up. You can set a tab stop by
clicking on the ruler bar at the desired position.
Hard Copy– A copy of a document printed out on
physical paper.
Soft Copy– A copy of a document that is stored on a
disk or other computer storage device.
Overtype Mode– Also called overwrite mode,
causes any characters you type to replace
("overtype") the characters at the cursor. You can
switch between overtype mode and insert mode by
pressing the insert key.
Paragraph – The text between one paragraph
break and the next. A paragraph break is inserted by
pressing Enter key.
Save – To write the document's current state from
RAM to a storage device.
Proofreading is the process of reviewing a
document to ensure the accuracy of its content.
Proof reading tools include spelling and grammar
check (F7), thesaurus, etc.
COMMON FEATURES OF WORD
PROCESSING APPLICATIONS
Word Wrap: this feature automatically sends a
word that does not fit within the margin settings
onto the next line, without the user pressing Enter
key.
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Find: allows the user to locate all occurrences of a
particular character, word or phrase.
Replace: allows the user to substitute existing
characters, words or phrases with the new ones.
Spell checker: allows the user to check spellings of
the whole document at one time or to check and
even correct the spelling of individual words as they
are typed (Autocorrect)
Grammar checker: this reports grammatical errors,
usually by a wavy green line, and suggests ways to
correct them.
Thesaurus: suggests alternative words with the
same meaning (synonyms) for use in the document.
Mail Merge: This is feature used to create similar
letters to be sent to several people. The names and
addresses of each person can be merged with one
single main document.
Automatic page numbering: numbers the pages
automatically in a document
Tables: allow users to organise information into
rows and columns.
Multi-columns: arranges text into two or more
columns that look similar to newspaper or magazine
Drop cap – Formats the first letter in paragraph to
be dropped across two or more lines.
Clipart:,refers to pre-made images about various
subjects used to illustrate concepts in documents.
Templates: establish the initial document layouts
and formats for various document types.
Printing: allows a user to obtain a hard copy of a
document from the printer.
Word Count: Establishes the number of words,
characters, paragraphs, etc. in a document.
Headers and Footers: Used to insert text in the top
and bottom margin through the document.
Footnotes and Endnotes are used as references that
provide additional information about a word or
phrase within a document.
Insert and Delete allows a user to add and remove
portions of text while editing document
COMMON PARTS OF A WORD PROCESSOR
Titlebar—indicates the task currently running. On
the right hand side of the title are the minimize,
restore/minimize and close buttons
Menu bar—provides the user with a group of
commands that are used to manipulate the document
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Tool bars—consist of sets of command buttons for
quick execution of frequently used groups of
commands.
Document window—this is the working area where
the document is created
Status bar—Displays information that the user may
need to know such as the current position of the
insertion point, progress, edit mode, etc.
ADVANTAGES OF USING ELECTRONIC
WORD PROCESSORS AS COMPARED TO
MANUAL TYPE WRITERS
Advantages:
Word processors can save softcopies for future use
while with a type writer; a document has to be fully
retyped if needed again.
During typing with a word processor, it is possible
to undo a mistake, while any error made with a type
writer is immediately impacted on the printout.
A type writer prints one character at a time while a
word processor prints many pages at a time.
There is a variety of quick text formatting features
such as bold, italic, underline, colour, etc. in a word
processor whereas there are limited formatting
options with a typewriter.
A word processor provides grammar and spell check
options whereas a typewriter cannot help in spell
checking.
It is easier to insert graphics and drawings in a word
processor yet it is not easy to draw with a type
writer.
A word processor allows the user to type
continuously without pressing the enter key at the
end of each line (word wrap) whereas the user needs
to advance the lever of a typewriter manually, at the
end of every line.
It is very simple to align text in a document to Left,
Centre, Right or Justified whereas with a type
writer, one has to manually align the text, which is
very difficult.
A word processor has edit features such as Copy
and Paste in which repeatedly occurring text in a
document can be copied to and pasted from the
clipboard whereas a type writer has no clipboard.
A word processor can work on many pages at a go
by inserting pages numbers, footers, headers,
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watermarks, etc. whereas a type writer works on one
page at a time.
A word processor can insert drawings word arts and
pictures whereas with a type writer, drawings and
pictures can only be drawn by a hand on the stencil.
With A word processor, you can use mail merge
feature to create a set of documents, such as a letter
that is sent to many customers, by only creating one
main document and inserting different fields for the
customers‘ details whereas with a type writer, you
have to type the each document separately.
A type writer requires a lot of strength to strike a
key so as to have a strong impact on the stencil in
order to get a reasonably visible printout whereas a
computer keyboard has easy-to-press buttons which
don‘t require too much strength during typing.
A type writer makes a lot of noise during its
operation as compared to a word processor which is
relatively quiet.
A word processor has a lot of symbols such as
Greek, Arabic, Latin, and Hebrew alphabet
character setswhereas a type writer can only add the
English alphabet and commonly used symbols that
are currently calibrated on the typewriter.
A Word processor can add preformatted elements
(templates) by selecting from a gallery of
professional templates e.g. cover pages, resumes,
etc. whereaswith a type writer it is up to typist to
know the layout and professional look of document
types.
DISADVANTAGES OF USING ELECTRONIC
WORD PROCESSORS
Word processors cannot be used without Electricity.
Word processors Use is Expensive due to the cost of
computers.
They have led to Unemployment of typists because
one person using a word processor can do a lot of
work in a short time, which would be done by many
using type writers.
Many people are Computer illiterate, and cannot use
the program.
Computers have Viruses, which lead to loss of data
in soft copies.
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Using word processors on light emitting computer
monitors for long leads to eye disorders, which isn‘t
the case with type writers
Word processors require purchase of hard ware like
printers in order to obtain hard copies yet with
typewriters, whatever is typed is permanent and
instantly available as a hard copy: there is no delay
for printing or risk of unintended file deletion.
NB: It is this tangible writing experience free from
computer meltdowns or deletions that is saving the
typewriter from extinction.

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COMMONLY USED WORD PROCESSING KEYBOARD SHORTCUTS

Ctrl- ] or [ Increase/ Reduce Font Ctrl-N New document

Ctrl - Soft hyphen - Ctrl-O Open a document
Ctrl = Subscript Ctrl-P Print
Ctrl-0 Paragraph Space Above (add/delete 12 pt.) Ctrl-Q Remove Paragraph formats
Ctrl-1 Line-spacing 1 Ctrl-R Align—Right
Ctrl-2 Line-spacing 2 Ctrl-S Save
Ctrl-5 Line-spacing 1.5 Ctrl-Shift- >or <Font next/previous size
Ctrl-A Select All Ctrl-Shift -Hard hyphen
Ctrl-Alt-1 Heading Level 1 Ctrl-Shift =Superscript
Ctrl-Alt-2 Heading Level 2 Ctrl-Shift-8Nonprinting characters on/off
Ctrl-Alt-3 Heading Level 3 Ctrl-Shift-A All Caps
Ctrl-Alt-C © Ctrl-Shift-C Copy formatting
Ctrl-Alt-E Endnote Ctrl-Shift-DDouble Underline
Ctrl-Alt-F Footnote Ctrl-Shift-Enter Breakcolumn
Ctrl-Alt-I Print Preview Ctrl-Shift-FFont Face
Ctrl-Alt-K AutoFormat Ctrl-Shift-KSmall Caps
Ctrl-Alt-M Insert Comment Ctrl-Shift-LList Bullet Style
Ctrl-Alt-N View—Normal Ctrl-Shift-M Indent decrease
Ctrl-Alt-O View—Outline Ctrl-Shift-NNormal Style
Ctrl-Alt-P View—Page Ctrl-Shift-THanging indentdecrease
Ctrl-Alt-R ® Ctrl-Shift-TabDialog box previous tabbed section
Ctrl-Alt-S Split a window Ctrl-Shift-VPaste formatting
Ctrl-Alt-T ™ Ctrl-Shift-W Underline words only
Ctrl-Alt-U Table—remove border lines Ctrl-spacebar Remove Character formats
Ctrl-Alt-Y Repeat Find Ctrl-T Hanging Indent—increase
Ctrl-Alt-Z Go Back (3 max) Ctrl-Tab Dialog box next tabbed section
Ctrl-B Bold Ctrl-U Underline
Ctrl-C Copy Ctrl-Up/Down GoTo Next/Previous Paragraph
Ctrl-click Select Sentence Ctrl-V Paste
Ctrl-D Font Dialog Ctrl-W Close
Ctrl-drag Drawing—draw from center Ctrl-X Cut
Ctrl-E Align—Center Ctrl-Y Repeat/Redo
Ctrl-Enter Break—page Ctrl-Z Undo
Ctrl-F Find F1 Help
Ctrl-F10 Maximize window F10 Menu Bar
Ctrl-F4 Close F12 Save As
Ctrl-F5 Document window—restore F7 Spelling and Grammar check
Ctrl-F7 Document window—move F9 Update selected field
Ctrl-F8 Document window—size Shift-drag Drawing—constrain shape to
Ctrl-H Replace symmetrical
Ctrl-I Italics Shift-Enter Line break
Ctrl-J Justify—Full Alt Drag Vertical Selection
Ctrl-K Hyperlink Shift-F10 Shortcut Menu
Ctrl-L Align—Left Shift-F3 Case change (capitalization)
Ctrl-M Indent—increase Shift-F7 Thesaurus
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TOPIC 5: COMPUTER PRESENTATIONS( presentation software)
Presentation Software
A presentation program is a computer software package used to organize and display information,
normally in the form of a slide show.
Examples of Presentation Software include:
Microsoft office PowerPoint
OpenOffice Impress
ShowLogic
KPresenter
Common terms in presentations
Add-in
An add-in is a small add-on program to enhance
an existing program.
Ambient Light
Ambient light is the available light in a room,
whether by natural or mechanical sources.
Animated GIF
An animated GIF is a graphic file type that is
composed of many different images on top of
each other. Together these images are compressed
and work together, creating movement, and give
the appearance of a mini movie.
Animation
In Microsoft PowerPoint, animations are visual
effects applied to individual items on the slide
such as graphics, titles or bullet points.
Animation Scheme
Animation schemes in PowerPoint allow you to
apply formatting to bulleted items and titles from
a variety of animation groupings, such as Subtle,
Moderate and Exciting, rather than making the
settings individually.
Applet
An applet is a small add-on program to enhance
an existing program written in the Java
programming language.
Batch File
Batch files are short user generated programs
created to accomplish repetitive tasks easily.
Bullet
Bullets are small dots, squares, dashes or graphics
that begin a short descriptive phrase
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Screencast
Adobe Persuasion
AppleWorks, e.t.c
Clip - video or movie is a small section of a
larger video presentation. A series of video
frames are run in succession to produce a short,
animated video. This compilation of video frames
results in a video clip.
Contextual Tabs and Menus
Contextual tabs and menus appear when an object
is selected. These contextual tabs contain
information or options pertinent to that object
only.
Custom show
A custom show in PowerPoint is a group of slides
selected from a larger presentation to present as a
smaller presentation, without having to recreate a
new presentation from scratch.
Default Design Template
The default design template is the plain, white
slide template in a new Microsoft PowerPoint
presentation.
Design Template
Design templates in Microsoft PowerPoint create
a presentation that has a cohesive look. All slides
are part of a coordinated package.
Design Theme
Design themes make it easy to coordinate your
PowerPoint presentation with colors, graphics and
fonts that all work together to create a mood for
your presentation.
File Extensions
File extensions, for any files, are the three letters
at the end of the filename after a dot.
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Hotspot
The area on an image map that is used as a
hyperlink to another action or location.
Hyperlink
Hyper linking allows the viewer to quickly access
another location -- be it another Web site, a slide
in a presentation, or link to another file
Image Map
A graphic object that has many hotspots or
invisible hyperlinks to other objects or websites.
Invisible Button
An invisible button or hotspot is an area of a
PowerPoint slide or part of a slide that when
clicked, sends the viewer to a different slide in the
presentation.
Invisible Hyperlink
An invisible hyperlink or invisible button is an
area on a PowerPoint slide or part of a slide that
when clicked, sends the viewer to a different slide
in the presentation
Layout
The slide layout in PowerPoint is the arrangement
of all the items that make up your slide, such as
title, graphics or text boxes.
Lumens
A projector emits light that produces the image on
the screen. The amount of light produced is
measured in lumens
Macro
A macro is a series of commands to automate a
repetitive task, are recorded and assigned to a
keystroke combination.
Master Slide
The Master Slide is the design template used for
the slides within your presentation. There are four
different master slides -- title master, notes master,
handout master and the most common, the slide
master
Normal View
Normal View in Microsoft PowerPoint is the main
working window in the presentation. The slide is
shown full size on the screen.
Optimize Photos
Optimizing is a term used to indicate a change to a
photo or a graphic such as clip art, to reduce it in
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both visual size and file size, for use in other
programs.
Outline View
Outline View shows all the text of all slides, in a
list on the left of the PowerPoint screen. No
graphics are shown in Outline view
Plug-In
A plug-in is a small add-on program to enhance an
existing program written in the Java programming
language.
PowerPoint Viewer
The PowerPoint Viewer is a small plug-in
program from Microsoft that allows a PowerPoint
presentation to be played on any computer.
Ppt
Ppt is the file extension used for PowerPoint
files.
Radio Button
A radio button is a small circle beside an option
that you may choose.
Resolution
Resolution is the image created as a result of the
number of pixels or dots used. This can be on a
computer monitor or a setting on a digital camera
Selection Handles
Selection handles surround the border of a graphic
object and indicate to the user and the program
that the object is currently selected and ready for
something further to happen.
Slide
A slide is a single page of a digital presentation
created in presentation software programs such as
PowerPoint and OpenOffice Impress.
Slide Layout
The slide layout in PowerPoint is the arrangement
of all the items that make up your slide, such as
title, graphics or text boxes.
Slide Master
The slide master in PowerPoint is a template that
contains preset layouts, colors and fonts for
PowerPoint presentations.
Slide Show
A slide show is the presentation of all the digital
slides created in programs such as PowerPoint and
OpenOffice Impress, shown one after the other,
just as on a slide projector of old.
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Slide Sorter View
A window in Microsoft PowerPoint that displays
thumbnail versions of all your slides, arranged in
horizontal rows.
Speaker Notes
Speaker notes are notes added to the PowerPoint
presentation slides for a reference for the presenter
of the presentation.
Storyboard
In Windows Movie Maker or other movie making
software, the Storyboard is an editing area located
at the bottom of the window. It is a panel of
pictures or other movie clips, laid out in the
sequence that they will be shown in the movie.
Summary Slide
The summary slide feature in Microsoft
PowerPoint creates one new slide with a list of all
the titles of the slides in the presentation
Task Pane
Different areas of the Microsoft PowerPoint
screen are known as panes. The Task pane is
located on the right of the screen. It changes to
display options associated with the current task.
Thumbnail
A thumbnail is the term used to describe a minute
version of a slide or picture.
Timeline
The Timeline view of Windows Movie Maker or
other movie making software shows the
Features of Presentation Software
Animation: This feature allows you to apply
visual effects to individual items on the slide such
as graphics, titles or bullet points.
Slide Show: helps to display and project all the
digital slides created, shown one after the other,
or as set in a custom show.
Notes Area: Allows the speaker to keep notes for
personal reference during the presentation.
Summary slide: This feature creates one new
slide with a list of all the titles of the slides in the
presentation
Transition: Allows you to add visual movements
as one slide changes to another.
Slide Master: Allows you to preset layouts, colors
and fonts for all slides in the presentation at once
Insert text: Allows you to insert text in the
presentation.
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components of the movie such as photos, video
and audio clips in the order and timing that they
will appear in movie.
Transition
Slide transitions are the visual movements as one
slide changes to another.
USB Flash Drive
USB Flash Drives are compact file storage
devices approximately the size of a disposable
lighter
Video Capture
Use Windows Movie Maker to capture your video
clips to your computer.
Video Effects
Video effects differ from video transitions as they
apply to the individual picture itself rather than to
the change from one picture to another.
Video or Movie Frame
Definition of video frame.
Video Transition
Video transitions are the visual movements as one
picture changes to another.
Watermark
A watermark, in presentation software, is
frequently used in a slightly different manner. A
watermark is often a faded image or text used as a
background of a slide. It is meant to enhance, but
not be the focal point of the slide.
Delete text: Allows you to erase characters,
words, charts, or slides as easily
Cut and Paste: Allows you to remove (cut) a
section of text from one place in a presentation
and insert (paste) it somewhere else.
Copy: Allows you to duplicate a section of text.
Page layout: Allows you to define various page
sizes and margins.
Search and Replace: Allows you to search for a
particular word or phrase. And replace it with
another everywhere in the presentation
Graphics: The presentation application permits
the addition of various types of graphics, such as
bar charts, line charts, clip art, and photographs.
Headers, Footers, & Slide Numbering: Allows
you to specify customized headers and footers that
the presentation file will put at the top and bottom
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of every presentation. The presentation
automatically keeps track of page numbers so that
the correct number appears on each page.
Spell Checker: A utility that allows you to check
the spelling of words in a presentation file.
Print: Allows you to send a presentation file to a
printer to get a hardcopy or many hardcopies as
you would like.
Thesaurus: A built-in thesaurus that allows you
to search for synonyms (words with similar
meaning) and antonyms (‘opposites’) without
leaving the word processor.
Tables: Allows you to add tables and include
content in rows and columns

TOPIC 6: SYSTEM START-UP AND CONFIGURATION

SUB-TOPIC SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES CONTENT DURATION
To be able to: a. Define booting
a) Define booting b. Types of booting
6.1. Computer b) Describe the types of c. Application of booting
Booting booting d. Step-by-step process of booting 2 Periods
c) Explain when
booting can be done
d) Describe the process of
booting
To be able to: a. System specifications
a) Determine and interpret b. Computer parts
specifications of a computer c. Connection and setup of hardware 7 Periods
6.2. System b) Describe the parts of a components
Configuration computer d. Formatting disks
c) Connect and setup
hardware components
d) Explain and perform disk
a) To be able to install and a. Installing Operating Systems
formatting
6.3. System uninstall computer software b. Installing application and utility software
Installation c. Uninstalling software 6 Periods
d. Installing device drivers

a) To be able to identify
6.4. Computer and explain software and a. Computer alerts and error messages b.
Trouble- shooting hardware Computer lights 6 Periods
problems c. System freeze & bugs
b) To be able to provide d. System performance
solutions to the problems

TOPIC 7: COMPUTER COMMUNICATIONS, NETWORKING AND

DATA COMMUNICATION

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Definition of terms used in Networking
Network
A Network can be defined as a collection of
independent entities that are arranged in such a
manner as to exchange data, information or
resources.
Examples of networks:
Road network: - this is the interconnection of
roads in a country, continent or throughout the
world. Road networks facilitate the transfer of
goods & services from one area to another.
Telephone network (voice networks): - it includes
the many lines that criss-cross a country, and
enables people to communicate.
Railway network.
Nervous system.
Computer Network
A computer network can be defined as a collection
2 or more computers connected together using
transmission media (e.g., telephone cables, or
Satellites) for the purpose of communication and
sharing of resources.
Usually there can be from 2 to hundreds or even
thousands of computers on the network. Apart
from computers, other devices such as Printers,
plotters, fax machines, modems, etc can also be
connected to the network.
The term Transmission media refers to any
physical or non-physical link between 2 or more
computers, and in which a signal can be made to
flow from source to destination.
DATA COMMUNICATION
Data communication refers to the process of transmitting data signal from one place to another through a
communication media.
The basic components of a data transmission system are:
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Network Server.
Computer networks usually have one computer
reserved as the ―Mother‖ of all the other
computers on the network.
A Server is a powerful computer that provides
services (shared resources) to the other computers
on the network. It enables information, resources
& network devices to be shared by users on a
computer network.
Network servers;
Have a higher hard disk & main memory (RAM)
capacity than the other computers on the network.
Store & run a special program called the server
software (network operating system), which
controls computers on the network.
Clients(workstations)
Clients (also referred to as Workstations) are
Personal Computers (PCs) attached to the
network, on which the network users do their
work. They are used by network users to send
their requests to the server.
Clients;
Are usually less powerful than the server, and use
the resources provided by the Server.
Have their own operating systems and files.
The PCs can be IBM or compatible running MS-
DOS, OS/2, Windows, etc.
The figure below shows a server on a network.
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A central computer.
Terminal devices.
Telecommunications link between the central computer & the terminal devices.

Terms used in data communication

Data signal:
A data signal is a voltage level in the circuit which represents the flow of data.
In data communication, there are 2 types of data signals;
Digital and Analog.
Analog data is made up of continuous waveforms, while digital data is made up of a non-continuous
discrete waveform.
Analog data signal
Velocity
(Sine wave)
Time

Digital data signal

Velocity
(Rectangular waved)
Time

Signal modulation and demodulation:

This is the process of converting data signals to a form that can be transmitted over a transmission medium.
E.g., a modem converts a digital signal to an analog signal, which can be transmitted over analogue
telephone lines. This process is called modulation. A modem at the receiving end converts the analogue
signal into a digital signal, a process known as demodulation.

Multiplexing and De-multiplexing:

Multiplexing is the process of sending multiple data signals over the same medium, e.g., a wire conductor
can be made to carry several data signals either simultaneously or at different times.
Demultiplexing is the process of separating the multiplexed signals at the receiving end.

Illustration:
Town A has 10 computers which want to communicate with 10 other computers in town B. In a normal
case, it will need a direct cable linking each of the computers in town A to its partner in town B. However,
if multiplexing is used, the computers can be made to share a single cable laid between the two towns,
hence, saving cost.
The different data signals have different frequencies on the cable; hence, they do not interfere with one
another.

Frequency (f):
Frequency of a wave is the number of cycles made by the wave in 1 second. Frequency is measured in units
called Hertz (Hz); where 1 Hz is equivalent to 1 cycle/second.

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Baud:
This is the unit to measure the speed of transmission. Generally, 1BAUD is 1bit/second.
Baud rate:
This is the rate at which data is transferred or transmitted. It is measured in Bits per second (bps).
Band:
The rate of change of a signal on a transmission line.
Bandwidth:
A Bandwidth is the maximum amount of data that a transmission medium can carry at any one time. E.g., a
certain cable may have a bandwidth of 100 Mbps (Mega bits per second).
Guardband:
This is the range of frequency that is used to separate two channels.
Baseband signal:
This is a digital signal that is generated and applied to the transmission medium directly without modulation.
Note. A baseband signal utilizes the full capacity of the transmission medium; hence, at any one time, only
one signal can be sent. However, multiple signals can be sent at different times, if they are multiplexed.
Broadband transmission:
This is where an analog signal is sent over the transmission medium using a particular frequency. This
means that, several data signals can be sent at the same time through the same medium, but at different
frequencies so as to prevent them from overlapping.
Attenuation:
Attenuation is the decrease in magnitude and energy of a signal as it progressively moves along a
transmission medium.
If the signal is not boosted, it will totally be lost along the way, and may never reach the destination.
Attenuation (or signal loss) is usually corrected by placing signal amplifiers (also called repeater stations)
along the medium at appropriate distances in order to receive the weak signal, clean it, amplify it, then
retransmit it.

Modes of data communication

There are 3 modes of data communication:
Simplex.
Half duplex.
Full duplex.

Simplex transmission:
This is where communication is only in one direction (as in radio or television broadcast). The listener or
viewer cannot communicate back through the radio or television receiver back to the broadcaster.

Half duplex transmission:

This refers to communication in both directions, but one direction at a time.
A sender must first send the data before the recipient can reply, e.g., if two police officers are
communicating using a ‗walkie talkie‘ radio, one has to say ―over‖ to mark the end of every statement in
order for the other to respond.

Full duplex transmission:

This is where communication occurs in both directions simultaneously/ at the same time. (as in computers
that are sending & receiving data on a network).

Factors to consider when selecting a data transmission system

 Cost of each type of data transmission method.
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 Distance between the computer & the terminal.

 Whether data should be transmitted direct to the computer online.
 Type of data transmission system to be used, i.e., whether the data transmission will be 1-way or 2-way.
 Volume of data to be processed; and whether it is batched at particular times, or whether it is collected
individually and required to be processed immediately.
 Speed of transmission required.
 In many cases, it is acceptable to use the ordinary Postal service, Kenyan rail, or a private Courier service.
 Accuracy and reliability required.

PURPOSE OF NETWORKING
Some of the reasons for setting up computer networks include:
a)Resource sharing
A Network resource refers to any component that can be attached to the network for access by users.
Some of the shared resources include:
Application programs. vii). Network Printers
Data and information. viii). Fax machines
Messages. ix). Modems
Graphics. x). Storage devices (optical drives).
Files. xi). Communication ports.
Computer processing power. xii). Disk space
Users whose computers are connected to a network can, for example, share their files, exchange mails, send
faxes, schedule meetings, and print documents from any point on the network. This centralized access to
data & information leads to less waste of time, and hence greater productivity.
b)Remote communications
Remote communication refers to the transmission of data signals between two communication devices
located at different geographical locations.
E.g., using remote communication, one can work from home just as if he/she is in the office.
It is mainly through remote communications that people can be able to share ideas, and pass messages over
the Internet.
A computer that tries to access resources from another computer on the network is called a remote client,
while the computer being accessed is called a remote host.
Remote communication has been made possible by use of wireless transmission media such as radio waves,
microwave, and satellite.
c)Distributed processing facilities
Distributed processing refers to the act of running the same programs or databases on different computers,
which are on the same network but placed in separate locations.
Each computer has its own local peripherals, e.g., disks, printers, terminals, etc.
For example;
In a large organization, each branch office has its own server that stores data, information, and other
resources required for their daily operations.
This implies that, files reside on the user‘s computer rather than on a central computer, and are only
transmitted periodically to update the central computer.
Advantages of distributed processing.
Failure of the central computer does not affect the operations of the other terminals.
Processing load is shared equally; hence, no time wastage.
There is faster access of data as each machine can process & store its data.
It doesn‘t need powerful and expensive servers for data storage.

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It can accommodate users with variety of needs.

Disadvantages of distributed processing.
It is more susceptible to virus, as any user could introduce an infected file and spread it throughout the
network.
Developing an effective back up plan is more difficult when users store data in their individual systems.
File management (organization) is difficult as the files are stored in different locations.
d)Cost effectiveness
The initial cost of purchasing and laying down of networks components may be expensive. However, the
savings experienced and the value added to service delivery make networks cost effective.
Networks greatly increase the efficient use of scarce resources. E.g., a large organization with many stand
alone computers will need a printer for each computer. However, if the computers are networked, only one
printer is used.
Computer networks have also enhanced daily communication, i.e., they have made the flow of information
from one place to another easy. Users can send mails (e.g., e-mails) to each other, without having to bear
the cost of stamp duty or delivery charges.
Similarly, company executives can hold electronic video conferences, thus reducing the traveling costs.
e)Reliability
A computer network is reliable especially when communicating or accessing information:
Data can be transferred with minimum errors from source to destination.
Incase one computer breaks down; the user can still access data & information from the other computers
using another computer on the network.

LIMITATIONS (DISADVANTAGES) OF NETWORKING

 Security issues
Data & information held on a network is open to many people across the world, and can easily be accessed
illegally. In addition, when information is sent over the network from one place to another, it can be tapped
or listened to by unauthorized parties.
 High initial cost
The initial cost of buying network hardware & software is very high.
 Moral and cultural effects
Large networks such as the Internet have chat rooms and messaging services. These enable underage
children to meet peers and adults on the net, some of whom may have bad intentions.
Access to pornographic and other negative material on the Internet has made the fight against social
problems such as HIV/AIDS, bad sexual behaviour, and drug abuse more complicated.
 Spread of terrorism and drug trafficking
The Internet makes it easy for terrorists and drug traffickers to operate. This is because; they use
information networks for their business communications.
 Over-reliance on networks.
Most organizations have done away with manual operations. This means that, all business processes, and
the society depend on computer networks. Therefore, if by any chance the network fails or goes down, then
many systems in the society will stop working.
Review questions.
List four network systems that are not computer-based networks.
Define the following terms:
Computer network.
Data communication.
Differentiate between:

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A baseband and broadband signal.

A Network server and a workstation.
Remote client and remote host.
Half duplex and full duplex transmissions.
State the factors to be considered while selecting a data transmission system.
Give four advantages and two disadvantages of networking.
(a) Explain the concept of distributed processing in networking.
(b) State 3 advantages and 2 disadvantages of distributing processing.
Why is a network more reliable than stand alone computers?
What do you understand by the following terms in networking:
i. Baud.
ii. Baud rate.
iii. Bandwidth.
iv. Resource.
What name do we give to each of the following:
1. The computer that is dedicated to serving requests from other computers in a network.
2. The computers that sends requests.

TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

Computer networks are usually classified according to size. The three most common types of networks are:
Local Area Network (LAN).
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN).
Wide Area Network (WAN).

Local Area Network (LAN).

This is a computer network that is formed whenever computers are connected together in a relatively small
geographical area, e.g., in one building or a school.
LAN is the smallest size of network & it normally covers an area within the radius of 10M – 3 Km.
LAN is usually owned by one organization. However, one LAN can be connected to other LANs over any
distance via data transmission lines or wireless media.
A LAN connects several Personal Computers to a Server computer. The server computer makes available
the resources requested by the other computers (workstations) on a network.
In most LANs, each workstation has its own CPU which it uses to execute programs, but still the
workstation user can also access data & devices anywhere on the network.
Advantages of LANs.
They enable many users to share expensive devices such as Laser printers, as well as data. However, the no.
of computers that can be connected & the distance to be covered is limited.
Have Low cost (requires less expensive equipment).
Enable users to communicate with each other, by sending messages or engaging in chat sessions.
LANs transmit data at very fast rates. They are much faster than data transmitted over telephone lines.
Small error counts (low error rates).

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN).

A MAN is made up of many LANs connected together.
It covers a metropolitan (medium-sized geographical) area, e.g., a town or an entire city, within a radius of 5
– 50 Km.
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Characteristics of MAN
Larger than LAN.
Slower than LAN, but faster than WAN with data
rates of 100MBps & above.
Are more expensive than LANs, since special
equipment is needed to connect the different
networks together.
Prone to few errors (moderate error rates).
Wide Area Network (WAN).
This is the largest size of network.
A WAN covers a large geographical area such as
an entire country, a continent, or even the whole
world.
It consists of many LANs and MANs connected
together to form one large network such as the
Internet.
Characteristics of WAN
They cover an unlimited (a very large)
geographical area, e.g., can cover the whole
world.
They are expensive to build since it requires
special equipment for connection.
Their transmission links are also expensive.
Long distance transmission.
Have low data transfer rates compared to LANs
(i.e., they are slower than LANs & MANs)
More prone to errors (very high possible error
rates compared to LANs and MANs).
Other types of networks
CAN: CAMPUS AREA NETWORK
A connection of two or more LANs in a
university, college or institute.
Differences between a Local Area Network and
a Wide Area Network.
LAN is limited to a small geographical distance.
Data transmission speed in LANs is higher.
Communication using cables (bounded media).
In bounded media, data signals are transmitted from the source to the destination through a cable.
There are 4 major types of bounded transmission media, namely:
Two-wire open lines cables.
Twisted pair cables.
Coaxial cables.
Fibre optic cables.
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Cost of data transmission in LANs is small.
There are less transmission errors in LANs.
Review questions.
Describe THREE major data communication
models.
Explain the three most common types of computer
networks in use today.
Describe a Wide area network.
List THREE differences between Wide Area
Network and Local Area Network.
Determine the type of a network characterized by:
connection between computers, printers and other
resources using UTP cables.
over 250 computers connected to share resources
in a city.
ELEMENTS (COMPONENTS) OF
NETWORKING
A computer network is made up of several
standard components, which can be classified into
three (3) major categories, namely:
Data communication media.
Communication devices.
Networking software.
Data communication (Transmission) media.
A data communication medium is a physical
pathway used for carrying data signals &
information from one point to another.
Data communication media can be divided into
two:
Communication using cable (bound media).
Wireless communication (unbounded media).
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Two-wire open lines cables.

Two-wire open lines cables are made up of 2 parallel copper wires separated by a plastic insulator.
Plastic insulator
Wire conductor

The Plastic insulator is meant to reduce signal interference called Crosstalk. However, the linear nature of
the wires allows an electromagnetic field to build around them during heavy data transmission, which may
cause interference to the signal.
The wires also capture/pick unwanted environmental frequencies, e.g., radio waves, hence causing noise in
the transmission channel.
Two-wire open lines cables are used in telecommunication network to transmit voice (analogue) signals.

Twisted pair cables.

A twisted pair cable is made up of 2 insulated copper wires twisted around each other in a spiral pattern.

The twisting prevents electromagnetic fields from developing around the two wires as they transmit data.
Twisted pair cables can be used to transmit both voice & data signals (i.e., analogue & digital signals).

Types of twisted pair cables.

The 2 common types of twisted pair cables are:
Unshielded twisted pair (UTP).
Shielded twisted pair (STP).

Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cables.

UTP cables do not have a shield that prevents electromagnetic interference (also called ‗Electric noise‘)
from the environment.

Outer cover

Twisted pair

UTP cable is prone to noise & signal interference, and therefore,

not suitable for environments that are electrically ‗noisy‘.
Noise may come from lightening sparks, radio signal, or radiations from spark plugs in motor vehicles.

Shielded twisted pair (STP) cables.

In STP cables, a braided shield is wrapped around the wires to protect them from noise.

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Advantages of Twisted pair cables.

 Can support high data rates (bandwidth) of up to 100 Mbps.
 Telephone systems use UTP, which is present in most buildings. Therefore, it is easier to setup network
media because; connection is readily available.
 Installation equipment is cheap & readily available.
 It is cheap because; of mass production for telephone use.

Disadvantages of Twisted pair cables.

 They suffer from high attenuation. Therefore, for every cable length of 90m, a ―Repeater‖ is needed to
amplify (restore) the signal.
 It is sensitive to electromagnetic interference & eavesdropping.
 It has low data transmission rates as compared to other cables.

Coaxial cables.
A Coaxial cable resembles the cable that is used to connect television antenna to a television set.
The cable has;
A central copper core (which is either solid or stranded wires).
The diameter of the centre core determines the attenuation rate. If the core is thin, then the attenuation rate
will be higher.
An insulator (a dielectric material) surrounding the copper core.
A hollow braid (mesh conductor) surrounding the insulator. The braid is made of copper or aluminium, and
serves as the ground for the carrier wire.
A shield which covers the braid making the core more resistant to electromagnetic interference.
The braid together with the insulator & the foil shield protects the carrier wire from Radio Frequency
Interference (RFI) and Electromagnetic Interference (EMI).
Coaxial cables have bandwidths of up to 1 Gbps (Gigabits per second). Hence, they can be used to
link/connect different networks between buildings, and route trunk calls in telecommunication companies.

The Two types of coaxial cables.

Thin coaxial cable (Thinnet): - it has 1 dielectric insulator around the core.

Thick coaxial cable (Thicknet): - it has 2 dielectric insulators around the core, and is thicker than the thinnet.

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Advantages of coaxial cables.

They are very stable even under high loads.
They have a large bandwidth (up to 1Gbps) compared to twisted pair cables.
They can carry voice, data and video signals simultaneously.
They are more resistant to radio and electromagnetic interference than twisted pair cables.

Disadvantages of coaxial cables.

Thick coaxial cable is hard to work with.
They are relatively expensive to buy & install compared to twisted pair cables.

Fibre optic cables.

A fibre optic cable uses light to transmit data signals from one point to another on the network.
A Light Emitting Diode (LED) is used at the source/transmitter (sending computer) to convert electrical
signals to light signals which are then send along the cable. At the receiving computer, a photosensitive
device is then used to convert the light signals back to electric signals that can be processed by the computer.
A fibre optic cable is made up of;
The Core.
This is the central part of the cable, and is made of a hollow transparent plastic or glass.
Cladding.
This is a single protective layer surrounding the core.

The Cladding is able to bend light rays, (i.e., when light tries to travel from the core to the cladding, it is
redirected back to the core).

Buffer.
It surrounds the cladding. Its main function is to strengthen the cable.
The Jacket.
It is the outer covering of the cable.
Light transmission along a fibre optic cable.
The light signal travels along the core through a process referred to as Total internal reflection.
The process that causes total internal reflection is called Refraction. Refraction is the bending of light when
it crosses the boundary of two mediums that have different densities.
Therefore, when light signal is inserted into the cable, it tries to cross from the core to the cladding. The
light is bent back into the core, hence spreads along the length of the cable.

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Light rays

Core Cladding
Types of fibre optic cables.
Single mode fibre optic cable.

The single mode fibre has a very narrow centre core. This implies that, the light in the cable can take only
one path through it.

It has a very low attenuation rate, and is preferred for long distance transmission.
It has a very high bandwidth of 50 Gigabits per second.
It is very expensive, and requires very careful handling during installation.

Multimode fibre optic cable.

A multimode fibre has a thicker centre core than the single mode fibre.

It allows several light signals (rays) to be sent through the cable at the same time. Hence, there are high
chances of the signal being distorted.
It has a high attenuation rate, and is usually used for shorter distance transmission.

Advantages of fibre optic cable.

 It is immune to electromagnetic interference, and eavesdropping.
 It is fast and supports high bandwidth.
 It has low attenuation; hence, a long distance can be covered.
 It does not generate electrical signals; hence can be used in dangerous (highly flammable) places.
 It is smaller & lighter than copper cables; hence, suitable for situations where space is limited.

Disadvantages of fibre optic cable.

 Requires expensive connectivity devices and media.
 Installation is difficult because the cable must be handled carefully.
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 It is relatively complex to configure.

 A broken fibre optic cable is difficult & expensive to repair.

Review questions.
Define the term Transmission media.
(a). Give two advantages of coaxial cables.
(b). Explain the importance of the wire braid in coaxial cable.
Distinguish between Thinnet and Thicknet coaxial cables.
Define the term Pitch as used in twisted pair cabling.
(a). Give two advantages of fibre optic media.
(b). Differentiate between single mode and multimode fibre optic cables.

Wireless communication (unbounded media)

Wireless (unbounded) media is a type of media that is used to transmit data from one point to another
without using physical connections.
In this case, a transmitting antenna & a receiver aerial are used to facilitate the communication.

Examples of wireless communication media include:

Microwaves.
Radiowaves.
Infrared transmission.
All these waves use different frequencies of the electromagnetic spectrum, and travel at the speed of light.

Microwave transmission
Microwave frequencies have a small wavelength,
and can easily release their energy in water as
heat. This is why they are used in making
domestic kitchen appliances, e.g., microwave
ovens.
In networking, microwaves are suitable for point-
to-point transmissions, whereby a signal is
directed through a focused beam from the
transmitter to the receiver station.

Line of sight

Satellite communication
A Satellite is a microwave relay station. The microwave earth stations have parabolic dishes with an
antenna fixed on them in order to focus a narrow beam towards the satellite in space.

A satellite transmission system has 3 main components:

Transmitter earth station - it sets up an uplink to the satellite in order to transmit data.
A Satellite that is somewhere in an orbit. It receives, amplifies, and retransmits the signal to a receiving
earth station through a downlink frequency.
The downlink & the uplink frequency are usually different. This is to prevent the downlink signal from
interfering with the uplink signal.
Receiving earth station - receives the signal sent by the satellite on the other side of the globe.

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Satellite in space

Uplink Downlink
Transmitter Receiver
earth station earth station

A communication satellite is usually launched into space about 36,000 km above the earth in such a manner
that its speed is almost equal to the rotation speed of the earth. This makes the satellite appear as if it is
stationary in space. Such types of satellites are called geostationary satellites.
Advantages of using satellites
A satellite is convenient because; it provides a large constant line of sight to earth stations. This means that,
there is no need to keep on moving the parabolic dish so as to track the line of sight.
The satellite transmits the signal to many recipient earth stations. This is because; the transmitted signal
spreads out in all directions to form a Point to Multipoint transmission.

Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT)

A VSAT is a very small satellite dish used both in data, radio, and TV communication.
It can be set up at home or in a small business. It enables direct access to satellite communication instead of
having to go through state-owned or licensed satellite gateways.
The dish has an antenna that receives the satellite signals. The signals are decoded using a decoder which is
plugged directly to a television set or a computer.

Radio Wave communication

Radio waves are used in radio and television broadcasts.
Radio waves travel just like surface water waves, i.e., they start from a central point and spread outwards in
all directions.
As they travel outwards, their energy spreads outwards over the covered area. The waves are radiated into
the atmosphere by a radio frequency antenna at constant velocity.

The figure below shows a typical radio waves link between two separate geographical locations.
Path

Transmitting Receiving
antenna antenna

Power supply

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The Bluetooth technology

This is a worldwide and short range radio transmission technology that allows all personal, hand-held
devices to be able to communicate with each other through wireless technology.

It enables people to use hand-held communication devices such as mobile phones & Personal Digital
Assistants (PDA‘s) to access the Internet.
The main component in Bluetooth is a small low power two-way radio transceiver, which can be inserted in
small devices.
Bluetooth enabled devices use a network called the Wireless personal area network (WPAN) or piconet.

Infrared transmission
Communication through infrared waves (signals) is achieved by having infrared transmitters & receivers
(transceivers) within a line of sight in the same room. This is because; infrared signals cannot penetrate
obstacles like walls and ceilings. However, the signal can be reflected off these surfaces until they reach
their destination.

Advantages of wireless communication.

 Wireless medium is flexible in operation, i.e., devices can be moved around without losing access to the
network.
 Wireless networks can span large geographical areas easily.
 Wireless communication can take place via satellite even in very remote areas that do not have high cost
physical infrastructure like telephone lines.

Disadvantages of wireless communication.

 The initial cost is very high.
 It is relatively difficult to establish or configure.

Review questions.
Distinguish between radio and microwave transmission.
Describe an electromagnetic spectrum.
State two advantages of satellite communication.
Give one application area of Infrared transmission.
Describe the VSAT technology.
Explain the concept of a geostationary satellite.
Explain the line of sight principle in wireless communication.

Communication devices
For a network to be fully operational, communication devices are required, and act as interfaces between the
Terminal devices.
Terminal equipments are the devices at both ends of the communication link, e.g., computers.
Some of the data communication devices are:
Network Interface card (NIC)
A NIC acts as a physical connection (link/interface) between the computer & a properly terminated
transmission cable.
A NIC is plugged into an empty expansion slot on the motherboard, and has ports at the back in which the
terminated end of a network cable can be plugged.

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Modem
A Modem converts a digital signal to analogue form so that it can be transmitted over an analogue media.
A Codec converts an analogue signal to digital form so that it can be transmitted over a digital medium.
A modem can be external, an add-on card or built on the motherboard.
Hub (Concentrator)
A Hub is a component that connects computers on a network, and is able to relay signals from one computer
to another on the same network.
A Hub usually connects networks that have the same set of communication software usually called
Protocols.

A Hub transmits signals by broadcasting them to all the computers on the network. After the signal is
broadcasted, the computer whose address is on the message then picks the message from the network.
Several hubs can be connected together one after another to expand a network.

Intelligent hubs
Intelligent hubs are able to monitor the way computers are communicating on the network, and keep the
information in their own database called management information base (MIB). The network server can then
use this information to fine-tune the network.
Intelligent hubs also manage a network by isolating computers that are not functioning properly.

Bridges
This is a network device that selectively determines the appropriate network segment for which a message is
meant to be delivered. It does this through address filtering.
Purpose of using a Bridge
 It can divide a busy network into segments to reduce network traffic.
 To extend the length & number of workstations that a segment can support.
 To reduce overall traffic flow by allowing broadcasts only in the destination segment of the network.
 The bridge makes sure that packets that are not meant for a particular segment are not broadcast in that
segment.

Repeater
A Repeater receives a signal from one segment of a network, cleans it to remove any distortion, boosts it,
and then sends it to another segment.
It therefore, enables the network to eliminate attenuation problems.

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Note. Repeaters can easily be used to expand a network. This is because; they broadcast the same message
to other network segments.

Routers
A Router connects different networks, and directs the transfer of data packets from source to destination.
Note. Routing depends on network addresses. Each network has a unique address (or identifier) called the
IP address.
The router will receive a packet of data from another router on the network, and check the network address
of the destination. If the address is the same as the one on which the router is, the router will then read the
address of the host and then pass the data packet to the destination, otherwise the packet will be routed to the
next network address.
NB: Network addressing has been made possible because of the use of a special interconnecting protocol
called the Internet Protocol (IP).

Gateways
A Gateway is any device that can be configured to provide access to a Wide Area Network or the Internet.
Note. A gateway may be a router, or a computer configured to provide access to the Internet.

Fig.: A gateway PC connecting a LAN to a WAN

Switches
Unlike a hub, a Switch forwards a data packet directly to the terminal equipment on the network without
broadcasting. It does this by connecting the two nodes point-to-point as if they were linked by a direct
cable.
Note. Some hubs can also act as switches. Such a hub is referred to as a switching hub.
Switches are more expensive than hubs. This means that, one switch may be used as a bridge to connect
several hubs. This reduces collision problems caused by broadcasts.

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Fig. A switch on a Local area network

Wireless communication devices
For a long time, networks have been implemented using tangible transmission media like cables. However,
since the cost of wireless technology has gone down & the quality of service increased, companies &
individuals are now using wireless segments in their communications with the aim of extending the
capability of wired networks.
The most common devices (components) used in wireless communication are: Access Points (AP), and
Wireless antennae.
Access points (AP)
An Access point is an entry point into a bounded network.
It is used by people who have wireless devices such as Personal Digital Assistants (PDA‘s), Laptops, and
computers with wireless links.

Fig. 3.0: Wireless access point

Wireless antennae
The Access point should have antennae so as to detect wave signals in the surrounding. The waves may be
Radio waves, microwaves or infrared waves.
Most Access points have 2 antennae so that the one that receives the best signal at any particular time can be
used.
Personal Computer Memory Card International Association (PCMCIA) card
A PCMCIA is a card inserted into a device such as a Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) or a laptop in order to
enable wireless communication between the device and a wired network server.

Fig.: The PCMCIA card used to connect a device to a wireless LAN

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Review questions.
Describe at least five devices used in data communications.
Explain the function of a NIC in networking.
(a). Explain the importance of a gateway on a network.
(b). Differentiate between a router and a gateway.
Why is a Switch preferred to a hub on the network?
What is the function of a Repeater on a network?
Give one disadvantage of a Hub on a network.

Network software
Network software can be classified into 2 main groups:
Network Operating systems.
Network Protocols.

Network Operating systems

These are operating systems specifically designed to enable the networked computers to respond to service
requests.
Servers run on a network operating system.
Functions of network operating systems
A network operating system performs the following network related functions:
Provides access to network resources, e.g., printers and folders.
Enables nodes on the network to communicate efficiently with each other.
Enables the various processes on the network to communicate with one another.
Responds to requests from application programs running on the network.
Supports network services such as network card drivers & protocols.
Maintains security, ensuring that only users authorized to use the computer system are allowed access to it.
Produces logs, i.e., a record of all the programs as they are run.
Organises the use of storage, since this has to be shared among different users.
Works out the resources used by each program. If the user is paying for the service, then the computer
works out the cost of running the program & charges the appropriate account.

Network OS are normally designed as Multi-user operating systems that run the network server program.
Examples of network operating systems are:
-UNIX - Windows NT
-Linux - Windows 2000
-Novell NetWare - Windows 2003

Protocols
Protocols are a set of rules and procedures that govern the communication between two different devices or
people.
E.g., a diplomat from a foreign country must adhere to the set rules and procedures of communication when
representing his country in the host country.
In computer networking, Protocols are the rules and technical procedures that govern communication
between the different computers on the network.
How Protocols work
The data transmission process over the network is divided into steps, and at each step, a certain action takes
place.

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In addition, each step has its own rules and procedures as defined by the network protocols. The work of
these protocols is usually coordinated through protocol layering so as to ensure that there are no conflicts or
incomplete operations.
Protocols at the Application layer:
They provide services to application programs such as the E-mail editor program that enables composing or
reading of e-mail messages.
Examples of protocols at the Application layer include:

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) - an Internet protocol for transferring e-mails.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) – an Internet protocol for transferring files.
Apple Talk and Apple Share – a networking protocol standard for Apple computers.
Protocols at the Transport layer:
They ensure that data is passed between computers more reliably.
Examples of protocols at the Transport layer include:
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) – enables delivery of sequenced data over the network.
Sequential Packet Exchange (SPX) – used in Novell networks for sequenced data.
NetBEUI – used in Microsoft and IBM networks to establish communication sessions between computers in
LANs.
Apple Transaction Protocol (ATP) – it is a communication session and data transport protocol used in
Apple computers.
Protocols at the Network layer:
They provide link services, e.g., they handle addressing and routing information, error checking and
retransmission of requests.
Examples of protocols at the Network layer include:
Internet Protocol (IP) – it does packet forwarding and routing.
Internetwork Packets Exchange – This is a NetWare‘s protocol for packet forwarding and routing.
Review questions.
List two types of network software.
Outline four functions of network operating system.
List four examples of network operating systems.
Outline the seven open systems interconnection (OSI) reference model layers.
Explain the importance of the Physical layer in the open systems interconnection (OSI) reference model.
(a). Define the term protocol.
(b). Give three examples of protocols used in networking.

Network Topologies
The term network Topology refers to the way in which computers, cables, and other devices have been
arranged in the network.
It can also refer to how data is passed from one computer to another in the network.
Logical and physical topologies
Network topology can be viewed in 2 ways; Logical or Physical.
Logical (Signal) topology
Logical topology deals with the way data passes from one device to the next on the network.
Examples of logical topologies are:
Ethernet.
Token ring.
Ethernet topology

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In Ethernet topology, all computers listen to the network media, and a particular computer can only send
data when none of the others is sending.
Token ring topology
In Token ring topology, a special package for data called a token goes around the network. The computer
whose address is on the data held in the token picks it up, reads the data, and then releases the token. The
token can then be captured by another computer which needs to transmit data.
Physical topology
Physical topology refers to the physical arrangement of components on the network.
Examples of physical topologies are:
Star topology.
Bus topology.
Ring topology.
Mesh topology.
Tree (Hierarchical) topology.

The choice of the topology to adopt depends on factors such as Reliability, Expandability, and Performance.

Star topology
Star topology consists of computers and other devices, each connected to a common central server called the
Hub. However, to connect to the central machine, each computer uses a separate cable.
Nodes communicate across the network by passing data signals through the hub, i.e., any two computers
(workstations) in the network communicate through the central machine.
When the hub receives data from a transmitting computer, it broadcasts the message to all the other nodes on
the network.

Advantages of Star topology.

Allows key networking resources such as concentrators & servers to be centralized.
Easy to configure.
Enhances operational survivability.
The hub isolates the network cables from each other. Even if a wire between a workstation and the hub
breaks or develops a bad connection, the rest of the network remains operational.
Simple to control.
It can be extended easily, since a workstation is simply connected to the hub.
Provides flexibility in adding or deleting devices.

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The wiring hubs increase the flexibility for growth. Addition & removal of nodes does not involve cutting
and joining of cables.
Easier to troubleshoot.
When something goes wrong with the network, the administrator can troubleshoot it from the wiring hub.
The Hub can support multiple types of cables.

Disadvantages of Star topology.

If the central switch node (Hub) fails, it may bring down the entire network.
It is costly because; each workstation is connected to the central concentrator by is own dedicated cable (i.e.,
it requires a lot of cables).
Installation is time consuming, because each node forms a segment of its own.
May require a special device for signal regeneration across the network.

Bus topology (Daisy-chain topology)

In Bus topology, all the devices in the network are connected directly, through appropriate interfacing
hardware, to a single transmission cable called the Bus (or Backbone) on which information is broadcast.

Bus topology uses Coaxial cable as transmission medium. The cable can carry only one message at a time
and each workstation on the network must be able to know when it can and cannot transmit using this cable.
A Terminator is attached to each end of the cable to avoid signals from bouncing back and forth on the cable
causing signal distortion.
For communication to take place, data is addressed to a particular computer & put in the cable in the form of
electronic signal. As the data passes along the cable, each workstation checks whether the data is addressed
to it. If the address in the data matches that of the machine, it picks up the data and processes it.
Bus topology doesn‘t need any special equipment such as switches or repeaters to amplify the signal.

Advantages of Bus topology.

Easy to install.
Inexpensive (less costly) because; it does not require a complete cable length per computer.
Can easily be extended.
It allows the workstations to communicate independently (separately) of each other.
Failure of one station on the network does not affect the operations on the bus.

Disadvantages of Bus topology.

A cable break in each section brings down the whole network.
The performance degrades since there is no signal integration.
Troubleshooting the cable fault can be quite difficult because; the fault could be anywhere on the cable.
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Only a limited number of computers can be connected to the cable. This is because; each computer is
listening to the cable in order to transmit. This means that, if the number of computers increase, there will
be more collision as the workstations compete for transmission.

Ring topology
In a ring topology, the computers are connected to one another
in the shape of a closed loop using a single cable.

Data flows from one computer to another in one direction, and

each computer actively participates in data transfer from one
station to the other. In other words, each workstation acts as a
booster by regenerating and retransmitting the signals around
the network to its neighbour.

A token is used to exchange data from one station to another. A token can be viewed as an envelope or a
bag where data is placed for transmission and carried around the network.

Advantages of Ring topology.

They use a short length cable.
Simple to install.
Provides high performance for many users.
Provides an orderly network in which every device has access to the token and can transmit data.

Disadvantages of Ring topology.

Failure of one computer or the cable will affect the rest in the entire network.
Modification is difficult because; adding or removing a device can disrupt the entire network.
Troubleshooting can be difficult.

Mesh topology
Mesh topology uses separate cables to connect each device to every other device on the network providing a
straight communication path.
It is mostly used in Wide Area Networks where there are many paths between different locations.

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Advantages of Mesh topology.

It is fast.
Failure on one node will not cause communication breakdown.
Easy to troubleshoot cable problems. If two machines are not communicating, the administrator will only
check the cable between them.
Enhances flexibility in communication.
Enhances fault tolerance provided by redundant/ excessive links.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

Difficult and expensive to install and maintain.
Very costly as it requires large amounts of cables (or redundant links).
Difficult to add more nodes when the network is large.
Difficult to isolate faults due to lack of a central control point.

Tree (Hierarchical) topology

This is a hybrid topology where groups of star-configured networks are connected to a linear bus
(backbone).

Fig. 3.6: Tree topology

Review questions.
What is a computer network topology?
Distinguish between Logical and Physical network topology.
Using appropriate diagrams, describe any three types of physical network topologies.

COMMUNICATION OF DATA IN A NETWORK.

Data in a network travels from one computer to the other using laid down rules known as Protocols. The
protocols used depend on the way the computers are connected together on the network.
Generally, there are 2 broad ways in which computers communicate with one another in a network, namely:
Point-to-point communication.
Broadcast communication.
Point-to-point communication.
In point-to-point, the network contains numerous cables or telephone lines, each one connecting a pair of
computers.

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The message is received at each intermediate computer in whole, stored there until the required output line is
free, and then forwarded.
A network using this principle is called a point-to-point or store-and-forward network.

Broadcast communication.
In broadcast, there is a single communication channel shared by all computers. In this case, the messages
sent by any computer are received by all other computers.
Something in the message itself must specify for whom it is intended. After receiving a message not
intended for itself, a computer just ignores it.

Review questions.
As regards to communication within a computer network, what do you understand by the following terms:
Point-to-point
Broadcast (2 marks)

NETWORK MODELS
A Network model describes how the computer processes information on the network.
Data can be processed by a Client, a central Server or by all the computers on the network.

Centralized computer model.

Very large computers, usually mainframes, are connected with terminals. The users input & output data
using the terminals, while the processing is done by the central computer (mainframe).

Advantages of Centralized model

 Data is kept in one location, ensuring that every user is working with the same information.
 It is easier to back up data since the information is stored on only one Server.
 Easier to maintain security. It is only the server which needs to be secured since the terminals have no data.
 The terminals do not require floppy drives as all work is stored on a Server.
 Chances of computer being affected by viruses are very minimal as no diskettes are being used.
 It less costly.
 Although the Server has to be very powerful with a lot of storage space, the terminals are inexpensive as
they don‘t require real processing or storage capability of their own.

Disadvantages of Centralized model

 It is very slow as it is the server alone, which does all the processing.
 In case where the users have varied needs, it would be difficult to meet these needs in a centralized
computing network as each user application needs to be set up separately.
 Connection is difficult. All the computers have to be connected on a central place.

Distributive computing
In this model, data is stored and processed on the local workstation. Computers acting as Standalone
systems are connected together for increased functionality.

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A Stand alone is a computer which is not connected to any other computer equipment other than its own
Printer.
Advantages of Distributive Computing model.
 Each machine processes and stores its data; hence, data is accessed faster.
 It doesn‘t need powerful and expensive servers for data storage.
 It can accommodate users with variety of needs.

Disadvantages of Distributive Computing model.

 It is more susceptible to virus, as any user could introduce an infected file and spread it throughout the
network.
 It is more difficult to develop an effective back up plan, since each user stores data in his/her individual
system.
 File management (organization) is difficult as the files are stored in different locations.

Collaborative model.
In this model, all computers can share processing power across the network. Applications can be written to
use the processing on the computers to complete job more quickly.
Advantages of Collaborative model.
 It is faster to complete a task as users are not limited to processing power of one system.
 Variety of users can be accommodated on a collaborative network.
Disadvantages of Collaborative model.
 Viruses can easily be transmitted through the network.
 Backing up of the data is difficult.
 File synchronization is difficult.

CATEGORIES OF NETWORKS
Peer-to-Peer network.
A Peer is a computer that acts both as the client and a server.
In this network, all the connected computers are equal & each machine acts as both client and Server. This
means that, there is no central storage area for information & no dedicated central Server.
No system administrator. Therefore, the user of each computer determines what data & resources the
computer will shares with other computers on the network.
Peer-to-peer networks are appropriate in an environment where:
There are 10 or less users.
The users are located in a general area.
Security is not an issue, e.g. in Bulletin boards.

Advantages of Peer-to-peer networks.

 It is small & inexpensive.
 It is easier to maintain.
 It is easier to setup.

Disadvantages of Peer-to-peer networks.

 It is difficult to locate information stored in the connected computers due to Shared level security.
 Difficult to update documents and files.
 It is expensive to train staff on how to share resources, as each user is an administrator.

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 It is difficult to maintain security, as it is the user‘s responsibility to ensure that only authorized individuals
can access their data.
 It is more tedious as the user has to memorize password for resources, and in case of any change, they have
to inform others.

Server-based networks.
In this network, there is usually a Server, e.g. a company which is dedicated to handle files and/or
information for clients, make & service requests from network clients, and ensure security of files and
directories for them.
Server-based networks require a network operating system.

Advantages of Server based networks.

 There is security since the Server controls the resources the clients need to access.
 It can support a large number of users.
 The server can be optimized to hand out information as fast as possible.
 Fewer connections are required by the clients to get the resources.
 Easier to maintain backup for files (synchronization of files).
 Cost effective as client workstations don‘t need large hard disk (storage capacity).

Disadvantages of Server based networks.

 It is dependent on a Network administrator.
 Requires servers, which are expensive.

Review questions.
How does each of the following networking models operate?
Centralized computing.
Collaborative computing.
Distributed computing.

Network Security
In networking, there are several ways of protecting your data and information from intruders. They include:
Share level and User level security.
Share level security
This model of security is mostly used in peer-to-peer networks. The user can decide which resources to give
for sharing.
Most Windows operating systems such as Windows 9X provide such kind of security.

User-level security
The User level security is used on server-based networks.
A network administrator assigns accounts to users, i.e., each user is provided with a unique name and a
password which he/she can use to access network resources.

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TOPIC 8: SPREADSHEETS

Definition of a Spreadsheet.
A Spreadsheet is a ledger sheet that lets the user enter, edit, and manipulate numerical data.
A Spreadsheet usually consists of a series of rows & columns in which data entries can be made.

Types of Spreadsheets:
There are 2 types of spreadsheets:

Manual spreadsheet:
A Manual spreadsheet is ledger book with many sheets of papers divided into rows and columns for
entering/writing data.
The data is entered manually using a pen or pencil.

Electronic Spreadsheet:
A computer program that looks like the manual ledger sheet with rows & columns for entering data that can
be manipulated mathematically using of formulae.

Advantages of Electronic Spreadsheets over Manual Worksheets.

An electronic spreadsheet:
 Has a large worksheet for data entry & manipulation as compared to manual worksheet.
 Has inbuilt formulae called Functions that are non-existent in manual worksheets. These functions enable
the user to quickly manipulate mathematical data.
 Uses the power of the computer to quickly carry out operations.
 Has better formatting & editing qualities than the manual worksheet.
 Utilizes the large storage space available on computer storage devices to save & retrieve documents.
 Can easily be modified in its form, while a manual spreadsheet involves a lot of manual calculations & are
very difficult to amend.
 The user can very quickly & efficiently perform complicated computations using the information stored in
an electronic spreadsheet.
 It is accurate in its calculations & allows automatic recalculation on formulae.
 I.e., when one value/figure is changed, the result of the formula is automatically adjusted by the computer so
as to correspond with the different input. For a manual spreadsheet, changing one value means rubbing the
result & writing the correct one again.
 It offers graphical representation of data leading to comprehensive decisions.
 Replaces the pencil & paper approach of the manual operations of the worksheet.
 I.e., it enables the user to produce neat work because; all the work is edited on the screen and a final copy is
printed. With a manual spreadsheet, neatness & legibility of the work depends on the writer‘s hand-writing
skills.
 It improves on the capabilities & speed of the Calculator.

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Examples of the commonly used Spreadsheet packages

 VisiCalc – this was the 1st type of spreadsheet to be developed for PCs.
 Lotus 123 – this is an integrated software with spreadsheet module, graphs, and database.
 Microsoft Excel.
 Corel Quattro-Pro
 Microsoft Works Excel
 Super calculators.
 Multiplan.
 Vp-Planner.

Review Questions.
Define a Spreadsheet.
Differentiate between the traditional analysis ledger sheet and an electronic spreadsheet.
Name three commonly spreadsheet packages.

COMPONENTS OF A SPREADSHEET
A spreadsheet has 3 main components, namely;
Workbook.
Database.
Graphs / Charts.

Workbook:
When working in any spreadsheet program, you use workbook files to hold your information.

A Workbook is a file in a spreadsheet package that contains one or more worksheets. The worksheets are
made up of rows & columns in which you work and store your data.
A Workbook allows the user to organize various kinds of related information in a single file.

Database:
Spreadsheet programs such as Excel have special features, which can be used to manage data values entered
in the cells of the spreadsheet.
These features, which are found on the Data menu, were incorporated in Excel but they belong to Database
Management System software.
Examples of such features include: Filtering of records, use of Forms, calculating of Subtotals, data
validation, Pivot tables and Pivot chart reports.

Example:
If related data values are entered on the same row, they form a Record. Hence, a worksheet can be
manipulated as a database that has data records entered in it.

Graphs/Charts:
A Chart is a graphical/pictorial representation of data in a worksheet. Charts are used to summarize data in a
worksheet in a pictorial form.

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They enable the users to present complex data elements from a worksheet in a simple format that they can
understand.
Charts make it easy for users to see comparisons, patterns, and trends in data, e.g., instead of having to
analyse several columns of a worksheet, one can see at a glance whether sales are falling or rising.
Examples of charts are: Pie charts, Line graphs, Bar charts, Histograms, Column charts, etc.

Other terms in electronic spreadsheets

Worksheet: a page in a workbook
Range: a collection of adjacent cells selected for editing or formatting
Formula: a mathematical expression that represents a value e.g =SUM(B2+C2)
Function: a pre-defined expression used to calculate values. E.g if, sum, average, rank, vlookup, hlookup etc
Review Questions.
Name and describe the three components of a spreadsheet.
Explain the following terms as used in spreadsheets.
Workbook.
Chart.

Application areas of spreadsheets (Areas where Spreadsheets are used)

Accounting.
Spreadsheets provide an easy & streamlined means of financial management. They are mostly used by
Accountants to record their daily transactions & also keep financial records.
For example; a spreadsheet can be used to do the following:
Record sales & purchases.
Calculate profits.
Produce Invoices, and also compile financial statements.
Prepare budgets.
Assist the management of an organization to monitor the current state of payments from customers in
relation to goods delivered.
Detect aged debtors (i.e., those people who have owed you money for more than the period allowed in your
terms of business.
Track the value of assets over time (i.e., Appreciation and Depreciation).

Note. Most spreadsheet programs come with inbuilt functions such as SUM, AVERAGE, PRODUCT, etc,
which enable the Accountant to carry out his/her daily accounting tasks easily.

Data management.
A spreadsheet enables information to be produced easily and kept up-to-date.
For example;
It enables the user to create, edit, save, retrieve and print worksheet data & records.
It enables data to be arranged neatly in tabular structure.
Related data can be typed on the same worksheet. If the data is on different worksheets, the worksheets can
be linked so that the data can be accessed easily.
Some of the data management functions include:
Sorting (i.e., arranging worksheet records in a particular order so as to easily access the data items).
Filtering (i.e., displaying only the records that meet a given condition).
Use of Forms to enter & view records.
Use of Total/Subtotal function.

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Scientific Applications.
Spreadsheet programs can be used by Scientists & Researchers to compile & analyse their results.
Statistical analysis / Mathematical operations.
Spreadsheets provide a set of data analysis tools that can be used to develop complex statistical analyses. In
addition, some of the tools generate charts.
Examples of statistical functions include:
AVERAGE – used to calculate the mean of a set of values.
MEDIAN – used to give the value in the middle of a set of values.
Such mathematical operations can be used by:
Teachers to compile their students‘ marks and produce results.
Clerks & Secretaries to enable them easily create tables of figures and manipulate them quickly as required.

Forecasting (What if analysis).

The automatic recalculation feature makes it possible to use the ―What if‖ analysis technique.
What if analysis is a feature in a spreadsheet that is used to find out the effect of changing certain values in a
worksheet on other cells.
It involves changing the value of one of the arguments in a formula in order to see the difference the change
would make on the result of the calculation.
This method can be used for financial forecasting, budgeting, cost analysis, etc.

Review Questions.
Explain five application areas where spreadsheet software can be used.
Explain the concept of ―What if‖ analysis.

Common features of Electronic spreadsheets.

The following are the typical facilities provided by electronic spreadsheets:
 Have the ability to create, edit, save & retrieve worksheets.
 Have inbuilt functions & formulae which can be used to perform calculations.
 Allows Automatic recalculation, i.e., when you change one value, the rest of the values in the spreadsheet
are automatically recalculated by the computer to correspond with the different input. This enables you to
play ―what if‖ games with your system.
 Have the ability to Sort and filter data (i.e., arrange data in a predefined order).
 Have a Data validation facility, which ensures that the correct data is entered into the Spreadsheet.
 Have a Chart facility that can be used to draw line graphs, Bar charts, histograms, etc.
 Have the ability to format data (both text & numeric data) using predefined formats.
 Some Spreadsheets have a SOLVER facility that is used to uncover the best uses of scarce resources so that
desired goals can be achieved.
 Have the ability to adjust Column widths & Row heights automatically.
 Have the ability to hide and unhide rows & columns, and also freeze panes.
 They enable printing of worksheets within the shortest time possible.
 They have pre-designed Templates for automating tasks.
 A Template is a document that acts as a blueprint or outline for other documents of the same type. It
contains the standard text, graphics & formatting that will be used in all documents of this type.
 This means that, all formulas and formatting for similar workbooks such as Invoices can be saved as
templates and then be used to automate the task without having to create the workbook again.
 Have the ability to summarize data using Consolidation and Pivot tables.

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 Consolidation allows the merging of several worksheets into a summary sheet, while still keeping the
original worksheets intact. Consolidation adds together cells with the same co-ordinates in the various
worksheets.
 Pivot tables can be used to cross-tabulate large amounts of data.

Differences between an Electronic Spreadsheet and a Calculator

An electronic spreadsheet: -
Has more memory than calculator.
Is able to perform complex logical operations, but a calculator cannot.
Uses the large storage capacity of the computer that a calculator does not have.
Has a large working area that a calculator does not have.

Review Questions.
Describe any five features of a spreadsheet program.
State five features of spreadsheets that are useful in financial modelling.
How does a spreadsheet differ from a Calculator?

TOPIC 9: Web Design

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Web Design and Publishing is the process of planning, creating, manipulating, saving and uploading
hyperlinked html documents (web pages) to a computer network so that they can be viewed via web
browsers.

Web Design software Examples

There are lots of good web design software on the market today.
Note Pad
Microsoft FrontPage 2003
Adobe Dreamweaver CS4
WebPlus X4 (Now owned by Microsoft)
Microsoft Expression Web 3.0 & Studio 3
Namo WebEditor 8 & Professional
Sothink DHTML Menu 9 & Tree Menu 2
Antenna Web Design Studio 3
AllWebMenus PRO 5
PhotonFX Easy Website Pro 4

Terms In Web Designing

These are brief definitions of some of the common terms used in web design and publishing
Bookmark
A bookmark is an anchor tag that defines and links to a specific location in an HTML document. Bookmarks
are useful when you have long pages that are divided into logical sections, or when you want to jump from
one central list of links to multiple locations on a page.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
The protocol used for copying files to and from remote computer systems on a network using TCP/IP, such
as the Internet.
HTML
(Hypertext Markup Language) A tagging system used to code documents so that they can be published on
the World Wide Web and viewed with a browser
HTTP
(Hypertext Transfer Protocol) The client/server protocol used to access information on the World Wide
Web.
HTTPS
(Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure) is a combination of HTTP with the SSL/TLS protocol to provide
encrypted communication and secure identification of a network web server. HTTPS connections are often
used for payment transactions on the World Wide Web and for sensitive transactions in corporate
information systems.
HYPERLINK
The text or graphic that users click on to go to a file, a location in a file, an Internet or intranet site, page,
location, and so on. Hypertext is text with hyperlinks.
INDEX PAGE
The home page or URL of a website, usually serving as an introduction and having links to other pages in
the website.
DOMAIN NAME
The unique name that identifies an Internet site. A domain name is an identification label that defines a
dominion of control on the Internet, based on the Domain Name System (DNS).

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IP ADDRESS
An (Internet Protocol address) is a numerical label that is assigned to any device participating in a
computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication between its nodes.
JPEG / JPG
(Joint Photographic Experts Group) A graphics format used for photos and other graphics with more than
256 colors.
PAGE TITLE
The text that is displayed on the page banner of a Web page and in the title bar of a Web browser.
URL
(Uniform resource locator) The alphanumeric address that Web visitors use to locate your Web site on the
World Wide Web.
TAGS
HTML tags are codes, of keyword elements enclosed by the lesser than (<) and greater than (>) brackets,
which give commands to a browser. eg <u> is an HTML tag that tells the browser to underline text on the
webpage.
WEB AUTHORING SOFTWARE
A Web site development program that allows Web pages to be visually created like a desktop publishing
program. It generates the required HTML code for the pages and is able to switch back and forth (in varying
degrees) between the page layout and the HTML.
Web Browser
Is application software which enables a user to display and interact with text, images, and other information
on a Web page (Examples: Opera, Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Internet Explorer, Netscape, etc)
WEB MAILPROVIDER
A hosting company that primarily provides end users access to internet services such as e-mail.
WEB SERVER
A computer that stores and delivers (serves up) websites and their related files for viewing on the Internet.
WEBMASTER
A person who creates and manages the information and content, organizes and maintains of a Web site
WEBSITE
A collection of related or hyperlinked web pages
WYSIWYG
(What You See is What You Get) implies a user interface that allows the user to view something very
similar to the end result while the document is being created.

Features of web authoring software

These are the basic features common to the working environment of most popular web authoring software
programs.
1.Views
Most web authoring software provides multiple views of the web page you're working on.
Standard, normal, or design view - This is typically the default view, which is a blank screen on which you
type, paste, or insert content. It uses the WYSIWYG principle. This is very similar to a word processor
screen.
Code view - Allows you to view and work directly with the HTML code created for you by the web
authoring software.
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Split - Both of the above views are displayed simultaneously in separate windows.
2.Creating Headings and Subheadings
In Normal or Design View, Web authoring software. A text formatting toolbar typically includes buttons for
bolding and italicizing text, and probably additionally includes some means of identifying a heading or
subheading.
3. Inserting Links
In web authoring software products, you add a link to a document by selecting Insert from the menu, then
Link or Hyperlink. Most web authoring software tools additionally provide a button or icon that allows you
to quickly insert a link.
4.Inserting Images
In many web authoring software products, you add an image to a document by selecting Insert from the
menu, then Image or Picture.
After you have inserted the image into your webpage, you can edit its attributes in a Properties dialog box or
panel. You can change the image's height and width, put a border around it, make it into a link, and add
alternate text for users who can't see the image
5.Some web authoring packages use built-in file transfer protocol (FTP) capabilities to publish the designed
pages to a web server and allow the user to edit publish files while making real-time changes.
6. Web authoring software also allows users to create cascading style sheets (CSS) and web design
templates, create and add specialized scripts (including Javascript applications) and even automatically afix
file properties like create date, author information, and copyright data
7. Themes: This feature provides a ways to accomplish a consistent look and feel for all pages on web site
at once
8. Task panes. A dropdown arrow allows you to switch
Between various Panes offering options to work of different items.
9. Help Feature Most web authoring software also have a help area which users can use to find information
about the software.
Web authoring software is detrimental to a designer's HTML programming skills, as users rarely need to
actually apply those skills to their design projects.
Instead, web authoring software users simply design web pages much like they would design a word
processing or desktop publishing document, dragging items into the desired location instead of using HTML
commands to properly position the image.
For this reason, seasoned web design professionals insist on designing their pages and sites exclusively in
text-based HTML, some using simple word processing applications, rather than building a reliance on a
graphical interface.
Features and Qualities of a Good Website
 The web must have a home page. This means a page at the top of any tiered structure or at the centre of a
web you design on paper.
 You should name the home page Index.htm (or Index.html) in line with web server protocol.
 Should not have too much on one page. It's better to use lots of pages with a small amount of information on
each.
 Should have links to other areas on all pages for easy navigation through the website
 Should load quickly
 Should have a title and brief summary about the page
 Should have date of last Update
 Page (file) names should be eight characters or less. Although many servers and systems now support long
filenames, it isn't universal by any means.
 Should have a feedback page or a link to the webmaster who will be the first contact for your website‘s
visitors
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 Should have Simplicity = Elegance

Importance of a website
 Making of a website favors publishing of data and information in a bid to create awareness about something
on the internet.
 A website is an avenue for sharing knowledge through intercontinental interaction for example through
teleconferencing and discussion boards.
 Website development enhances skill building such as writing, editing, layout and design; providing
motivation and pride of ownership
Limitations of a website
 Expenses: Websites are not easy to setup and maintain due to annual subscription to ISPs or web hosts
 Timely updating issues: Information keeps on changing and this requires constant revision and effecting
changes as necessary.
 Copyright issues: It is a crime to publish information from copyrighted sources without permission from the
original authors.
 Considerations for Webmasters
 Webmasters should have the following points in mind when designing a website:
 They should be original and avoid violating copyright laws.
 The web pages should have valuable content for public consumption, tailored for consumer requirements
 They should take into account the type of browsers the clients have: some versions may not be able to
display advanced webpage elements
 They should use minimum graphics
 They should limit the use of frames

TOPIC 10:
DATABASES
What is a Database?
It is a collection of information related to a particular subject or purpose.
A collection of related data or information grouped together under one logical structure.
A logical collection of related files grouped together by a series of tables as one entity.
Examples of databases.
You can create a database for;
Customers‘ details. - Library records. -phone book
Personal records. - Flight schedules.
Employees‘ records. - A music collection.
An Address book (or Telephone directory), where each person has the Name, Address, City & Telephone
no.

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DATABASE CONCEPTS.
Data - these are raw facts and figures used to generate information.
-these are facts and figures that cannot be based on to make a decision.
Information - is a collections of organized facts
-Is processed data
-Facts that can be based on to make a decision.
File -A collection of related records.
Record -A collection of details about a single item
-A row of data in a database.
Field -A named collection of details about different items
-A complete unit of information
-A column containing data in a database

DATA BASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (DBMS)

These are programs used to store & manage files or records containing related information.
A collection of programs required to store & retrieve data from a database.
A DBMS is a tool that allows one to create, maintain, update and store the data within a database.
A DBMS is a complex software, which creates, expands & maintains the database, and it
also provides the interface between the user and the data in the database.
A DBMS enables the user to create lists of information in a computer, analyse them, add new information,
delete old information, and so on. It allows users to efficiently store information in an orderly manner for
quick retrieval.
A DBMS can also be used as a programming tool to write custom-made programs.
Examples of database management software;
* Microsoft Access. * FoxPro. * Ingress.
* Dbase III Plus * Paradox. * SQL Server.
* Oracle. * Informix
* Progress. * Sybase.
Common features of a database packages.
 Have facilities for Creating databases.
 Have facilities for Updating records or databases.
 Using a DBMS, you can define relationships between records & files maintained in a database. In this case,
a transaction in one file of the database can also cause a series of updates in parts of other tables. Thus, the
data is input only once to the database and is made available to the many files composing it.
 Have facilities for generating Reports.
 Have a Find or Search facility that enables the user to scan through the records in the database so as to find
information he/she needs.
 Allow Sorting that enables the user to organize & arrange the records within the database.
 Contain Query & Filter facilities that specify the information you want the database to search or sort.
 Have a data Validating facility.

FUNCTIONS OF A DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM.

The DBMS is a set of software, which have several functions in relation to the database as listed below:
 Creates or constructs the database contents through the Data Manipulation Languages.
 Interfaces (links) the user to the database contents through Data Manipulation Languages.
 Ensures the growth of the database contents through addition of new fields & records onto the database.
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 Maintains the contents of the database. This involves adding new records or files into the database,
modifying the already existing records & deleting of the outdated records.
 It helps the user to sort through the records & compile lists based on any criteria he/she would like to
establish.
 Manages the storage space for the data within the database & keeps track of all the data in the database.
 It provides flexible processing methods for the contents of the database.
 Protects the contents of the database against all sorts of damage or misuse, e.g. illegal access.
 Monitors the usage of the database contents to determine the rarely used data and those that are frequently
used, so that they can be made readily available, whenever need arises.
 It maintains a dictionary of the data within the database & manages the data descriptions in the dictionary.

Note. Database Management System (DBMS) is used for database;

Creation.
Manipulation.
Control, and Report generation.

ADVANTAGES OF USING A DBMS.

Database systems can be used to store data, retrieve and generate reports.
 It is easy to maintain the data stored within a database.
 A DBMS is able to handle large amounts of data.
 Data is stored in an organized format, i.e. under different fieldnames.
 With modern equipment, data can easily be recorded.
 Data is quickly & easily accessed or retrieved, as it is properly organized.
 It helps in linking many database tables and sourcing of data from these tables.
 It is quite easy to update the data stored within a database.
 A database is a collection of files grouped together by a series of tables as one entity. These tables serve as
an index for defining relationships between records and files maintained in the database. This makes
updating of the data in the related tables very easy.
 Use of a database tool reduces duplication of the stored files, and the reprocessing of the same data items. In
addition, several independent files are maintained for the different user requirements.
 It is used to query & display records satisfying a given condition.
 It is easy to analyse information stored in a database & to prepare summary reports & charts.
 It cost saving. This results from the sharing of records, reduced processing times, reduced use of software
and hardware, more efficient use of data processing personnel, and an overall improvement in the flow of
data.
 Use of Integrated systems is greatly facilitated.
 An Integrated system – A total system approach that unifies all the aspects of the organization. Facilities are
shared across the complete organization.
 A lot of programming time is saved because the DBMS can be used to construct & process files as well as
retrieve data.
 Information supplied to managers is more valuable, because it is based on a widespread collection of data
(instead of files, which contain only the data needed for one application).
 The database also maintains an extensive Inventory Control file. This file gives an account of all the parts &
equipment throughout the maintenance system. It also defines the status of each part and its location.
 It enables timely & accurate reporting of data to all the maintenance centres. The same data is available and
distributed to everyone.
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 The database maintains files related to any work assigned to outside service centres.
 Many parts are repaired by the vendors from whom they are purchased. A database is used to maintain data
on the parts that have been shipped to vendors and those that are outstanding from the inventory. Data
relating to the guarantees and warranties of individual vendors are also stored in the database.

DISADVANTAGES OF DATABASES.
 A Database system requires a big size, very high cost & a lot of time to implement.
 A Database requires the use of a large-scale computer system.
 The time involved. A project of this type requires a minimum of 1 – 2 years.
 A large full-time staff is also required to design, program, & support the implementation of a database.
 The cost of the database project is a limiting factor for many organizations.
 Database-oriented computer systems are not luxuries, and are undertaken when proven economically
reasonable.

Data types
This is a customization of particular data contained in fields.
Common data types in Microsoft access include;
Text; used for text or a combination of text and numbers such as addresses or numbers that don‘t require
calculation. These include phone numbers, postal codes etc.
Memo; used for lengthy text like a description of an item.
Number; used for data to be included in mathematical calculations such as Number of Items
Date/time; used for only dates and time data formats like date of birth, date of purchase.
Currency; used for values with monetary units such as amount in dollars, shillings.
Auto Number ; used for unique sequences or random numbers that increase automatically when a record is
added.
Yes/No; used for boolen values, data with only two possible values such as yes/ no, true/ false.
OLE Object; used for linking objects like pictures, sound to a database.
Hypertext; it is used to store the location of a file on your computer, LAN or WWW.
Lookup wizard; allows the creation of a drop down list of values that can be read from another table.

Database objects
i. Query

A query is a request for data results, for action on data, or for both. You can use a query to answer a simple
question, to perform calculations, to combine data from different tables, or even to add, change, or delete
table data. Queries that you use to retrieve data from a table or to make calculations are called select queries.
Queries that add, change, or delete data are called action queries.

This article provides basic information about queries and provides examples of the different types of queries.
For more information about each type of query, search Help, or click the links in the See Also section of this
article.

You can also use a query to supply data for a form or report. In a well-designed database, the data that you
want to present by using a form or report is often located in several different tables. By using a query, you
can assemble the data that you want to use before you design your form or report.

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For more information about using a query to supply data for forms and reports, refer to the links in the See
Also section, or search Help.

OPEN AN EXISTING QUERY

If you are not familiar with the Navigation Pane, you may not know how to open a query that already exists.
The Navigation Pane is a feature that replaces the Database Window from versions prior to Access 2007.
You'll see the Navigation Pane along the left side of your screen.

To open any database object, including a query, you can double-click the object in the Navigation Pane.

USE THE NORTHWIND DATABASE TO FOLLOW ALONG WITH EXAMPLES

NOTE Examples in this article use a database that was created by using the Northwind 2010 database
template.
1. Click the File tab, and then click New.
2. In the middle pane, under Available Templates, click Sample Templates, and then click Northwind.
3. In the right pane, review the name for the database file in the File Name box, and make any changes to
the name. You can also browse for a different file location by clicking the folder icon.
4. Click Create.
5. Follow the directions on the Northwind Traders page (on the Startup Screen object tab) to open the
database, and then close the Login Dialog window.

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Look at a subset of the data in a table

Sometimes you may want to review all of the data from a table, but at other times, you may want to review
only the data from certain fields, or you may want to review data only if certain fields meet certain criteria.
To review some of the data in a table, you use a select query.

Suppose that you want to review a list of products and their prices. You can create a query that returns
product and price information by using the following procedure:
1. Open the Northwind database that you previously set up by using these steps.
2. On the Create tab, in the Macros & Code group, click Query Design.
3. In the Show Table dialog box, on the Tables tab, double-click Products.
4. Close the Show Table dialog box.
5. In the Products table, double-click Product Name and List Price to add these fields to the query design
grid.
6. On the Design tab, in the Results group, click Run.

The query runs, and then displays a list of products and their prices.

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Review data from more than one table simultaneously

Tables in a well-designed database bear logical relationships to each other. These relationships exist on the
basis of fields that the tables have in common. When you want to review data from related tables, you use a
select query.

Suppose that you want to review orders for customers who live in a particular city. Data about orders and
data about customers are stored in two tables in the same database. Each table has a Customer ID field,
which forms the basis of a one-to-many relationship between the two tables. You can create a query that
returns orders for customers in a particular city, for example, Las Vegas, by using the following procedure:
1. Open the Northwind database that you previously set up by using these steps.
2. On the Create tab, in the Macros & Code group, click Query Design.
3. In the Show Table dialog box, on the Tables tab, double-click Customers and Orders.
4. Close the Show Table dialog box.

Note the line, called a join, that connects the ID field in the Customers table and the Customer ID field
in the Orders table. This line shows the relationship between the two tables.
5. In the Customers table, double-click Company and City to add these fields to the query design grid.
6. In the query design grid, in the City column, clear the check box in the Show row.
7. In the Criteria row of the City column, type Las Vegas.

Clearing the Show check box prevents the query from displaying the city in its results, and typing Las
Vegas in the Criteria row specifies that you want to see only records where the value of the City field is
Las Vegas. In this case, the query returns only the customers that are located in Las Vegas — Company
L and Company AA.

Note that you do not have to display a field to use it with a criterion.
8. In the Orders table, double-click Order ID and Order Date to add these fields to the next two columns
of the query design grid.
9. On the Design tab, in the Results group, click Run.

The query runs, and then displays a list of orders for customers in Las Vegas.
10. Press CTRL+S to save the query.

The Save As dialog box appears.

11. In the Query Name box, type Orders by City, and then click OK.

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Ask variations of a question by using parameters with a query

Sometimes you may want to run a query that is only slightly different from an existing query. You can
change the original query to use your new criteria, but if you frequently want to run variations of a particular
query, consider using a parameter query. When you run a parameter query, the query prompts you for field
values, and then uses the values that you supply to create criteria for your query.

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In the previous example, you created a query that returns orders for customers who are located in Las Vegas.
You can modify the query to prompt you to specify the city each time that you run the query by using the
following procedure:
1. Open the Northwind database that you previously set up by using these steps.
2. Click the Shutter Bar to display the Navigation Pane.
NOTE This step is not necessary if the Navigation Pane is displayed.

3. In the Navigation Pane, right-click the query named Orders by City (that you created in the previous
section), and then click Design View on the shortcut menu.
4. In the query design grid, in the Criteria row of the City column, delete Las Vegas, and then type [For
what city?].

The string [For what city?] is your parameter prompt. The square brackets indicate that you want the
query to ask for input, and the text (in this case, For what city?) is the question that the parameter
prompt displays.
NOTE Neither a period (.) nor an exclamation point (!) can be used as text in a parameter prompt.

5. Select the check box in the Show row of the City column, so that the query results will display the city.
6. On the Design tab, in the Results group, click Run.

The query prompts you to enter a value for City.

7. Type New York, and then press ENTER.

The query runs, and then displays orders for customers in New York.

But what if you don't know what values you can specify? To make your parameter more flexible, you
can use wildcard characters as part of the prompt:
8. On the Home tab, in the Views group, click View, and then click Design View.
9. In the query design grid, in the Criteria row of the City column, type Like [For what city?]&"*".

In this parameter prompt, the Like keyword, the ampersand (&), and the asterisk (*) enclosed in
quotation marks allow the user to type a combination of characters, including wildcard characters, to
return a variety of results. For example, if the user types *, the query returns all cities; if the user types
L, the query returns all cities that start with the letter "L;" and if the user types *s*, the query returns all
cities that contain the letter "s."
10. On the Design tab, in the Results group, click Run.

At the query prompt, type New, and then press ENTER.

11. The query runs, and then displays orders for customers in New York.

SPECIFY PARAMETER DATA TYPES

You can also specify what type of data a parameter should accept. You can set the data type for any
parameter, but it is especially important to set the data type for numeric, currency, or date/time data. When
you specify the data type that a parameter should accept, users see a more helpful error message if they enter
the wrong type of data, such as entering text when currency is expected.
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NOTE If a parameter is set to accept text data, any input is interpreted as text, and no error message is
displayed.

To specify the data type for parameters in a query, use the following procedure:
1. With the query open in Design view, on the Design tab, in the Show/Hide group, click Parameters.
2. In the Query Parameters dialog box, in the Parameter column, type the prompt for each parameter for
which you want to specify the data type. Make sure that each parameter matches the prompt that you use
in the Criteria row of the query design grid.
3. In the Data Type column, select the data type for each parameter.

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Make calculations based on your data

Most of the time, you do not use tables to store calculated values that are based on data in the same database.
For example, the Order Details table in Northwind 2007 does not store product subtotals, because the
subtotal for any given product is calculated by using data that is stored in the Quantity, Unit Price, and
Discount fields of the Order Details table.

In some cases, calculated values can become out-of-date, because the values that they are based on change.
For example, you would not want to store someone's age in a table, because every year you would have to
update the value; instead, you store the person's date of birth, and then use an expression in a query to
calculate the person's age.

Use the following procedure to create a query that calculates product subtotals based on data from the Order
Details table.
1. Open the Northwind database that you previously set up by using these steps.
2. On the Create tab, in the Macros & Code group, click Query Design.
3. In the Show Table dialog box, on the Tables tab, double-click Order Details.
4. Close the Show Table dialog box.
5. In the Order Details table, double-click Product ID to add this field to the first column of the query
design grid.
6. In the second column of the grid, right-click the Field row, and then click Zoom on the shortcut menu.
7. In the Zoom box, type or paste the following:

Subtotal: ([Quantity]*[Unit Price])-([Quantity]*[Unit Price]*[Discount])

Click OK.

This is the calculated field. The calculated field multiplies the quantity of each product by the unit price
for that product, multiplies the quantity of each product by the unit price and discount for that product,
and then subtracts the total discount from the total unit price.
8. On the Design tab, in the Results group, click Run.

The query runs, and then displays a list of products and subtotals, per order.
9. Press CTRL+S to save the query, and then name the query Product Subtotals.
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Look at summarized or aggregate data

When you use tables to record transactions or store regularly occurring numeric data, it is useful to be able
to review that data in aggregate, such as sums or averages.

Access allows you to review simple aggregate data in any datasheet by adding a Total row. A Total row is a
row at the bottom of the datasheet that can display a running total or other aggregate value.
NOTE You cannot add a Total row to the datasheet of a Web query.

You can add a Total row to the Product Subtotals query that you created in the previous example by using
the following procedure:
1. Run the Product Subtotals query, and leave the results open in Datasheet view.
2. On the Home tab, in the Records group, click Totals.

A new row appears at the bottom of the datasheet, with the word Total in the first column.
3. Click the cell in the last row of the datasheet named Total.

Note that an arrow appears in the cell.

4. Click the arrow to view the available aggregate functions.

Because the column contains text data, there are only two choices: None and Count.
5. Select Count.

The content of the cell changes from Total to a count of the column values.
6. Click the adjoining cell (the second column).

Note that an arrow appears in the cell.

7. Click the arrow, and then click Sum.

The field displays a sum of the column values.

8. Leave the query open in Datasheet view.

CREATE A TOTALS QUERY FOR MORE COMPLEX SUMMARIES

The Total row in a datasheet is very useful, but for more complex questions, you use a totals query. A totals
query is a select query that allows you to group and summarize data. For example, suppose that you want to
see total sales per product. In a totals query, you can use Sum, an aggregate function, to see total sales per
product.
NOTE You cannot use aggregate functions in a Web query.

Use the following procedure to modify the Product Subtotals query to make it summarize product subtotals
by product.
1. On the Home tab, in the Views group, click View, and then click Design View.

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The Product Subtotals query opens in Design view.

2. On the Design tab, in the Show/Hide group, click Totals.

The Totals row is displayed in the query design grid.

NOTE Although they have similar names, the Totals row in the design grid and the Total row in a
datasheet are not the same:
 You can group by field values by using the Totals row in the design grid.
 You can add a datasheet Total row to the results of a totals query.
 When you use the Totals row in the design grid, you must choose an aggregate function for each
field. If you do not want to perform a calculation on a field, you can group by the field.
3. In the second column of the design grid, in the Total row, select Sum from the drop-down list.
4. On the Design tab, in the Results group, click Run.

The query runs, and then displays a list of products with subtotals.
5. Press CTRL+S to save the query. Leave the query open.

CREATE A CROSSTAB QUERY TO ADD ANOTHER LEVEL OF GROUPING

Now suppose that you want to review product subtotals, but you also want to aggregate by month, so that
each row shows subtotals for a product, and each column shows product subtotals for a month. To show
subtotals for a product and to show product subtotals for a month, use a crosstab query.
NOTE You cannot create a Web query that is a crosstab query.

You can modify the Product Subtotals query again so that the query returns rows of product subtotals and
columns of monthly subtotals.
1. On the Home tab, in the Views group, click View, and then click Design View.
2. In the Query Setup group, click Show Table.
3. In the Show Table dialog box, double-click Orders, and then click Close.
4. On the Design tab, in the Query Type group, click Crosstab.

In the design grid, the Show row is hidden, and the Crosstab row is displayed.
5. In the third column of the design grid, right-click the Field row, and then click Zoom on the shortcut
menu. The Zoom box opens.
6. In the Zoom box, type or paste the following:

Month: "Month " & DatePart("m", [Order Date])

7. Click OK.
8. In the Crosstab row, select the following values from the drop-down list: Row Headingfor the first
column, Value for the second column, and Column Heading for the third column.
9. On the Design tab, in the Results group, click Run.

The query runs, and then displays product subtotals, aggregated by month.
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10. Press CTRL+S to save the query.

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Create a new table by using data from other tables

You can use a make-table query to create a new table from data that is stored in other tables.
NOTE You cannot create a Web query that is a make-table query.

For example, suppose that you want to send data for Chicago orders to a Chicago business partner who uses
Access to prepare reports. Instead of sending all your order data, you want to restrict the data that you send
to data specific to Chicago orders.

You can build a select query that contains Chicago order data, and then use the select query to create the
new table by using the following procedure:
1. Open the Northwind database that you previously set up by using these steps.
2. To run a make-table query, you may need to enable the database content by using the Message Bar,
which appears beneath the Ribbon if the database is untrusted when you open it.

Show me how to enable the database

 On the Message Bar, click Enable content.
NOTE If your database is in a trusted location, the Message Bar does not appear and enabling the
content is unnecessary.
3. Close the Login Dialog form.
4. On the Create tab, in the Macros & Code group, click Query Design.
5. In the Show Table dialog box, double-click Order Details and Orders.
6. Close the Show Table dialog box.
7. In the Orders table, double-click Customer ID and Ship City to add these fields to the design grid.
8. In the Order Details table, double-click Order ID, Product ID, Quantity, Unit Price, and Discount to
add these fields to the design grid.
9. In the Ship City column of the design grid, clear the box in the Show row. In the Criteria row, type
'Chicago' (include the single quotation marks).

Verify the query results before you use them to create the table.
10. On the Design tab, in the Results group, click Run.
11. Press CTRL+S to save the query.

The Save As dialog box appears.

12. In the Query Name box, type Chicago Orders Query, and then click OK.
13. On the Home tab, in the Views group, click View, and then click Design View.
14. On the Design tab, in the Query Type group, click Make Table.

The Make Table dialog box appears.

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15. In the Make Table dialog box, in the Table Name box, type Chicago Orders, and then click OK.
16. On the Design tab, in the Results group, click Run.
17. In the confirmation dialog box, click Yes to confirm.

The new table is created, and the table appears in the Navigation Pane.
NOTE If there is already a table that has the name that you specified, that table is deleted before the
query runs.
18. On the Design tab, in the Results group, click Run.

Because the Chicago Orders table exists, a warning dialog box appears.
19. Click No to cancel the action and to dismiss the dialog box.

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Add data to a table by using data from other tables

You can use an append query to retrieve data from one or more tables and add that data to another table.
NOTE You cannot create a Web query that is an append query.

Suppose that you created a table to share with a Chicago business associate, but you realize that the
associate also works with clients in the Milwaukee area. You want to add rows that contain Milwaukee area
data to the table before you share the table with your associate.

You can add Milwaukee area data to the Chicago Orders table that you created in the previous example by
using the following procedure:
1. Open the query named "Chicago Orders Query" in Design view.
2. On the Design tab, in the Query Type group, click Append. The Append dialog box opens.
3. In the Append dialog box, click the arrow in the Table Name box, and then select Chicago Orders
from the drop-down list.
4. Click OK.

The Append dialog box closes. In the design grid, the Show row disappears, and the Append To row
appears.
5. In the design grid, in the Criteria row of the Ship City column, delete 'Chicago', and then type
'Milwaukee'.
6. In the Append To row, select the appropriate field for each column.

In this example, the Append To row values should match the Field row values, but that is not required
for append queries to work.
7. On the Design tab, in the Results group, click Run.

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Change data in an automated fashion

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You can use an update query to change the data in your tables, and you can use an update query to enter
criteria to specify which rows should be updated. An update query provides you an opportunity to review the
updated data before you perform the update.
IMPORTANT An action query cannot be undone. You should consider making a backup of any tables that
you will update by using an update query.
NOTE You cannot create a Web query that is an update query.

In the previous example, you appended rows to the Chicago Orders table. In the Chicago Orders table, the
Product ID field shows the numeric Product ID. To make the data more useful for reports, you may want to
replace the product IDs with product names. To replace the product IDs, you must first change the data type
of the Product ID field of the Chicago Orders table from Number to Text, so that the Product ID field can
accept product names.

You can update the values in the Chicago Orders table by using the following procedure:
1. Open the Chicago Orders table in Design view.
2. In the Product ID row, change the Data Type from Number to Text.
3. Save and close the Chicago Orders table.
4. On the Create tab, in the Macros & Code group, click Query Design.
5. In the Show Table dialog box, double-click Chicago Orders and Products.
6. Close the Show Table dialog box.
7. On the Design tab, in the Query Type group, click Update.

In the design grid, the Sort and Show rows disappear, and the Update To row appears.
8. In the Chicago Orders table, double-click Product ID to add this field to the design grid.
9. In the design grid, in the Update To row of the Product ID column, type or paste the following:

[Products].[Product Name]
TIP You can use an update query to delete field values by using an empty string ("") or NULL in the
Update To row.
10. In the Criteria row, type or paste the following:

[Product ID] Like ([Products].[ID])

The Like keyword is necessary because the fields that you are comparing contain different data types
(Product ID is text data, ID is numeric data).
11. You can review which values will be changed by an update query by viewing the query in Datasheet
view.

On the Design tab, in the Results group, click View, and then click Datasheet View.

The query returns a list of Product IDs that will be updated.

12. On the Design tab, in the Results group, click Run.

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When you open the Chicago Orders table, you will see that the numeric values in the Product ID field
have been replaced by the product names from the Products table.

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Delete data in an automated fashion

You can use a delete query to delete data from your tables, and you can use a delete query to enter criteria to
specify which rows should be deleted. A delete query provides you an opportunity to review the rows that
will be deleted before you perform the deletion.
NOTE You cannot create a Web query that is a delete query.

Suppose that you are preparing to send the Chicago Orders table (updated in the previous example) to your
Chicago business associate, and you notice that some of the rows contain a number of empty fields. You
would like to remove these rows that contain empty fields before you send the table. You could just open the
table and delete the rows manually, but you might find it helpful to use a delete query if there are more than
a few rows that you want to delete and you have clear criteria for which rows should be deleted.

You can use a query to delete rows in the Chicago Orders table that do not have a value for Order ID by
using the following procedure:
1. On the Create tab, in the Macros & Code group, click Query Design.
2. In the Show Table dialog box, double-click Chicago Orders.
3. Close the Show Table dialog box.
4. On the Design tab, in the Query Type group, click Delete.

In the design grid, the Sort and Show rows disappear, and the Delete row appears.
5. In the Chicago Orders table, double-click Order ID to add it to the grid.
6. In the design grid, in the Criteria row of the Order ID column, type Is Null.
7. On the Design tab, in the Results group, click Run.

STEP 1: CREATE A SELECT QUERY TO IDENTIFY THE RECORDS TO UPDATE

1. Open the database that contains the records you want to update.
2. On the Design tab, in the Macros & Code group, click Query Design.

The query designer opens, and the Show Table dialog box opens.
3. Click the Tables tab.
4. Select the table or tables that contain the records that you want to update, click Add, and then click
Close.

The table or tables appear as one or more windows in the query designer, and the windows list all the
fields in each table. This figure shows the query designer with a typical table.

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Table shown in the query designer

Query design grid

5. Double-click the fields that you want to update in the table windows. The selected fields appear in the
Field row in the query design grid.

You can add one table field per column in the query design grid.

To add all the fields in a table quickly, double-click the asterisk (*) at the top of the list of table fields in
the table window. This figure shows the query design grid with all the fields added.

6. To limit the query results based on field values, in the query design grid, in the Criteria row, enter the
criteria that you want to use to limit the results.

Table of example criteria

Criteria Effect

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>234 Returns all numbers greater than 234. To find all numbers less than 234, use <
234.

>="Cajhen" Returns all records from Cajhen through the end of the alphabet.

Between #2/2/2007# Returns dates from 2-Feb-07 through 1-Dec-07 (ANSI-89). If your database
And #12/1/2007# uses the ANSI-92 wildcard characters, use single quotation marks (') instead of
pound signs (#). Example: Between '2/2/2007' And '12/1/2007' .

Not "Germany" Finds all records where the exact contents of the field are not exactly equal to
"Germany." The criterion will return records that contain characters in addition
to "Germany," such as "Germany (euro)" or "Europe (Germany)".

Not "T*" Finds all records except those starting with T. If your database uses the ANSI-
92 wildcard character set, use the percent sign (%) instead of the asterisk (*).

Not "*t" Finds all records that do not end with t. If your database uses the ANSI-92
wildcard character set, use the percent sign (%) instead of the asterisk (*).

In(Canada,UK) In a list, finds all records containing Canada or UK.

Like "[A-D]*" In a text field, finds all records that start with the letters A through D. If your
database uses the ANSI-92 wildcard character set, use the percent sign (%)
instead of the asterisk (*).

Like "*ar*" Finds all records that include the letter sequence "ar". If your database uses the
ANSI-92 wildcard character set, use the percent sign (%) instead of the asterisk
(*).

Like "Maison Finds all records that begin with "Maison" and contain a 5-letter second string
Dewe?" in which the first 4 letters are "Dewe" and the last letter is unknown. If your
database uses the ANSI-92 wildcard character set, use the underscore (_)
instead of the question mark (?).

#2/2/2007# Finds all records for February 2, 2007. If your database uses the ANSI-92
wildcard character set, surround the date with single quotation marks (') instead
of pound signs (#); for example, ('2/2/2007').

< Date() - 30 Uses the Date function to return all dates more than 30 days old.

Date() Uses the Date function to return all records containing today's date.

Between Date() And Uses the Date and DateAdd functions to return all records between today's date
DateAdd("M", 3, and three months from today's date.
Date())

Is Null Returns all records that contain a null (blank or undefined) value.

Is Not Null Returns all records that contain a value.

"" Returns all records that contain a zero-length string. You use zero-length strings
when you need to add a value to a required field, but you don't yet know what
that value is. For example, a field might require a fax number, but some of your
customers might not have fax machines. In that case, you enter a pair of double

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quotation marks with no space between them ("") instead of a number.

7. On the Design tab, in the Results group, click Run.

8. Verify that the query returns the records that you want to update.
9. To remove any fields that you do not want included in the query design, select the fields and then press
DELETE.
10. To add any fields that you want to include in the query design, drag the additional fields to the query
design grid.

STEP 2: UPDATE THE RECORDS

1. On the Design tab, in the Query Type group, click Update.

This procedure shows you how to change a select query to an update query. When you do this, Access
adds the Update to row in the query design grid. The following illustration shows an update query that
returns all the assets purchased after January 5, 2005 and changes the location to "Warehouse 3" for all
the records that meet that criterion.

2. Locate the field that contains the data that you want to change, and then type your expression (your
change criteria) in the Update to row for that field.

You can use any valid expression in the Update to row.

Table of example expressions

Expression Result

"Salesperson" In a Text field, changes a text value to Salesperson.

#8/10/07# In a Date/Time field, changes a date value to 10-Aug-07.

Yes In a Yes/No field, changes a No value to Yes.

"PN" & [PartNumber] Adds "PN" to the beginning of each specified part number.

[UnitPrice] * [Quantity] Multiplies the values in fields named UnitPrice and Quantity.

[Freight] * 1.5 Increases the values in a field named Freight by 50 percent.

DSum("[Quantity] * Where the ProductID values in the current table match the ProductID
[UnitPrice]", values in table named Order Details, this expression updates sales totals
"Order Details", by multiplying the values in a field named Quantity by the values in a
"[ProductID]=" & field named UnitPrice. The expression uses the DSum function because
[ProductID]) it can operate against more than one table and table field.

Right([ShipPostalCode], 5) Truncates (removes) the leftmost characters in a text or numeric string

and leaves the 5 rightmost characters.

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IIf(IsNull([UnitPrice]), 0, Changes a null (unknown or undefined) value to a zero (0) value in a

[UnitPrice]) field named UnitPrice.

3. On the Design tab, in the Results group, click Run.

An alert message appears.

4. To run the query and update the data, click Yes.
NOTE When you run the query, you might notice that some fields are missing from your result set. If
your query contains fields that you don't update, Access does not display those fields in the results, by
default. For example, you might include ID fields from two tables to help ensure that your query
identifies and updates the correct records. If you don't update those ID fields, Access does not display
them in the results.

ii. Table

A table is a database object that you use to store data about a particular subject, such as employees or
products. A table consists of records and fields.

Each record contains data about one instance of the table subject, such as a particular employee. A record is
also commonly called a row or an instance.

Each field contains data about one aspect of the table subject, such as first name or e-mail address. A field is
also commonly called a column or an attribute.

A record consists of field values, such as Contoso, Ltd. or someone@example.com. A field value is also
commonly called a fact.

A record

A field

A field value

A database can contain many tables, each storing information about a different subject. Each table can
contain many fields of different types of data, such as text, numbers, dates, and hyperlinks.

EXTERNAL DATA

You can link to a variety of external data sources, such as other databases, text files, and Excel workbooks.
When you link to external data, Access can use the link as if it were a table. Depending on the external data
source and the way that you create the link, you can edit the data in the linked table, and can create

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relationships that involve the linked table. However, you cannot change the design of the external data by
using the link.

TABLE AND FIELD PROPERTIES

Tables and fields have properties that you can set to control their characteristics or behavior.

A table open in Design view.

Table properties

Field properties

In an Access database, table properties are attributes of a table that affect the appearance or behavior of the
table as a whole. Table properties are set in the table's property sheet, in Design view. For example, you can
set a table's Default View property to specify how the table is displayed by default.

A field property applies to a particular field in a table and defines one of the field's characteristics or an
aspect of the field's behavior. You can set some field properties in Datasheet view. You can also set any
field property in Design view by using the Field Properties pane.

DATA TYPES

Every field has a data type. A field's data type indicates the kind of data that the field stores, such as large
amounts of text or attached files.

A data type is a field property, but it differs from other field properties as follows:
You set a field's data type in the table design grid, not in the Field Properties pane.
A field's data type determines what other properties the field has.
You must set a field's data type when you create the field.
NOTE You can create a new field in Access by entering data in a new column in Datasheet view.
When you create a field by entering data in Datasheet view, Access automatically assigns a data type for
the field, based on the value that you enter. If no other data type is implied by your input, Access sets

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the data type to Text. If needed, you can change the data type by using the Ribbon, part of the new
Microsoft Office Fluent user interface.

Examples of automatic data type detection

Office Access 2007 creates a field with a data type

If you enter: of:

John Text

http://www.contoso.com Hyperlink

You can use any valid Internet protocol

prefix. For example, http://, https://, and
mailto: are valid prefixes.

1 Number, Long Integer

50,000 Number, Long Integer

50,000.99 Number, Double

50000.389 Number, Double

12/67 Date/Time

The date and time formats recognized are

those of your user locale.

December 31, 2006 Date/Time

10:50:23 Date/Time

10:50 am Date/Time

17:50 Date/Time

$12.50 Currency

The currency symbol recognized is that of

your user locale.

21.75 Number, Double

123.00% Number, Double

3.46E+03 Number, Double

TABLE RELATIONSHIPS

Although each table stores data about a different subject, tables in a database usually store data about
subjects that are related to each other. For example, a database might contain:
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A customers table that lists your company‘s customers and their addresses.
A products table that lists the products that you sell, including prices and pictures for each item.
An orders table that tracks customer orders.

Because you store data about different subjects in separate tables, you need some way to tie the data together
so that you can easily combine related data from those separate tables. To connect the data stored in
different tables, you create relationships. A relationship is a logical connection between two tables that
specifies fields that the tables have in common.

Keys

Fields that are part of a table relationship are called keys. A key usually consists of one field, but may
consist of more than one field. There are two kinds of keys:
Primary key A table can have only one primary key. A primary key consists of one or more fields that
uniquely identify each record that you store in the table. Often, there is a unique identification number,
such as an ID number, a serial number, or a code, that serves as a primary key. For example, you might
have a Customers table where each customer has a unique customer ID number. The customer ID field
is the primary key of the Customers table. When a primary key contains more than one field, it is usually
composed of pre-existing fields that, taken together, provide unique values. For example, you might use
a combination of last name, first name, and birth date as the primary key for a table about people.
Foreign key A table can also have one or more foreign keys. A foreign key contains values that
correspond to values in the primary key of another table. For example, you might have an Orders table
in which each order has a customer ID number that corresponds to a record in a Customers table. The
customer ID field is a foreign key of the Orders table.

The correspondence of values between key fields forms the basis of a table relationship. You use a table
relationship to combine data from related tables. For example, suppose that you have a Customers table and
an Orders table. In your Customers table, each record is identified by the primary key field, ID.

To associate each order with a customer, you add a foreign key field to the Orders table that corresponds to
the ID field of the Customers table, and then create a relationship between the two keys. When you add a
record to the Orders table, you use a value for customer ID that comes from the Customers table. Whenever
you want to view any information about an order's customer, you use the relationship to identify which data
from the Customers table corresponds to which records in the Orders table.

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A table relationship, shown in the Relationships window.

A primary key, identified by the key icon next to the field name.

A foreign key — note the absence of the key icon.

Benefits of using relationships

Keeping data separated in related tables produces the following benefits:

Consistency Because each item of data is recorded only once, in one table, there is less opportunity for
ambiguity or inconsistency. For example, you store a customer's name only once, in a table about
customers, rather than storing it repeatedly (and potentially inconsistently) in a table that contains order
data.
Efficiency Recording data in only one place means you use less disk space. Moreover, smaller tables
tend to provide data more quickly than larger tables. Finally, if you don't use separate tables for separate
subjects, you will introduce null values (the absence of data) and redundancy into your tables, both of
which can waste space and impede performance.
Comprehensibility The design of a database is easier to understand if the subjects are properly
separated into tables.
TIP Plan your tables with relationships in mind. You can use the Lookup Wizard to create a foreign key
field if the table that contains the corresponding primary key already exists. The Lookup Wizard creates the
relationship for you.

iii. Report
iv. Form

A form is a database object that you can use to create a user interface for a database application.
Create a form by using the Form tool

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You can use the Form tool to create a form with a single mouse-click. When you use this tool, all the fields
from the underlying data source are placed on the form. You can start using the new form immediately, or
you can modify it in Layout view or Design view to better suit your needs.

Use the Form tool to create a new form

1. In the Navigation Pane, click the table or query that contains the data you want to see on your form.
2. On the Create tab, in the Forms group, click Form.

Access creates the form and displays it in Layout view. In Layout view, you can make design changes to the
form while it is displaying data. For example, you can adjust the size of the text boxes to fit the data, if
necessary.

If Access finds a single table that has a one-to-many relationship with the table or query that you used to
create the form, Access adds a datasheet to the form that is based on the related table or query. For example,
if you create a simple form that is based on the Employees table, and there is a one-to-many relationship that
is defined between the Employees table and Orders table, the datasheet displays all the records in the Orders
table that relate to the current Employee record. You can delete the datasheet from the form if you decide
you do not need it. If there is more than one table with a one-to-many relationship to the table that you used
to create the form, Access does not add any datasheets to the form.

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Create a split form by using the Split Form tool

NOTE You can add a split form to a Web database, but you cannot run the form unless you open the
Web database by using Access (in other words, it will not run in a Web browser). For more information
about Web databases, see the article Build a database to share on the Web.

A split form gives you two views of the data at the same time — a Form view and a Datasheet view.

A split form differs from a form/subform combination in that the two views are connected to the same data
source and are synchronized with one another at all times. Selecting a field in one part of the form selects
the same field in the other part of the form. You can add, edit, or delete data from either part (as long as the
record source is updatable, and you have not configured the form to prevent these actions).

Working with split forms gives you the benefits of both kinds of forms in a single form. For example, you
can use the datasheet portion of the form to quickly locate a record, and then use the form portion to view or
edit the record.

To create a split form by using the Split Form tool:

1. In the Navigation Pane, click the table or query that contains the data that you want on your form. Or
open the table or query in Datasheet view.
2. On the Create tab, in the Forms group, click Split Form.

Access creates the form and displays it in Layout view. In Layout view, you can make design changes to the
form while it is displaying data. For example, you can adjust the size of the text boxes to fit the data, if
necessary. For more information about form views, see the Understand Layout view and Design view
section.

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Create a form that displays multiple records by using the Multiple Items tool

When you create a form by using the Form tool, the form that Access creates displays a single record at a
time. If you want a form that displays multiple records but is more customizable than a datasheet, you can
use the Multiple Items tool.
1. In the Navigation Pane, click the table or query that contains the data you want to see on your form.
2. On the Create tab, in the Forms group, click More Forms, and then click Multiple Items.

Access creates the form and displays it in Layout view. In Layout view, you can make design changes to the
form while it is displaying data. For example, you can adjust the size of the text boxes to fit the data. For
more information about form views, see the Understand Layout view and Design view section.

When you use the Multiple Items tool, the form that Access creates resembles a datasheet. The data is
arranged in rows and columns, and you see more than one record at a time. However, a Multiple Items form
gives you more customization options than a datasheet, such as the ability to add graphical elements,
buttons, and other controls. For more information about customizing your form, see the sections Fine-tune
your form in Layout view and Fine-tune your form in Design view.

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Create a form by using the Form Wizard

To be more selective about what fields appear on your form, you can use the Form Wizard instead of the
various form-building tools previously mentioned. You can also define how the data is grouped and sorted,
and you can use fields from more than one table or query, as long as you specified the relationships between
the tables and queries beforehand. For more information about how to create relationships, see the links in
the See Also section of this article.
1. On the Create tab, in the Forms group, click Form Wizard.
2. Follow the directions on the pages of the Form Wizard.
NOTE If you want to include fields from multiple tables and queries on your form, do not click Next
or Finish after you select the fields from the first table or query on the first page of the Form Wizard.
Instead, repeat the steps to select a table or query, and click any additional fields that you want to
include on the form. Then click Next or Finish to continue.
3. On the last page of the wizard, click Finish.

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Create a form by using the Blank Form tool

If the wizard or the form-building tools don't meet your needs, you can use the Blank Form tool to build a
form. This can be a very quick way to build a form, especially if you plan to put only a few fields on your
form.
1. On the Create tab, in the Forms group, click Blank Form.

Access opens a blank form in Layout view, and displays the Field List pane.

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2. In the Field List pane, click the plus sign (+) next to the table or tables that contain the fields that you
want to see on the form.
3. To add a field to the form, double-click it or drag it onto the form.
NOTES

 After the first field has been added, you can add several fields at once by holding down the CTRL
key, clicking several fields, and then dragging them onto the form at the same time.
 The order of the tables in the Field List pane can change, depending on which part of the form is
currently selected. If the field you want to add is not visible, try selecting a different part of the form
and then try adding the field again.
4. Use the tools in the Header/Footer group on the Design tab to add a logo, title, or the date and time to
the form.
5. Use the tools in the Controls group of the Design tab to add a wider variety of controls to the form.

For a slightly larger selection of controls, switch to Design view by right-clicking the form and then
clicking Design View.
CAUTION Controls that you add while in Design view might not be compatible with the Publish to
Web feature. If you plan to publish the form to the Web, you must use only the features that are
available in Layout view.

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Understand Layout view and Design view

Layout view Layout view is the most intuitive view to use for form modification, and it can be used for
almost all the changes that you would want to make to a form in Access. If you create a database by clicking
Blank Web Database in Microsoft Backstage View, then Layout view is the only view that is available for
designing forms.

In Layout view, the form is actually running. Therefore, you can see your data much as it will appear when
you are using the form. However, you can also change the form design in this view. Because you can see the
data while you are modifying the form, this is a very useful view for setting the size of controls or
performing almost any other task that affects the appearance and usability of the form.

If you are creating a standard desktop database (as opposed to a Web database), and you encounter a task
that cannot be performed in Layout view, you can switch to Design view. In certain situations, Access
displays a message that states that you must switch to Design view before you can make a particular change.

Design view Design view gives you a more detailed view of the structure of your form. You can see the
Header, Detail, and Footer sections for the form. The form is not actually running when it is shown in
Design view. Therefore, you cannot see the underlying data while you are making design changes. However,
there are certain tasks that you can perform more easily in Design view than in Layout view. You can:
Add a wider variety of controls to your form, such as bound object frames, page breaks, and charts.
Edit text box control sources in the text boxes themselves, without using the property sheet.
Resize form sections, such as the Form Header or the Detail section.
Change certain form properties that cannot be changed in Layout view.

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Fine-tune your form in Layout view

After you create a form, you can easily fine-tune its design by working in Layout view. Using the actual
form data as your guide, you can rearrange the controls and adjust their sizes. You can place new controls on
the form and set the properties for the form and its controls.

To switch to Layout view, right-click the form name in the Navigation Pane and then click Layout View.

Access shows the form in Layout view.

You can use the property sheet to change the properties for the form and its controls and sections. To display
the property sheet, press F4.

You can use the Field List pane to add fields from the underlying table or query to your form design. To
display the Field List pane:
On the Design tab, in the Tools group, click Add Existing Fields.

Keyboard shortcut Press ALT+F8.

You can then drag fields directly from the Field List pane onto your form.
To add a single field, double-click it or drag it from the Field List pane to the section on the form where
you want it displayed.
To add several fields at once, hold down CTRL and click the fields that you want to add. Then drag the
selected fields onto the form.

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Fine-tune your form in Design view

In desktop databases, you can fine-tune your form's design by working in Design view. You can add new
controls and fields to the form by adding them to the design grid. The property sheet gives you access to
many properties that you can set to customize your form.

To switch to Design view, right-click the form name in the Navigation Pane and then click Design View.
NOTE Design view is not available when you are working in a Web database.

Access shows the form in Design view.

You can use the property sheet to change the properties for the form and its controls and sections. To display
the property sheet, press F4.

You can use the Field List pane to add fields from the underlying table or query to your form design. To
display the Field List pane:
On the Design tab, in the Tools group, click Add Existing Fields.

Keyboard shortcut Press ALT+F8.

You can then drag fields directly from the Field List pane onto your form.
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To add a single field, double-click it or drag it from the Field List pane to the section on the form where
you want it displayed.
To add several fields at once, hold down CTRL and click the fields that you want to add. Then drag the
selected fields onto the form.

Exercise (a).
(a). What is a database?
(b). What are Database management system software?
Name and explain the THREE types of database models. (6 marks).
Explain THREE major concerns in a database system. (6 marks).
How are database software generally classified? Give examples of range of products in each type of
classification.
State 5 features of an electronic database management system.
Explain the importance of using a Database management system for storage of files in an organization.

Exercise (b).
Write short notes on:
Database.
Database maintenance.
Data bank.
State the components of a data hierarchy.
(a). List the TWO classes of database software.
(b). Give FOUR widely used Database management systems today.
Identify FIVE functions of a Database management system.
Describe the advantages and disadvantages of a database.
Exercise (c).
Define the following terms:
Database. (4 marks)
Database Management System (DBMS). (4 marks).
Relational database.
Hierarchical database.
Network database.
List and briefly describe THREE advantages of using the electronic database approach in data storage as
compared to the file-based approach.
List and briefly describe TWO features found in a typical Database Management System.
Identify and describe three major shortcomings of the conventional file structures that are being addressed
by the database approach. (6 marks).
Describe the functions of the following tools found in a database management system (DBMS).
Data Definition Language (DDL) (2 marks).
Data Manipulation Languages (DML) (2 marks).

TOPIC 11: ELEMENTARY COMPUTER PROGRAMMING

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Programming; also known as coding, is the
process of writing a program to solve a given
problem, testing it to ensure it is accurate or
correct and preparing documents to support it.
DEFINITION OF
TERMINOLOGIES
A program; also known as a code, is a set of
instructions that perform a specific processing
task
A computer programmer; is a person who uses
a programming language like C, C++, Java, VB to
write programs that solve computer related
problems
A programming language; is a set of words and
rules governing the use of computers employed in
constructing programs. It is the only language that
a computer understands.
Algorithm; this is a sequence of precise
instructions for solving a problem in a finite
amount of time.
Syntax; refers to the rules that govern the use of a
particular programming language
Semantics; refers to the meaning of a valid
statement in a given programming language.
A module; is an algorithm or program developed
to solve sub problems
Constants; are declarations in a program that
store values that do not change during program
execution
Documentation; is the process of writing an
explanation of how the program works and how to
use it.
Comments; are simply texts that are ignored by
the compiler but inform the reader of what the
programmer is doing at any particular point in the
program.
Characteristics of Programming Languages
They have rules governing the structure of the
language referred to as syntax
They have vocabulary, i.e. list of words accepted
within a language
Each key word in a language has only one
meaning attached to it (semantic)
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TYPES OF PROGRAMMING
LANGUAGES
Low level languages, which include; machine
code and assembly language
High level languages, which include; BASIC,
COBOL, FORTRAN, ALGOL, PASCAL,
PROLOG, C
Very high level languages, which include; C#, C++,
Java, VB, HTML, SQL
Factors to Consider When Choosing a
Programming Language
Availability of an appropriate compiler that can
translate it
Type of computer to handle the task. Is it
compatible with the computer system
Type of language. High level languages are
preferred
Speed of execution of the language
Nature of work to be done. PASCAL, COBOL are
suitable for commercial use; C, Java are for
general use
Portability of the language. Ensure that the
language is not machine dependent
Advantages of Programming Languages
They are unambiguous. Statements can be
interpreted by humans
Statement are not cumbersome
They can be processed by the computer
Disadvantages of Programming Languages
Programming languages have led to the
development of malicious software like viruses.
The basic logical flow is difficult to follow
because computer programming languages are
essentially serial in nature, i.e. executing one step
is normally followed by execution of the next step
in the program
Communication of the program algorithm logic is
restricted to those persons who understand the
particular programming language which is used
DATA TYPES
Most computer high-level programming
languages like C, C++and Java provide the
following types of data.
Integers; are either positive or negative whole
numbers, e.g. +12, -34, -1, 3, 8
Real/float; are numbers that correspond to values
with decimal points, e.g. -3.4, 6.8, 0.7, 3.8, -9.0
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Characters; are any symbols available on the
keyboard. A, a, ..., z, Z, 0, ..., 9, +, -, /, ?, %, >, <,
:, {, }, [, ]
Boolean/logical; this type is used to process the
logical data, which may evaluate to TRUE or
FALSE. Boolean values are obtained using
comparison operators like; =, <, >, <>
VARIABLES
A variable is a location in your computer memory
in which you can store a value and from which
you can later retrieve that value. Variables are
created, defined or declared by giving them names
and data types.
Rules for Declaring Variables
Every variable must have only one type
The type of each variable must be declared before
the variable is used in an executable statement
A variable name should preferably start with a
letter
Special characters like spaces, ?, [, ], {, }, &, %,
etc are not allowed in a variable name.
It is advisable to use variable names that describe
or carry a meaning of the data they store
Some programming languages are case sensitive,
e.g. for: C, C++, letter a and A are not the same
Keywords and special identifiers are not allowed
(they are reserved for special use by the compiler)
PROGRAMMING ERRORS
A bug also known as a software bug is an error in
the software program that causes it to
malfunction.
Debuggers are programs used to identify and
correct errors or bugs found during the testing of a
program.
Debugging is the process of tracing and
eliminating all errors in a program by testing for
the logical flow
Types of Programming Errors
Compilation errors. These are errors that
prevent your program from running. They are also
known as syntax errors. These errors are caused
by wrong syntax of the statements being used in
the program
Run-Time errors. Are errors that occur while
your program runs. These typically occur when
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your program attempts to perform an operation
that is impossible to carry out. e.g. dividing by
zero.
Logical errors. Are errors that prevent your
program from doing what you intended it to do.
Your code may compile and run without errors,
but the result of the operation is not what you
expect
IMPORTANCE OF
PROGRAMMING
Programming is used to develop new programs
and software systems
Programming helps in improving existing
software systems
Programming helps the user to interact with the
hardware
Programming is used as a research tool
LIMITATIONS OF
PROGRAMMING
Programming requires an expert in a given
programming language
The basic logical flow of the program is difficult
to follow
Communication of the program algorithm logic is
restricted to those persons who understand the
particular programming language which is used.
It is not always possible to eliminate all errors
from the software during programming
Developing a good software system requires one
to know and use more than one programming
language.
Programming has also enabled the development of
malicious software like viruses.
SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT
A system, or an information system, is a set of
interrelated components working together to
access, manipulate, store and transmit information
for effective and efficient management of
operations in business organisations.
CATEGORIES OF INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
Transaction Processing Systems (TPS).
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These are computerised systems that perform and
record the daily routine transactions necessary to
conduct the business. E.g. Sales order processing,
payrolls system, etc.
Management Information Systems (MIS).
These are used for planning, controlling and
monitoring business operations and decision
making, by providing managers with reports about
the organisation‘s performance. Examples
include: Total annual sales figures for specific
products, total amount of fuel used this quarter,
etc.
Decision Support Systems (DSS).
These are interactive computer-based systems
intended to help decision makers utilise data and
models to identify and solve problems and make
decisions. Examples include:
Clinical Decision Support Systems (CDSS).
Are interactive computer programs, which directly
assist physicians and other health professionals
with decision-making tasks like diagnosis
Geographical Information Systems (GIS).
Are system software that can analyse and display
data using digitised maps to enhance planning and
decision making, etc.
Executive Support Systems (ESS).
These are designed to help senior management
make strategic decisions. ESS gathers, analyses
and summarises the key internal and external
information, used in the business.
Expert Systems (ES).
These are problem-solving software packages,
which can reach a level of performance
comparable to or even exceeding that of a human
expert in some specialised and usually narrow
problem area.
Expertise is transferred from the expert to a
computer. This knowledge is then stored in the
computer and users call on the computer for
specific advice as needed. The ES can make
inferences and arrive at a specific conclusion, then
like a human consultant, it advises none experts
and explains, if necessary, the logic behind the
advice
Office Automation Systems (OAS).
These are software systems such as word
processing, electronic spreadsheets, presentation
programs and desktop publishing programs, which
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are designed to increase the productivity of data
workers in the office.
SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
(SDLC)
Is the process by which systems analysts, software
engineers and programmers build systems. It is a
project management tool, used to plan, execute
and control systems development projects. The
SDLC is divided into the following discrete
stages.
System Survey
Feasibility Study
System Analysis
System Design & Development
System Implementation
System Maintenance
SYSTEM SURVEY
This is the initial stage that involves identification
of the various factors that are leading the
organisation into proposing a new information
system. Usually managers in an organisation are
the ones who identify such factors. This stage
involves the identification of the purpose and
objectives of the proposed system
FEASIBILITY STUDY
Here, the proposed system is investigated in
depth, the various system options are sought and
the pros and cons of each debated upon by both
the managers and the specialists. When the
managers approve the report from this stage, the
system development proceeds to the next stage.
SYSTEM ANALYSIS
This deals with identifying the logical aspects of
the proposed system, i.e. what it will do. It is the
most important stage in the SDLC because errors
in this stage can lead to wasted resources.
System analysis begins with a detailed study of
the old system, where the various shortcomings of
the old system are noted and then, an appropriate
specification for a new and improved system is
derived.
SYSTEM DESIGN & DEVELOPMENT
Here, the functional specification is determined.
This gives the details of all the data flow through
the system and the various processing it
undergoes. The design stage deals with ―how the
system will function‖
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System specification is a detailed documentation

of the logical and physical aspects of the system.
The processes, hardware and software platforms,
data files, network configurations, etc, of the
system are specified. After all that, developers
now start the actual coding of the program in any
suitable programming language.

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SYSTEM DESIGN & DEVELOPMENT
Here, the functional specification is determined.
This gives the details of all the data flow through
the system and the various processing it
undergoes. The design stage deals with ―how the
system will function‖
System specification is a detailed documentation
of the logical and physical aspects of the system.
The processes, hardware and software platforms,
data files, network configurations, etc, of the
system are specified. After all that, developers
now start the actual coding of the program in any
suitable programming language.
Methods that can be used to design and develop
the system include;
Waterfall development. Here analysts and users
proceed sequentially from one phase to the next.
Once the work produced in one phase is approved,
the phase ends and the next phase begins.
Rapid application development (RAD). This
incorporates special techniques and computer
tools like JAD, CASE, to speed up the analysis,
design and implementation phases.
Iterative development. In this method, the overall
project is broken into a series of versions that are
developed sequentially
Prototyping. Is the process of building a working
model of a system. A prototype is a working
model that does not normally have all the required
features and functionality of the final system.
The design strategies include;
Custom development, i.e. building the system
from scratch in-house
Purchasing software and customising it
Outsourcing development to a third party
SYSTEM IMPLEMENTATION
Here, the physical installation of the system in the
organisation is carried out, followed by testing to
confirm that it actually works as intended. Before
the final conversion from the old system to the
new system is carried out, users are trained in how
to use the new system and the security procedures.
This phase includes the following;
Physical installation. This involves the actual
placing of the various hardware equipment in
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place and setting them up and installation of the
software components of the system
System testing. This is the process of ensuring that
the system operates as outlined in the system
specification. The types of testing include:
Unit testing. This is divided into: white box
testing, where the testers access and examine the
actual code of the unit; and, black box testing,
which is done to show that the unit works when
confronted by typical input
Integration testing. Finds out whether the different
units of the system work as expected when
integrated
System testing. When the unit and integration
testing are successful, the next step is to put the
entire system together and see if it works as a
whole.
User training. This is the preparation of the users
to handle and use the new system. This can be
carried out before, during, or after the physical
installation
Conversion. This is the switching from the old
system to the new system. This can be done in one
of the three ways below:
Parallel conversion. Here the old system and the
new system are run concurrently for a given
period before the new system can be fully
employed
Phased conversion. Here the new system is
introduced in parts while the old system is phased
out gradually
Instant conversion. Here the new system is
immediately used once installed
SYSTEM MAINTENANCE
This is the final activity, and also the activity that
is carried out routinely throughout the life time of
the system. The developers monitor and see if the
users are getting any troubles using the system or
more bugs are showing up, and these are dealt
with accordingly. Types of system maintenance
include:
Corrective maintenance. This refers to the process
of fixing errors in the system.
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Preventive maintenance. This refers to regular
servicing and maintenance of the system,
including backup
Adaptive maintenance. Refers to changing the
system to adapt to a changing environment
Perfective maintenance. This refers to taking a
system that works and modifying it to be
TOPIC 12: TRENDS IN COMPUTING
COMPUTER INTEGRITY AND SECURITY
Definitions
Data Security refers to protective measures that
are applied to ensure integrity,
availability and confidentiality of computer data
or information.
• Integrity means prevention of unauthorized
modification of data and data
corruption.
Data corruption refers to errors in data that may
occur during
reading, writing, processing, storage or
transmission of said data which may
introduce unintended/unwanted changes to the
original data.
• Availability means prevention of unauthorized
withholding of data access
(Intended users can access whenever they need to
access).
• Confidentiality means to avoid unauthorized
disclosure of data third parties.
Physical Security refers to the measures put in
place by protect computer
systems from physical damage and mitigate
physical security risks. Physical
security includes:
• Locked doors.
• Burglar proofs.
• Parameter fences.
• Security guards.
• Server room environmental protection,
optimisation.
• Concrete walls.
• Lightening conductors.
• Fire extinguishers.
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• Strategic server and storage placement, etc.
HARDWARE INTEGRITY
• A computer security risk is an Action that causes
loss of or damage to
computer system.
• Security threats to hardware include:
1. System Failure
2. Hardware Theft
3. Malicious Destruction of hardware, software,
data or network resources,
as well as sabotage.
System failure
Some of the causes of computerized information
system failure include
 Hardware failure due to improper use.
 Unstable power supply as result of brownout or
blackout and vandalism.
Network breakdown.
Natural disaster
Program failure
Control measures against hardware failure
• Protect computers against brownout or blackout
which may cause physical damages or data loss by
using surge protectors and Uninterruptible power
supply (UPS).
• For critical systems, most organizations have put
into place fault tolerant
systems. A fault tolerant system has redundant or
duplicate storage,
peripherals devices and software that provide a
fail-over capability to backup components in the
event of system failure.
• Disaster recovery plans. Disaster recovery plan
involves establishing offsite
storage of an organization‘s databases so that in
case of disaster or fire
accidents, the company would have backup
copies to reconstruct lost data.
Hardware theft and hardware vandalism
 Hardware theft is act of stealing
computer equipment
 Cables sometimes used to lock equipment
 Some notebook computers use passwords,
possessed objects, and biometrics as security
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methods
 For PDAs, you can password-protect the device
 Hardware vandalism is the act of defacing or
destroying computer equipment
SOFTWARE INTEGRITY
• Security threats to computer software and data
include:
1. Information Theft
2. Software Theft
3. Internet And Network Attacks Such Us Hackers
4. Malicious Programs (Computer Viruses,
Worms And Trojan Horses)
5. Unauthorised Access and Use
6. Unauthorized Alteration.
Software theft is the act of stealing or illegally
copying software or intentionally
erasing programs.
• Software piracy is illegal duplication of
copyrighted software.
• To guard against software theft and piracy,
product activation is used.
• Product activation allows user to input product
identification number online or by phone and
receive unique installation identification number.
• A license agreement gives the right to use
software. Single-user license agreement allows
user to install software on one computer, make
backup copy, and sell
software after removing from computer.
Information theft
• Information theft is yet another type of computer
security risk. Information
theft occurs when someone steals personal or
confidential information. An unethical Company
executive may steal or buy stolen information to
learn about a competitor. A corrupt individual
may steal credit card numbers to make fraudulent
purchases.
• Safeguards against Information Theft: Most
companies attempt to prevent Information theft by
implementing the user identification and
authentication controls.
• To protect information on the Internet and
networks, companies and individuals use a variety
of encryption techniques.
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COMPUTER INTRUSION
This refers to compromising a computer system
by breaking the security of such
a system or causing it to enter into an insecure
state. The act of intruding—or gaining
unauthorized access to a system—typically leaves
traces that can be discovered by intrusion
detection systems
Unauthorized access and Use
– Unauthorized access is the use of a computer or
network without permission. Unauthorized use is
the use of a computer or its data for unapproved or
possibly illegal activities.
– Unauthorized use includes a variety of activities:
an employee using an organization‘s computer to
send personal e-mail messages, or someone
gaining access to a bank computer and performing
an unauthorized transfer.
• Intrusion detection software automatically
analyzes all network traffic, assesses System
vulnerabilities, identifies any unauthorized access
(intrusions), and notifies network administrators
of suspicious behavior patterns or system
breaches.
To utilize intrusion detection software requires the
expertise of a network
administrator because the programs are complex
and difficult to use and interpret.
These programs also are quite expensive
NETWORK INTRUSION AND ATTACKS
Information transmitted over networks has a
higher degree of security risk than
information kept on an organization‘s premises. In
an organization, network
administrators usually take measures to protect a
network from security risks. On
the Internet, where no central administrator is
present, the security risk is greater.
Internet and network attacks that jeopardize
security include computer viruses,
worms, Trojan horses, and rootkits; botnets;
denial of service attacks; hackers, back
doors; and spoofing.
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Hacking
• The term hacker refers to someone who accesses
a computer or network illegally. Originally it was
a complimentary word for a computer enthusiast.
• A cracker also is someone who accesses a
computer or network illegally but has the intent of
destroying data, stealing information, or other
malicious action.
• Both hackers and crackers have advanced
computer and network skills.
• Some hackers claim the intent of their security
breaches is to improve security, and may be hired
by software companies to test the security of new
software systems.
• A script kiddie has the same intent as a cracker
but does not have the technical skills and
knowledge. Script kiddies often use prewritten
hacking and cracking programs to break into
computers.
• A cyber extortionist is someone who uses e-mail
as a vehicle for extortion.
• A cyber terrorist is someone who uses the
Internet or network to destroy or damage
computers for political reasons. The cyber terrorist
might target the nation‘s air traffic control system,
electricity-generating companies, or a
telecommunications infrastructure.
Explaining how denial of service attacks,
backdoors, spoofing are carried out.
• A denial of service attack, or DoS attack, is an
assault whose purpose is to disrupt computer
access to a network service.
• The attackers may use an unsuspecting computer
to send an influx of confusing data messages or
useless traffic to a computer network. The victim
computer network slows down considerably and
eventually becomes unresponsive or unavailable,
blocking legitimate visitors from accessing the
network.
• Perpetrators have a variety of motives for
carrying out a DoS attack. Those who disagree
with the beliefs or actions of a particular
organization claim political anger motivates their
attacks. Some perpetrators use the attack as a
vehicle for extortion. Others simply want the
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recognition.
• A botnet is a group of compromised computers
connected to a network such as the Internet that
are used as part of a network that attacks other
networks, usually for nefarious purposes.
• A compromised computer, known as a zombie,
is one whose owner is unaware the computer is
being controlled remotely by an outsider.
Cybercriminals use botnets to send spam via e-
mail, spread viruses and other
malware, or commit a denial of service attack.
• A back door is a program or set of instructions in
a program that allow users to bypass security
controls when accessing a program, computer, or
network.
• Once perpetrators gain access to unsecure
computers, they often install a back door or
modify an existing program to include a back
door, which allows them to continue to access the
computer remotely without the user‘s knowledge.
• Spoofing is a technique intruders use to make
their network or Internet transmission appear
legitimate to a victim computer or network.
• E-mail spoofing occurs when the sender‘s
address or other components of the e-mail header
are altered so that it appears the e-mail originated
from a different sender. E-mail spoofing
commonly is used for virus hoaxes, spam, and
phishing scams.
• IP spoofing occurs when an intruder computer
fools a network into believing its IP address is
associated with a trusted source. Perpetrators of IP
spoofing trick their victims into interacting with a
deceptive Web site.
COMPUTER CRIMES
identifying types of computer crimes
Physical theft - The physical theft of computer
hardware and software is the most
widespread related crime especially in developing
countries.
• The most common issues now, we here cases of
people breaking into an office or firm and stealing
computers, hard disks and other valuable
computer accessories. In most cases such theft can
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be done by untrustworthy employees of firm or by
outsiders. The reason behind an act may be
commercial, destruction to sensitive information
or sabotage.
Control measures against theft
• Employ security agents to keep watch over
information centers and restricted backup sites.
• Reinforce weak access points like windows,
door and roofing with metallic grills and strong
padlocks.
• Motivate workers so that they feel a sense of
belonging in order to make them proud and
trusted custodians of the company resources.
• Insure the hardware resources with a reputable
insurance firm.
Piracy - illegal copying of software, information
or data.
Fraud - Fraud is stealing by false pretense.
Fraudsters can be either employees in a
company, non-existent company that purports to
offer internet services such as
selling vehicles etc. other form of fraud may also
involve computerized production
and use of counterfeit documents. This is due to
the dynamic growth of internet
and mobile computing, sophisticated cybercrimes.
Sabotage - Sabotage refers to illegal destruction
of data and information with the
aim of crippling services delivery, or causing
great loss to an organization. Sabotage
is usually carried out by disgruntled employees or
competitors with the intention of
causing harm to an organization.
Eavesdropping - Eavesdropping refers to tapping
into communication channels to
get information. Hackers mainly use
eavesdropping to access private or confidential
information from internet users or from poorly
secured information system.
Surveillance (monitoring) - Surveillance refers
to monitoring use of computer
system and networks using background programs
such as spyware and cookies. The
information gathered may be used for one reason
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or the other e.g. spreading
sabotage.
Industrial espionage - Industrial espionage
involves spying on a competitor to get
information that can be used to cripple the
competitor.
Accidental access - Threats to data and
information come from peoples unknowingly
giving out information to strangers is or
unauthorized persons.
Alteration - Alteration is the illegal modification
of private or confidential data and
information with the aim of misinforming users.
Alteration is usually done by people
who wish to cancel the truth or sabotage certain
operations.
• Alteration comprises the integrity of data and
information making it unreliable.
COMPUTER PROTECTION
Appropriate ways of protecting data in computer
systems
1. Data Encryption. Data on transit over the
network faces many dangers of being tapped,
listened to or copied to unauthorized destinations.
Such data can be protected by mixing up into a
form that only the sender and receiver is able to
understand. This is by reconstructing the original
message from the mix which is called data
encryption.
What is Data encryption?
 Process of converting plaintext (readable data)
into cyphertext (unreadable characters)
 Safeguards against information theft
 Encryption key (formula) often uses more than
one method
 To read the data, the recipient must decrypt, or
decipher, the data
2. Surge protectors: Protect computers and
equipment from electrical power disturbances.
Uninterruptible power supply (UPS) is surge
protector that provides power during power loss.
3. Backups - the ultimate safeguard. Backups -
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the ultimate safeguard
• Full backup - all files in computer
• Selective backup select which files to back up
• Three-generation backup preserves three copies
of important files
• In case of system failure or corrupted files,
restore files by copying to original location.
4. Firewall
 Firewall is a security system consisting of
hardware and/or software that prevents
unauthorized network access
 A firewall is a device or software system that
filters the data and information exchanged
between different networks by enforcing the host
networks access control policy. The main aim of a
firewall is to monitor and control access to or
from protected networks. People who do not have
permission (remote requests) cannot access
firewall
restricted sites outside their network.
5. Use of acceptable use policy (AUP)
• The AUP outlines the computer activities for
which the computer and network may and may
not be used.
• An organization‘s AUP should specify the
acceptable use of computers by employees for
personal reasons.
• Some organizations prohibit such use entirely.
Others allow personal use on the employee‘s own
time such as a lunch hour.
6. Use of Intrusion Detection Software
• To provide extra protection against hackers and
other intruders, large organizations sometimes use
intrusion detection software to identify possible
security breaches.
7. Identifying and Authenticating Users
• Many organizations use access controls to
minimize the chance that a perpetrator
intentionally may access or an employee
accidentally may access confidential information
on a computer.
• An access control is a security measure that
defines who can access a computer, when they can
access it, and what actions they can take while
accessing the computer. In addition, the computer
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should maintain an audit trail that records in a file
both successful and unsuccessful access attempts.
• An unsuccessful access attempt could result
from a user mistyping his or her
password, or it could result from a hacker trying
thousands of passwords.
Organizations should investigate unsuccessful
access attempts immediately to ensure they are not
intentional breaches of security
8. User Names and Passwords
a. A username is Unique combination of
characters that identifies user
b. Password is private combination of characters
associated with the user name that allows access
to computer resources.
How can you make your password more secure?
How can you make your password more secure?
9. Possessed objects
― Items that you must carry to gain access to
computer or facility, e.g badges, cards, smart
cards, and keys. Often used with numeric
password called personal
identification number (PIN) e.g ATM pin.
― Access control can be enhanced by
implementing multilevel authentication policies
such as assigning users log on accounts, use of
smart cards and a personal identification number
(PIN).
10. Security monitors are programs that monitor
and keep a log file or record of computer systems
and protect them from unauthorized access.
11. Biometric devices
 Authenticate people‘s identity using a human
characteristic like Fingerprint, hand geometry,
voice, signature, or iris.
 Biometric security is a growing form of
unauthorized control measure that takes the user‘s
attributes such as voice, fingerprints and facial
recognition.
For example, you can log on swap a finger on a
finger print swap windows.
12. Callback systems
– User connects to computer only after the
computer calls that user back at a previously
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established telephone number.
– Some networks utilize callback systems as an
access control method to authenticate remote or
mobile users.
– Callback systems work best for users who
regularly work at the same remote location, such
as at home or branch office.
13. Secure web data transmission using
HTTPS. Users apply for SSL certificate from a
certificate authority (CA). A CA is an Authorized
person or company that
issues and verifies SSL certificates.
The following are some examples of crimes
perpetuated by use of computers.
COMPUTER ETHICS
• Ethics is knowing and understanding what is
right and what is wrong, and then doing the right
thing right. In simple terms, ethics are standards
of moral conduct.
• Quite often, people in society do the wrong
things either out of ignorance or
deliberately to achieve selfish interests.
• In today's society, computers are involved to
some extent in almost every aspect of life and
sometimes they often perform life-critical tasks.
• This makes it very important to carefully
consider the issues of ethics in use of computers
and software.
• Ethical principles are important because they
help us navigate through difficult situations and
reflect the way to relate with our friends and
community.
Three useful ethical principles:
• An act is ethical if society benefits from the act.
• An act is ethical if people are treated as an end
and not as a means to an end.
• An act is ethical if it is fair to all parties
involved.
Computer ethics involves use of computers &
software in morally acceptable way.
ICT ethics are the moral guidelines that govern
use of computers and information systems.
• Standards or guidelines are important in this
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industry, because technology changes are
outstripping the legal system‘s ability to keep up.
Computer Ethics for Computer Professionals
• According to the Association for Computing
Machinery (ACM) code, a computing
professional:
• Contributes to society and human well-being.
• Always avoids harm to others.
• Should be honest and trustworthy.
• Should exercise fairness and takes action not to
discriminate.
• Honors property rights, including copyrights and
patents
• Gives proper credit when using the intellectual
property of others.
• Respects other individuals‘ rights to privacy.
• Honors confidentiality.
CODE OF CONDUCT
• A code of conduct is a written guideline that
helps determine whether a specific action is
ethical or unethical.
COMPUTER PIRACY
Piracy is a form of intellectual property theft
which means illegal copying of software,
information or data. Software, information and
data are protected by copyright and patent laws.
Control measures against piracy - There are
several ways of reducing piracy
• Enforce laws that protect the owners of data and
information against piracy.
• Make software cheap enough to increase
affordability.
• Use licenses and certificates to identify original
software.
• Set installation passwords that deter illegal
installation of software.
COPYRIGHT LAW IN UGANDA
A copyright is a protection against illegal access
and use of an individual‘s brain creation. Eg.
Document , website, software.
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A trademark is a graphic/ logo that differentiates
products of one company from similar products of
other companies.
COMPUTERS AND SOCIETY
Computers have had a lot of impact in various
aspects of society as discussed below.
POSITIVE IMPLICATION S OF USING
COMPUTERS TO SOCIETY
• Created and widened employment opportunities
e.g.; software engineers, computer teachers,
technicians, etc.
• Improved education and research by simplifying
teaching and learning. E.g. abstract content can be
made real through cyber science technology –
others are computer aided teaching and computer
aided learning, presentations software, etc.
• Improved entertainment and leisure through
computer games, music, etc for people to refresh
and make-up.
• Improved communication and collaboration
through computer networks.
• Improved health services where computers
facilitate recording, monitoring, and diagnosis for
patients.
• Improved security through computer managed
gates and monitoring of commercial and domestic
premises, detecting and controlling crime by
police.
• Reduced production time and manufacturing
processes through computer aided manufacturing
and computer aided designing which have greatly
improved the quantity and quality of life.
• Improved customer services delivery and care eg
networked computers provide 24/7 on-line
services like credit cards Improved business and
investment opportunities.
• Improved data and document production, storage
and manipulation.
NEGATIVE IMPLICATIONS OF USING
COMPUTERS TO SOCIETY
• Violation of Privacy: In many instances, where
personal and confidential records stored on
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computers were not protected properly,
individuals have found their privacy violated and
identities stolen.
• Public Safety: Adults, teens, and children around
the world are using computers to share publicly
their photos, videos, journals, music, and other
personal information. Some of these unsuspecting,
innocent computer users have fallen victim to
crimes committed by dangerous strangers.
• Impact on Labor Force: Although computers
have improved productivity and created an entire
industry with hundreds of thousands of new jobs,
the skills of millions of employees have been
replaced by computers. Thus, it is crucial that
workers keep their education up-to-date. A
separate impact on the labor force is that some
companies are outsourcing jobs to foreign
countries instead of keeping their homeland labor
force employed.
• Health Risks: Prolonged or improper computer
use can lead to health injuries or disorders.
• Impact on Environment: Computer
manufacturing processes and computer waste are
depleting natural resources and polluting the
environment.
• Computer related crime e.g. forgeries,
cyberbullying, Piracy etc.
• Increased cost of production as computers are
very expensive to buy and maintain. Computer
experts can as well be expensive to hire.
• They are many health hazards e.g. can cause eye
defects, Tendonitis, RSI, etc.
• Electronic fraud: Stealing money electronically
through practices like Credit
card cloning and illegal money transfers.
• Hacking: Unauthorized access into computers
possibly to access information,
compromising privacy. e.g. Wikileaks
• Virus threats which has made data storage and
safety very unreliable.
• Loss of employment as they take over job
assignments for semi and less skilled job
functions.
• Deaths and accidents due to computer
malfunctioning or explosion.
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• Erosion of human integrity and creativity as
even the smallest calculation is assigned to the
computer. Other cases are Forgeries, GMFs, test
tube children, etc.
• Loss of man-hours as some workers go for
unproductive computer based leisure at the
expense of their work. Cyber terrorism.
• Moral Decay: The internet has websites with
content such as pornography, which have a bad
impact on the users especially the young children.
• In politics, ICTs are being used for running new
forms of political activism, for example
mobilizing masses against to rebel against
governments using social media channels like
twitter.
HEALTH CONCERNS OF COMPUTER USE
Users are a key component in any information
system. Thus, protecting users is just as important
as protecting hardware, software, and data. The
widespread use of computers has led to some
important user health concerns.
A repetitive strain injury (RSI) is an injury or
disorder of the muscles, nerves, tendons,
ligaments, and joints. Computer-related RSIs
include tendonitis and carpal tunnel syndrome.
Tendonitis is inflammation of a tendon due to
some repeated motion or stress on that tendon.
Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) is inflammation of
the nerve that connects the forearm to the palm of
the wrist.
Repeated or forceful bending of the wrist can
cause CTS or tendonitis of the wrist.
Symptoms of tendonitis of the wrist include
extreme pain that extends from the forearm to the
hand, along with tingling in the fingers.
Symptoms of CTS include
burning pain when the nerve is compressed, along
with numbness and tingling in
the thumb and first two fingers.
Long-term computer work can lead to tendonitis
or CTS. Factors that cause these
disorders include prolonged typing, prolonged
mouse usage, or continual shifting
between the mouse and the keyboard. If untreated,
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these disorders can lead to
permanent physical damage.
You can take many precautions to prevent these
types of injuries. Take frequent breaks
during the computer session to exercise your
hands and arms. To prevent injury due to
typing, place a wrist rest between the keyboard
and the edge of your desk. To prevent injury while
using a mouse, place the mouse at least six inches
from the edge of the
desk. In this position, your wrist is flat on the
desk. Finally, minimize the number of times you
switch between the mouse and the keyboard, and
avoid using the heel of your
hand as a pivot point while typing or using the
mouse.
Another type of health related condition due to
computer usage is computer vision
syndrome (CVS). You may have CVS if you have
sore, tired, burning, itching, or
dry eyes; blurred or double vision; distance
blurred vision after prolonged staring at a
display device; headache or sore neck; difficulty
shifting focus between a display device and
documents; difficulty focusing on the screen
image; color fringes or after-images when you
look away from the display device; and increased
sensitivity to light. Eyestrain associated with CVS
is not thought to have serious or long-term
consequences.
People who spend their workday using the
computer sometimes complain of lower back pain,
muscle fatigue, and emotional fatigue. Lower
back pain sometimes is caused from poor posture.
Computer users can protect themselves from
health risks through proper workplace
design, good posture while at the computer, and
appropriately spaced work breaks.
Ergonomics and Workplace Design
Ergonomics is an applied science devoted to
incorporating comfort, efficiency, and safety
into the design of items in the workplace.
Ergonomic studies have shown that using the
correct type and configuration of chair, keyboard,
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display device, and work surface helps materials and potentially dangerous elements
users work comfortably and efficiently and helps including lead, mercury, and flame retardants. In a
protect their health. For the computer landfill, these materials release into the
work space, experts recommend an area of at least environment. Recycling and
two feet by four feet. Figure below illustrates refurbishing old equipment are much safer
additional guidelines for setting up the work area. alternatives for the environment.
Computer Addiction
Computers can provide entertainment and
enjoyment. Some computer users, however,
become obsessed with the computer and the
Internet. Computer addiction occurs when the
computer consumes someone‘s entire social life.
Computer addiction is a growing health problem
but can be treated through therapy and support
groups.
Symptoms of a user with computer addiction
include the following:
• Craves computer time
• Irritable when not at the computer
• Overjoyed when at the computer
• Unable to stop computer activity
• Neglects family and friends
• Problems at work or school

GREEN COMPUTING
Green computing involves reducing the electricity
and environmental waste while
using a computer. People use, and often waste,
resources such as electricity and paper while using
a computer.

The United States government developed the

ENERGY STAR program to help reduce the
amount of electricity used by computers and
related devices. This program encourages
manufacturers to create energy-efficient devices
that require little power when they are not in use.
Computers and devices that meet the ENERGY
STAR guidelines display an ENERGY STAR
label.
Users should not store obsolete computers and
devices in their basement, storage room, attic,
warehouse, or any other location. Computers,
monitors, and other equipment contain toxic

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 137 A SIMPLIFIED GUIDE TO O’LEVEL COMPUTER STUDIES
EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES
Definition: Emerging technologies are those that
are currently being developed or will be
developed in the next 5 to 10 years, and which
will alter the business and social environment.
ICT is always improving and changing and new
technologies are being developed all of the time.
These are many Developments in Hardware,
Developments in Software and developments in
Application of computers. The Developments in
technology will, by nature, impact on our
everyday lives and these include:
a) Artificial Intelligence (AI)
b) Digital forensics
c) Biometrics
d) Robotics
e) Quantum Cryptography
f) Computer Assisted Translation (CAT)
g) 3D and Holographic Imaging (aka holograms)
h) Virtual Reality
Artificial Intelligence (AI)
This is a computer science that is focused on
creating computer systems that simulate human
intelligence. The term was first used in 1956 by a
computer scientist at the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology (MIT) who was focused on trying
to make computers behave like humans.
AI is being developed in the following application
areas:
 Expert Systems - These are computers that have
been programmed to make decisions based on
information they are given. For example: Medical
expert systems can diagnose patient's illnesses
based on symptoms entered.
 Languages - This type of AI involves computers
that can understand different human languages as
they are spoken to them.
 Robotics - Robotic artificial intelligence is
where machines are programmed to imitate a
human.
 Game Playing - Computers developed to play
games against human players. For example: In
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1997 a computer named 'Deep-Blue' defeated a
world champion in the game of chess.
Impacts of AI on everyday life:
Some of the impacts that artificial intelligence can
have on everyday life are discussed in the table
below:
 Accurate prediction of weather - AI software
will soon be used to sift through weather data
more accurately that humans can and will be used
to predict approaching storms and automatically
issue warnings.
 Increased leisure time - Robotic vacuum
cleaners are becoming more and more popular.
These can detect walls and other objects in order
to vacuum around them. People can leave them
running whilst they enjoy extra spare time.
 Safer transport – Self driving cars already exist
will drastically reduce road accidents. Driverless
trains too already exist in some countries!
 Increased Personal safety - Modern home alarm
systems use artificial intelligence software that
can tell the difference between the home owners
and intruders. The software automatically alerts
the police when intruders are detected.
 Improved medical care - Robotic surgery
assistants are being used to quickly and accurately
pass the correct surgical tools to doctors.
The few seconds saved in getting the correct tool
to the doctor can save patient's lives.
Digital forensics
 Digital forensics is a branch of forensic science
encompassing the recovery and investigation
of material found in digital devices, often in
relation to computer crime.
 Digital forensics (sometimes known as digital
forensic science) is a branch of forensic
science encompassing the recovery and
investigation of material found in digital
devices, often in relation to computer crime.
 Digital forensics is the application of scientific
investigatory techniques to digital crimes and
attacks.
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 Digital forensics is the process of uncovering
and interpreting electronic data. The goal of
the process is to preserve any evidence in its
most original form while performing a
structured investigation by collecting,
identifying and validating the digital
information for the purpose of reconstructing
past events.
Digital forensics, also called computer forensics,
network forensics, or cyber forensics, is the
discovery, collection, and analysis of evidence
found on computers and networks. Digital
forensics involves the examination of computer
media, programs, data and log files on computers,
servers, and networks.
Many areas use digital forensics, including
 law enforcement,
 criminal prosecutors,
 military intelligence,0
 insurance agencies,
 Tax investigations and
 information security departments in the private
sector.
A digital forensics examiner must have
knowledge of the law, technical experience with
many types of hardware and software products,
superior communication skills, familiarity with
corporate structures and policies, a willingness to
learn and update skills, and a knack for problem
solving.
Impact of Digital Forensics on everyday life:
Forensics is changing in the digital age, and the
legal system is still catching up when it comes to
properly employing digital evidence.
• Forensics has led to increased legal use of digital
evidence. Digital evidence is information found
on a wide range of electronic devices that is useful
in court because of its probative value.
• Technology changes evidence. There is still a
vigorous debate in the legal world over the usage
and reliability of DNA evidence, for example.
This is now being mirrored in more recent court
challenges over the use of digital evidence.
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• Digital evidence tendered in court often fails to
meet the same high standards expected of more
established forensics practices, particularly in
ensuring the evidence is what it purports to be. It
is increasingly common for criminal trials to rely
on digital evidence. And, regrettably, it is
common for innocents to be convicted and guilty
people acquitted because of digital evidence.
Biometrics
Biometrics is where parts of a person's body are
used for identification purposes. Examples
include:
 Fingerprints - These are impressions embedded
at the end of human fingers and thumbs.
Fingerprints kept in a database can be matched to
those left at crime-scenes to help identify the
culprit.
 Eye recognition - Eye scans analyse the iris
which is the coloured ring that surrounds the
pupil.
 Face recognition - This is where the shapes of
individual's faces are analysed.
 Voice recognition - Pitch, tone and frequency of
voices are unique and can be analysed to identify
people.
All of these parts of the human body are unique
from person to person and can be used to
authenticate identity.
Note: Even identical twins have slightly different
fingerprints and voices etc.
 Before biometric methods can be useful, people
have to perform a process known as 'biometric
enrolment'.
 This is where body-part data such as fingerprints
or voice patterns are captured and stored within
the system so that they can be used to identify the
person later on.
 Biometrics are beginning to be used in place of
passwords and physical locks as a means of
security.
 Biometrics have advantages over these older
methods as body parts cannot be lost, forgotten or
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stolen as can be the case with passwords and keys.
Impacts of Biometrics on everyday life:
Some impacts of biometrics are discussed below:
 Better airport security Iris recognition is already
in use in some airports.
 Travellers have their eyes and iris scanned into a
system and this data is later matched up when the
person is performing airport checks.
 Increased building security Fingerprint access to
buildings have been replacing the older methods
of locks and keys. This method ensures that only
authorised people can enter restricted buildings or
rooms.
 Reduced car theft Cars already exist that use
fingerprints to only unlock their doors or start the
engine for the fingerprint that is registered. This
means that the doors will not unlock for a print
that is not recognised and makes the car harder to
steal.
 More secure mobile phones Mobile phones
contain our lives.
We used our phones for everything from social
media to shopping online.
They need to be as secure as possible in order to
protect the valuable data that they contain. Apple
recently released an iPhone model that uses a
fingerprint reader to identify the true owner of the
phone. It will not unlock for a fingerprint that it
does not recognise.
Robotics
Robots are used to perform a wide range of
physical tasks.
# They are either automated (controlled by a
computer chip) or manually controlled by a
human.
# There are 4 different types of robots:
• Manufacturing robots (used to perform repetitive
tasks such as welding)
• Carrier robots (used by the military to carry
heavy loads over dangerous terrain)
• Domestic robots (used in homes to perform
cleaning tasks such as vacuuming)
• Exploration robots (used to visit and send
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images from places such as Mars)
# Some more typical tasks that robots can be used
for are described in the table below:
 Dangerous jobs - E.g. disposing of bombs, spray
painting or cleaning up nuclear waste. Note: these
are all jobs that could harm or kill a human.
 Exploring extreme environments- E.g. inside
volcanoes, planets or the depths of the ocean.
Note: humans cannot visit these environments due
to lack of oxygen and high pressure / heat levels.
 Repetitive manufacturing jobs - E.g. production
lines, packing and welding etc.
 Note: these jobs can also be performed by
humans but robots can do them much faster and
more efficiently.
 Moving heavy objects - E.g. installing large
engines, moving pallets of items etc.
Robots are increasingly being used in
manufacturing due to their proven increase in
productivity. Think about it! Robots can work
24/7 and never need to take breaks. They also do
not require wages like humans do. This means that
robots can produce more at a lower cost.
Impacts of Robotics on everyday life:
Some impacts of robotics are discussed below:
 Increased personal time - If robots can carry out
domestic chores, this frees up more time for us to
spend as we wish.
 This could mean more time spent at work or for
more enjoyable activities such as socialising.
 More efficient manufacturing Robots can
manufacturer products such as cars much faster
and cheaper than humans can. This means that
companies can make more products at less cost
and this means greater business profits.
 Loss of jobs Due to higher and cheaper
productivity, robots are taking over the
manufacturing jobs that used to be carried out by
humans. This means that humans are missing out
on employment on assembly lines and factory
work.
 Safer working environments - Robots can safely
carry out tasks that are too dangerous for humans.
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For example: spraying cars with toxic paint, transfers.

defusing bombs on battlefields and search and  Completely secure personal information - Health
rescue operations in buildings destroyed by records, bank details and other types of personal
earthquakes. information will be absolutely secure from
hackers and other people wishing to commit
Quantum Cryptography identity theft crimes.
# Quantum cryptography (encryption) is an
emerging technology that allows messages and Computer Assisted Translation
data to be sent with complete privacy. (CAT)
Note: Encryption is where digital data and files
CAT is where a human translator uses computer
are scrambled so that only authorised people are
software to help in the translation
allowed to read it.
process. CAT software can reduce the amount of
Unauthorised people attempting to read the data
time that the translation takes. Current CAT tools
would see illegible nonsense instead of the real
are not always 100% accurate. They need a human
information. Older methods of encryption were
to check for errors.
based around mathematics but quantum
Examples of different types of CAT tools include:
cryptography uses physics instead.
 Spell checkers - These are usually built-into
This makes the encryption impossible to break.
word processing software and can automatically
In quantum cryptography, messages are encrypted
flag-up spelling errors and suggest translations of
using photons.
miss-spelt words.
These are tiny packets of light.
 NOTE: Most word-processors allow the user to
Impacts of Quantum Encryption on everyday life:
select the language in which to spell-check.
Some impacts of quantum cryptography are
 Translation memory software - Translation
discussed below
memory software are databases which store
 Completely secure voting Citizens of countries
translated text as the human translator works
have the right to vote-in new governments but
through it in order to be reused in the future.
history is littered with examples of where these
Translated text is built-up in the database's
votes have been tampered with in order to
memory and can be accessed by other translators
influence election outcomes. Securing votes with
in order to speed up their translation jobs.
quantum encryption methods ensures that they
 Language search-engine software - These are
cannot be tampered with or changed.
Internet based systems which allow translators to
 Completely secure communication - Messages
enter any text that they want translating and also
sent by the military often include the locations of
to select which language they want the text
squadrons or special op's teams. If enemy forces
translating into. The software will then search
intercepted these messages it could have severe
through a large collection of translation memory
consequences.
databases to try and find a match with the text
Using quantum cryptography to secure the
entered into the search engine.
messages would eliminate the risk of them being
If a match is found, translated text will be shown
read or heard by unauthorised ears.
on-screen.
 Completely secure bank transfers - Any
Impacts of Computer Aided Translation on
electronic transfer of money, such as at ATM's or
everyday life:
buying goods online, will be completely secure.
Some impacts of CAT are discussed below:
Some banks are already using quantum
cryptography for the purposes of securing money
 More accurate documents Spell checkers can
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 141 A SIMPLIFIED GUIDE TO O’LEVEL COMPUTER STUDIES
quickly scan your word processed documents and
automatically find spelling errors. Miss-spelt
words can be quickly corrected to produce an
error-free document.
 A more multilingual society Anyone with an
Internet connection can access tools such as
Google Translate and the vast collection of
language databases that the tools can search
through. This makes accessing other languages
much easier than in the past and makes it easier
for people to learn these new languages.
 NOTE: Google's new 'Voice Search' facility
allows users to actually speak into a tablet or
mobile phone and Google will automatically
translate (and speak) the words or phrase in
almost any language.
 Quicker and more efficient translations Foreign
visitors to countries can be communicated with
much easier through these CAT tools. They are
especially useful in places like embassies where a
wide-range of foreign visitors may need to
communicate with local officials about problems
or ask for advice etc.
3D and Holographic Imaging (aka
holograms)
This is a technique where images are made to
appear three-dimensional and to actually have
depth. Holograms work by taking two regular
twodimensional images of the same object and
laying one on top of the other.
The two-dimentional images need to have been
shot at different angles.
Two different types of laser beams are used to
record the two-dimensional images onto a single
photographic plate. This creates one single image
that incorporates the angles of the original two-
dimensional images. This produces a 3D effect.
When viewing the image, human eyes see it from
slightly different angles. The brain combines them
into a three-dimensional image.
Impacts of 3D imaging on everyday life:
Some impacts of 3D imaging are discussed below:
 Improved security - Credit cards, ID cards,
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software and some bank notes include holograms
as a way of trying to prevent forged duplicates
being created. NOTE: Forgeries don't usually
include a hologram as they are difficult and
expensive to reproduce.
 Better movie experiences -Hollywood have been
using 3D imaging within the production of movies
for many years. These provide the viewer with a
much more immersive experience. NOTE: 3D
movies require the viewer to wear special glasses
for the effect to take place. The glasses project
two images shot at different angles (one in each
eye) and your brain puts them together as one 3D
image.
 Greater data storage - It is thought that the
technology behind holograms will eventually be
used to provide the means to store large amounts
of data. Companies have already produced discs
that use holographic layers that each have the
potential to hold a massive 3.9 terabytes. NOTE:
This is the equivalent of over 150 standard Blu-
ray discs.
Virtual Reality
Virtual reality is where computers are used to
create an artificial environment that users can
interact with as if it were real. Virtual reality is not
really meant for gaming purposes. It is used for
more serious purposes such as:
• Allowing architects to walk around a virtual
version of their design (this gives a better idea of
what the finished building will look like)
• Training soldiers in combat (flight simulation,
battlefield simulation)
• Training surgeons (virtual patients can be
operated on to provide experience to trainee
surgeons).
# As they walk around the virtual environment
users will experience things in a similar way to the
real world. For example:
• Objects get smaller as you walk away from them
(and bigger as you move closer)
• The direction of sounds change as you move
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around
• Objects in the virtual world appear the same
dimensions as they would in the real world (for
example dogs are smaller than us but elephants
are bigger).
Equipment needed to create the virtual reality
experience includes the following:
 Eye Goggles - These produce the 3D images
that make up the artificial world.
 The goggles project slightly different views into
each eye and this fools your brain into thinking
that the scene is 3D. Virtual chairs look solid and
so on.
 Special Gloves - The gloves detect your hand
and finger movements which are input into a
computer and processed. As users touch or use
items in the virtual world, the computer can carry
out these commands and make them happen. This
allows the user to interact with the virtual world
and perform tasks such as moving objects or
switching
on lights etc.
 Headphones - These control what users hear in
the virtual world. For example: Distant sounds
will be quieter than sounds that are close by.
 Powerful Computer - A very powerful computer
is needed to create the virtual environment and to
process/output data sent into the system by the
user's actions. For example: The computer
produces graphics that appear as walls, outdoor
scenes and objects such as trees.
Impacts of Virtual Reality on everyday life:
Some impacts of virtual reality are discussed
below:
 Improved medical surgeons - Surgeons can be
trained using virtual patients. This allows them to
practice over and over until they have perfected a
particular surgery without risk to a real patient.
For example: Imagine a new surgeon performing
surgery on you and accidentally cutting off your
leg!!.
 Larger and stronger buildings - Virtual buildings
allow architects to walk around to experience
what the building would look like when
Compiled by Eddy Musenze 0788120598
completed and check for potential errors before
the actual building is constructed. Virtual
buildings will also be able to be tested against
factors such as earthquakes to see what effects
they would have on the current design. This
allows architects to modify designs quickly and
cheaply and will, potentially, allow for the
development of much larger and safer buildings
than we currently have.
 More effective treatment of phobias - VR is
being used to help patients overcome phobias and
anxieties. People can experience a tame,
controlled version of what they are afraid of.
Slowly the person becomes used to the situation
and can relax. For example: Someone might be
terrified of spiders and so they could be gradually
introduced to larger
and larger virtual spiders (the virtual spiders
would be controlled by the therapy team as well).
 Training in dangerous situations - VR can be
used for training in dangerous situations where it
is impossible to practice the real thing. For
example: A large fire in an office building could
never be set up in reality, but it could in a virtual
environment. This will allow workers to practice
emergency evacuation in a safe environment.
 More realistic education - VR can give students
the opportunity to learn in a much more
interactive way. For example: Astronomy students
can learn about the solar system by engaging with
the objects in the virtual environment. They could
look around stars, move planets and track the
orbits of comets. This approach is likely to allow
students to retain knowledge much better than
reading text out of a book.
Review Questions:
1. List 5 technologies that are currently being
developed or are emerging.
2a. Describe 3 areas where artificial intelligence is
being developed.
2b. Describe 3 impacts that artificial intelligence
can have on everyday life.
3a. Explain what ‗Biometrics‘ is
3b. Describe 3 areas where biometric technology
is being used.
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3c. Describe 3 impacts that biometrics can have
on everyday life.
4a. State 3 different types of robot
4b. Describe 3 areas where robots are being used.
4c. Describe 3 impacts that robots can have on
everyday life.
5a. Explain what ‗Quantum Cryptography‘ is.
5b. Describe 3 impacts that quantum cryptography
can have on everyday life.
6a. Explain what ‗Computer Aided Translation‘
is.
6b. Describe 3 different examples of computer
aided translation tools.
6c. Describe 3 impacts that computer aided
translation can have on everyday
life.
7a. Explain what ‗3D Imaging‘ is.
7b. Describe 3 impacts that 3D imaging can have
on everyday life.
8a. Explain what ‗Virtual Reality‘ is:
8b. Describe 3 purposes for which virtual reality is
being used.
8c. Describe 3 impacts that virtual reality can have
on everyday life.
9a. Discuss the reliability of digital forensic
evidence in courts of law.
Compiled by Eddy Musenze 0788120598
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
INTRODUCTION
 What is systems analysis?
Systems analysis is the separation of a substance
into parts for detailed study, examination and
interpretation (oxford dictionary). (Substance =
business system).
 System analysis is the study of an organization's
problem or situation and the specification of
business requirements for an improved system.
 What is systems design?
Systems design is the detailed specification of a
computer based solution to the business
requirements. The design includes the
programming specifications.
What is systems analysis and design?
 Systems Analysis and Design covers the entire
systems development process from: Planning to
implementation, maintenance, and evolution. It
includes all activities performed to produce an
automated IS.
IMPORTANCE OF SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Why Systems analysis?
Projects do not succeed by chance. Successful IT
projects follow a systematic ―analysis and design‖
process in order to improve chances of success.
Many people would think that software
applications development is the actual
programming of an application, and that the
programming involves programmers writing
codes and compiling them to make an application.
Few people or users are quite aware that prior to
these programmers doing the codes, a systems
analysis and design is very critical. Here are the
following reasons:
 A systems analysis process involves studying
the actual business processes, understand where
data is coming from, how it should be processed
and what results are required.
 This is to find the bottlenecks in data or in
processing that results in performance degradation
of an application software.
 To sub-divide a more complex application
system so that it can easily be managed.
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 Participation of Users: The strategic purpose of
the analysis of the system is to seek the
acceptance of the people to a new development.
System analysis process provides a sense of
participation to the people. This helps in breaking
the resistance to the new development and it also
ensure the commitment to the new system.
 Understanding of Resource Needs: The analysis
of the system helps in defining the resource
requirements in terms of hardware and software.
Hence, if any additional resources are required,
this would mean an investment. The management
likes to evaluate the investment form the point of
view of return on such investment. If the return on
the investment is not attractive, the management
may drop the project.
 Assessment of Feasibility: The analysis of the
system helps to establish its feasibility / viability
from different angles. The system should satisfy
the technical, economic and operational
feasibility.
 System Boundaries: It is necessary to establish
the system boundaries which would define the
scope and the coverage of the system. This helps
to sort out and understand the functional
boundaries of the system, the department
boundaries in the system, and the people involved
in the system. It also helps to identify the inputs
and the outputs of the various sub-systems
covering the entire system.
 System Importance: It is necessary to
understand the importance of the system in the
organization. This would throw more light on its
utility and would help the designer to decide the
design features of the system. It would be possible
then to position the system in relation to the other
systems for deciding the design strategy and
development.
 Nature of The System: The analysis of the
system will help the system designer to conclude
whether the system is the closed type or open.
Such an understanding of the system is necessary,
prior to design the process to ensure the necessary
design architecture.
Compiled by Eddy Musenze 0788120598
PHASES OF SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
The following are the core phases of system
analysis basing on the traditional Systems
Development Process
Phase Explanation Outputs
Systems Planning Phase Begins with a formal
request to the IT department, called a Systems
request. The purpose of this phase is to perform a
preliminary investigation to evaluate an IT-related
business opportunity or problem. Feasibility study
key at this phase and a course of action based on
operational, technical, economic, and time factors
is recommend after the study.
Preliminary Investigation Report
Feasibility Study
Recommendations
Systems Analysis Phase
The purpose of the systems analysis phase is to
build a logical model of the new system. To
understand the system, fact-finding techniques
such as interviews, are used to collect facts
necessary to build the model.
Requirements modeling help to get the systems
requirements of the system.
Systems Requirements Document
System Design Phase
The purpose of this phase is to create a physical
model
that will satisfy all documented requirements for
the
system. At this stage, you design the user interface
and
identify necessary outputs, inputs, and processes,
plus the
internal and external controls.
System Design
Specification
Systems Implementation Phase
During the systems implementation phase, the
new system is constructed - programs are written,
tested, and documented, and the system is
installed. This phase also includes an assessment,
called a systems evaluation, to determine whether
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the system operates properly and if costs and
benefits are within expectations.
Complete functioning information system
Systems Maintenance Phase
In this phase IT staff maintain, enhance, and
protect the system. Maintenance changes correct
errors and adapt to changes in the environment,
such as new tax rates.
Enhancements provide new features and benefits.
Security controls safeguard the system from both
external and internal threats.
A scalable design can expand to meet new
business requirements and volumes.
Operational, Secure information system
THE SYSTEM ANALYST
 She or he performs Systems Analysis
 Usually employed in the Information Systems
department
 Has Wide ranging skills
 A system analyst studies the problems and needs
of an
Organisation. To determine how people, methods,
and computer technology can
best accomplish improvements for the business.
ROLE OF A SYSTEMS ANALYST
1. Investigate how information is used, handled
and manipulated in an organization.
2. Identify inefficiencies and ineffectiveness in the
current system used by the organization e.g.
delays, high operating costs, huge clerical effort
and health hazards.
3. Analyze the results of the investigation that will
lead to designing the new system.
4. Design a specification of a new system which
overcomes the inefficiencies and meets the
organization objectives.
5. Oversees the process of testing during the
testing of the system.
6. The analyst acts as a facilitator.
 He/She interfaces among many different types
of people and facilitates the development of
computer applications through these people.
STAKEHOLDERS OF AN INFORMATION
SYSTEM
NB. These teams in the diagram will be created
Compiled by Eddy Musenze 0788120598
and disbanded as projects are started and
completed or cancelled.
 The analyst may well be the only individual
who sees the big picture of the system.
TASKS OF A SYSTEMS ANALYST
Systems analyst tasks include
 Investigation
 Planning
 Understanding
 Communication
 Documentation
QUALITIES OF A SYSTEMS ANALYST
1. Working knowledge of IS Techniques and
Technology.
2. Computer Programming Knowledge
3. Problem-solving skills (creativity)
4. Interpersonal Relations skills (confidence,
persistent, patience)
5. Interpersonal communication skills
6. Ongoing interest in updating one‘s knowledge
in IT.
SYSTEMS ANALYST SKILLS -
BEHAVIOURAL &TECHNICAL
Diplomacy Being able to say "no" without being "
blunt; displaying tact in dealing with others.
Interviewing Asking the right questions in order to
obtain the information needed.
Directing Giving instructions and communicating
user requirements to programming and
support staff.
Patience Continually refining user requirements
by requesting - feedback; tolerating lack of
computer literacy and specificity.
Assertiveness Insisting on a course of action or
what one believes in, even though it may be
unpopular.
Leadership Getting work done while keeping the
team satisfied, effectively giving rewards and
punishment.
Programming Converting system specifications
into effective and efficient computer code.
Speaking Presenting your ideas in a manner easily
understood by your audience, both in
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group meetings and person to person.
Writing Preparing written documents that
accurately communicate ideas in a manner that
is easily understood by intended readers.
Listening Paying attention to and concentrating on
what is being said, and asking questions that
refine points about which one is uncertain.
Empathy Being able to understand how others
feel; accurately determining what someone
else thinks about an issue.
Sales Promoting the system you advocate;
persuading others to accept your viewpoint.
Politics Understanding what motivates
individuals; determining sources of power and
influence in an organization.
Management Planning, organizing and controlling
projects so that they get done on schedule and
within budget.
Training Educating users and other non-technical
groups on the capabilities of computers
and systems.
Cooperation Working with others productively;
resolving conflict in an effective manner.
COMPUTER PROFESSIONS
(CAREERS IN ICT)
Information and communication technology (ICT)
has created new job titles such
as computer operators, computer technicians,
system analyst, computer programmers, software
engineer, information systems manager, data base
administrator, computer trainer, web
administrator, computer graphics designers,
system administrators and network administrator,
as detailed below:
System analyst
• This a person who is responsible for analyzing a
company‘s needs or problems then designs and
develops a computer based information system.
Some of the responsibilities of a system analyst
Compiled by Eddy Musenze 0788120598
include:
• Reviewing the current manual or redundant
information system and making recommendations
on how to replace it with a more efficient one.
• Working with programmers to construct and test
the system.
• Coordinating training for users of the new
system.
A good system analyst is one who has at least the
following attributes;
• Good problem solving skills and creativity, ie.
Must have wide experience in solving problems.
• Good communication skills: The analyst must be
able to communicate clearly and precisely both in
writing and in speech. He/she must be able to talk
to different groups of people e.g managers,
operators, attendant and general public.
• Must have business knowledge: the analyst must
clearly understand the environment for which the
system is being developed.
• Technical knowledge: A system analyst must be
well trained in relevant areas of computer science
such as hardware, software programming
knowledge.
Computer operator
• Some of the responsibilities of a computer
operator include;
• Entering data into the computer for processing.
• Keeping up-to-date records (log files) of all
information processing activities. Computer
technician
• Given that computers require regular
maintenance, upgrading as well as emergency
repairs, demand for computer technicians
continues to grow as more people computerize
their workplaces and homes.
• Some of the responsibilities of a computer
technician are;
• Troubleshooting computer hardware and
software related problems.
• Assembling and upgrading computers and their
components.
• Ensuring that all computer related accessories
such as printers modems, storage media devices
are in good working condition.
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Computer engineer
• Computer and electronic engineers are coming
up with new and more efficient technologies in
information and communication technology
almost daily. Since computers are electronic
devices, hardware designers must be good in
electronic engineering in order to be able to:
• Design and develop computer components such
as storage devices, motherboards and other
electronic components.
• Determine the electrical power requirement of
each component.
• Re-engineer computer components to enhance
its functionality and efficiency.
• Design and develop engineering and
manufacturing computer controlled devices such
as robots.
Computer programmer
• Large organizations such as insurance
companies, banks, manufacturing firms and
government agents hire programmers to work
together with system analysts in order to:
• Develop in house application programs or
system programs.
• Customize commercial application packages to
suite the organization needs.
• Install, test, debug, and maintain programs
developed or customized for the organization.
Web administrator/webmaster
• A web administrator is responsible for:
• Developing and testing websites.
• Maintaining, updating and modifying
information on the website to meet new demands
by the users.
• Software engineers:
Most Software engineers analyses user needs and
create application software. Software engineers
Compiled by Eddy Musenze 0788120598
usually have experience in programming, but
focus on the design and development of programs
using the principles of mathematics and
engineering.
• Computer Trainers:
Computer trainers typically teach new users how
to use the computer software and hardware.
Network administrator
• A network administrator is a specialist whose
responsibilities are to:
• Set-up a computer network.
• Maintain and enforce security measures on the
network.
• Monitor the use of network resources.
• Maintain and troubleshoot network related
problems.
Graphic designers: A graphic designer is a
professional within the graphic design and graphic
arts industry who assembles together images,
typography, or motion graphics to create a piece
of design.
System Administrators
• A system administrator, or sysadmin, is a person
who is responsible for the upkeep, configuration,
and reliable operation of computer systems;
especially multi-user computers, such as servers.
Other responsibilities of an information system
administrator include;
The system administrator seeks to ensure that the
uptime, performance, resources, and security of
the computers he or she manages meet the needs
of the users, without exceeding the budget.
• A system administrator may acquire, install, or
upgrade computer components and software;
provide routine automation; maintain security
policies; troubleshoot; train or supervise staff; or
offer technical support for projects.
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Basic Computer Terms

Address An individualized name (or number) identifying a computer user or computer. Used in network
communications for the transmission of
messages for a particular person or machine.
Application software Computer programs designed to directly deal with solving the user‘s problems.
Examples would include programs for accounting, word processing, financial analysis, computer games, etc.
Applications Complete, self-contained programs that perform a specific function (ie. spreadsheets,
databases)
Backup The act of making a second (backup) copy of the data stored on a disk or other storage device, to
safeguard against loss of data if there is damage to the primary copy.
BASIC Acronym for Beginner‘s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code. A general-purpose programming
language, often used in computers.
Baud rate A measurement of the speed at which data are transmitted between two computers, the number of
signal per second being transmitted.
Bit A computer's most basic unit of information
Bit Abbreviation for ―binary digit,‖ the most common unit computers use for representing data internally.
Bookmark Most Web browsers give you an option of adding a URL to a list. By doing this, you can store
the linking information (the URL) to any Web pages you plan to revisit.
Boot The process of loading or initializing an operating system on a computer; usually occurs as soon as a
computer is turned on
Browser (Web browser) A software application (either text-based or graphical) that lets you browse (surf)
the World Wide Web.
Browser A program used to view World Wide Web pages, such as Netscape Navigator or Internet Explorer
Bug A part of a program that usually causes the computer to malfunction; often remedied in patches or
updates to the program
Byte Small unit of data storage; 8 bits; usually holds one character
Byte A group of eight bits, the most common unit computers use for internally representing individual
characters, digits, or other data.
Cache (Pronounced “cash”) A region on the computer memory where frequently accessed data can be
stored for fast access.
Cathode ray tube (CRT) Another term for display screen.
CD-ROM Abbreviation for Compact Disk-Read Only Memory. A small disk device capable of storing
extremely large amounts of data, but which cannot be erased and reused for storing other data (the reason it
is referred to as ―read only‖).
Central processing unit (CPU) The part of a computer that controls the entire system and does
mathematical processing of data.
Character A single digit, letter of the alphabet, or other symbol. Usually represented inside a computer by
one byte.
Chat room (or chatline) A location on an online service that allows users to communicate with each other
about an agreed-upon topic in ―real time‖ (or
―live‖) as opposed to delayed time with e-mail.

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Chip Common term for very small silicon wafers upon which electronic circuits have been created for use
in computers. Used for microprocessors, electronic memory, and other internal computer electronic
components.
Click Occurs when a user presses a button on a mouse which in turn, generates a command to the computer
Communications program Computer program containing the instructions that allow a computer to send
data to and receive data from another computer.
Cookie Small bits of data that a Web page asks a browser to store on a user‘s computer, either in RAM or
on the hard drive.
CPU Central processing unit; the brain of the computer; controls the other elements of the computer
CPU Central Processing Unit.
Cursor A block, underline character, arrow, or other symbol used on a display screen to indicate a particular
location on the screen.
Data base management system (DBMS) General-purpose computer program that allows data to be stored,
manipulated, organized, and retrieved in some logical manner. Sometimes referred to as an ―electronic filing
program.‖
Data The symbols, writing, words, or other items used to represent facts, objects, events, or ideas.
Accounting records and yield measurements are two examples of data.
Database A large structured set of data; a file that contains numerous records that contain numerous fields
Demonstration program Limited, incomplete version of a program offered for sale by a software company,
used for demonstrating the complete program‘s features and capabilities. Often given free to potential
buyers of the complete program, or sold at low cost.
Dial-up As opposed to a dedicated or leased line; a type of computer linkage using regular telephone lines,
generally referring to the kind of connection one makes when using a terminal emulator and a regular
modem.
Disk Drive A peripheral device that reads and/or writes information on a disk
Disk drive Device for recording onto and reading from one type of computer storage disk—either a diskette,
or hard disk. Varying sizes and types of disks are not interchangeable among disk drives.
Diskette A small flexible disk used for storing computer data
Diskette A 3 1/2-inch or 5 1/4-inch floppy disk.
Display screen Usually a television-like screen used for displaying computer output, however, may also be
an LCD or other device.
Documentation The printed operating instructions that accompany a computer or software.
Domain Name System (DNS) The unique name of a collection of computers connected to networks such as
the Internet.
Dot matrix printer Printer that forms characters by selectively coloring or inking dots in a grid or matrix of
dots. Characters thus printed often appear to consist of rows of dots.
Double Click Occurs when a user presses a button on the mouse twice in quick succession; this generates a
command to the computer
Download Transferring data from another computer to your computer
Download To receive a file sent from another computer via modem.
Drag Occurs when a user points the mouse at an icon or folder, presses the button and without releasing the
button, moves the icon or folder to another place on the computer where the button is released
Driver Software program that controls a piece of hardware or a peripheral
DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) A DSL circuit is much faster than a regular phone line. Currently DSL is
not available in all cities or parts of cities.
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Electronic worksheet or spreadsheet A general purpose computer program that operates like a large
columnar pad of paper in the computer‘s memory, which can do calculations on data typed onto the sheet.
Allows data and formulas to be typed in, edited, calculated, and printed out. Often used for budgeting and
forecasting, as a ―what if‖ planning tool.
E-mail (electronic mail) Online communications between computer users.
Encryption The process of scrambling a message so that a key, held only by authorized recipients, is
needed to unscramble and read the message.
Entry The act or result of putting data into a computer.
Ethernet A type of network interface card that connects an individual computer to a network. Computers on
the Internet that use the TCP/IP protocols are frequently connected to the Internet over an Ethernet link.
Expert system A computer program for making a recommendation, which tailors its recommendation to the
user‘s situation by following a variable path of reasoning dependent upon data given it by the user. One
example would be a program to recommend grain marketing strategies based on the user‘s risk and profit
goals, availability of storage, proximity to markets, etc.
FAQ Frequently asked question; documents that answer questions common to a particular website or
program
FAX modem A device to connect computer to telephone line to send data FAX messages.
File compression This process stores computer data more efficiently so the information takes up less disk or
file space and may be transmitted in less
time.
File Namable unit of data storage; an element of data storage; a single sequence of bytes
File A collection of related data existing upon a computer storage device.
Finger A program used to find out whether someone is online. It may also reveal his or her full name and
project files.
Firewalls Special computers that are set up on a network to prevent intruders from stealing or destroying
confidential files.
Flame To heap written abuse on other computer users or to excessively criticize them for their ideas,
spelling, grammar, etc. Flaming is considered
impolite, juvenile behavior, but it is not uncommon in some newsgroups.
Floppy disk Flexible plastic disk coated with a magnetic material, upon which computer programs and data
may be stored. Usually from 3 to 8 inches in diameter.
Folder A graphical representation used to organize a collection of computer files; as in the concept of a
filing cabinet (computer's hard drive) with files (folders)
Freeware Software provided at no cost to the user
Freeware Non copyrighted software made available free for public use by the author.
FTP (File Transfer Protocol) The process of transferring files or pro-grams from one computer to another.
An FTP site is a computer on the Internet that stores files and provides access to them.
GIF Graphic Interchange Format, the most common format used for graphics on the Internet.
Gigabyte 1,073,741,824 bytes or 1,024 megabytes; generally abbreviated GB
GUI Graphical user interface; uses pictures and words to represent ideas, choices, functions, etc.
Hard disk A type of computer storage disk, usually consisting of a metal platter coated with a magnetic
material. Capable of storing larger amounts of data than floppy disks.
Hard Drive A device (usually within the computer case) that reads and writes information, including the
operating system, program files, and data files
Hardware The physical parts of a computer.
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Helper applications Additional software occasionally needed to help a Web browser program deal with a
specialized file on the Internet.
Home page An introductory WWW page or Web server at a Web site that provides hyperlinks to other Web
pages.
HTML (HyperText Markup Language) The computer language used to create hypertext documents. A
system of marking up, or tagging, a document so it can be published on the World Wide Web.
HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol) The client-server protocol upon which the World Wide Web is
based.
Hyperlink, hypertext A link within one document connected to other documents, other places within the
same document, pictures, or HTML pages. Think of a hyperlink as an invitation to visit another place. A
simple click on the link will take you there.
Icon A small picture used to represent a file or program in a GUI interface
Information The result of processing, manipulating, and organizing data in a way that adds to the
knowledge of the person receiving it.
Ink-jet printer A low-cost, near laser quality printer that uses liquid ink.
Input The data put into a computer.
Internet A network of computer networks encompassing the World Wide Web, FTP, telnet, and many other
protocols
Internet Service Providers (ISP) An organization that lets users dial into its computers to connect to its
Internet link for a fee. ISPs generally provide an Internet connection and an electronic mail address. Some
providers also include World Wide Web browsing software.
Internet The worldwide network of networks based on the TCP/IP protocol. A noncommercial, self-
governing network devoted mostly to communication and research with roughly 66 million users worldwide.
Intranet Internal networks, based on Internet technology, designed to connect the members of a specific
group or single company (a closed-user group).
IP (Internet Protocol) Main protocol upon which the Internet is based.
IP number Internet protocol; a computer's unique address or number on the Internet
ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) Telecommunications network that allows for digital voice,
video, and data transmissions.
JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group) A format that is used to display graphics on Web pages.
Keyboard A peripheral used to input data by pressing keys
Keyboard Typewriter-like computer input device.
Kilobyte (K) A unit for measuring computer memory and storage capacity, roughly equal to 1,000
characters or bytes of data. Technically, one K is 1,024 bytes.
Kilobyte 1,024 bytes; usually abbreviated KB
LAN Local area network
Laser printer A fast, high-quality printer.
LCD Liquid Crystal Display. A technology popular in watches and calculators for displaying information,
which also may be used for computer display screens—especially in portable computers.
Listserv A program that allows users to mass-distribute messages that form conferences, as well as
archiving files and messages that can be searched for and retrieved.
Login, logon The process of identifying yourself to your computer or an online service. The initial
identification procedure to gain access to a system as a legitimate user. The usual requirements are a valid
user name (or user ID) and password.

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Logout, logoff The concluding steps for formally ending a session with a system. Physically disconnecting
or powering down a terminal does not necessarily result in a logout.
Mailing list Electronic discussion groups that link a relatively small group of people together by common
interests and that are distributed throughout the Internet via its global e-mail system.
Megabyte 1,048,576 bytes or 1,024 kilobytes; enough storage to approximately equal a 600 page paperback
book; generally abbreviated Mb
Megabyte One million bytes, or 1,000 kilobytes.
Memory Any device that holds computer data
Memory Term usually referring to the electronic memory circuits of a computer; however, sometimes also
extended to imply all memory and storage devices used by a computer.
Menu A list of operations available to the user of a program
Menu A list of choices displayed on a computer display screen, from which the user may choose a program
action.
Microcomputer Any computer using a microprocessor as its central processing unit.
Minicomputer Term for computers intermediate in processing power between microcomputers and
mainframe computers.
Modem A peripheral device used to connect one computer to another over a phone line
Modem A device that allows a PC to communicate and exchange information with other modem-equipped
computers via telephone lines. The current standard for modems is 56k, which allows you to transfer data at
up to 56,000 bits per second.
Monitor A device used to display information visually
Monitor A display screen.
Mouse A peripheral device used to point to items on a monitor
Mouse Computer input device consisting of a small box having one or more buttons on top, for giving
instructions to a computer.
MSDOS Operating system program popular among users of the IBM-PC and compatible computers.
Multimedia Documents or platforms that combine different kinds of data (text, video, graphics, audio).
Netiquette Guidelines to good manners on the Internet; for example, don‘t flame other users, don‘t leave
your caps lock key on (that‘s like yelling), etc.
Network A collection of computers that are connected
Newsgroup Collection of information and users who get together to communicate about one particular
subject.
NIC Network interface card; a board inserted in a computer that provides a physical connection to a network
Online service A dial-up service that provides news, information, and discussion forums for users with
modem-equipped PCs and the access software provided by the service.
Online Refers to the successful connection with another computer via telephone lines or through a network.
Operating system A program or collection of programs that coordinates and controls the various devices
making up a computer system.
Output The act or result of printing or displaying information generated by a computer.
PCMCIA An international association that defines specifications for devices.
PDF (Portable Document Format) A PDF file preserves the look of a document. It is commonly used to
make available publications on the Web. A free Acrobat Reader is needed on a computer before PDF files
are readable. The Reader can be downloaded from the Adobe Corporation web site at www.adobe.com.
Peripheral Any of a number of hardware devices connected to a CPU

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Peripherals The add-on hardware devices used in conjunction with a computer, printer, display screen, disk
drives, etc.
Printer A peripheral device that converts output from a computer into a printed image
Printer Device that transfers computer output onto paper.
Privacy Policy Web sites should have a statement that describes what information about you is collected by
the Web site and how it is used. A good policy statement should have an opt-in or opt-out option. An opt-in
option means that the Web site will not use your information unless you tell them
they can. An opt-out option means that the Web site can use your information.
Program A set of pre-defined commands or instructions that tells a computer how to go about solving a
problem or doing some job.
Protocol The ―must follow‖ regulations that govern the transmission and receipt of information across a
data communications link.
RAM Random access memory; the type of storage that changes; when the computer is turned off, the RAM
memory is erased
Random-access memory (RAM) Electronic memory circuits in a computer that may be both read from and
written to, and which lose the data they contain whenever electricity is turned off to the computer.
Sometimes referred to as volatile memory.
Read-only memory (ROM) A memory device (usually electronic memory circuits) that may only be read
by a computer. The data stored in ROM memory is permanent (non-volatile) and is not lost when electricity
is turned off to the computer.
ROM Read-only memory; the type of storage that is not changed even when the computer is turned off
Script Also known as calling script. A record of keystrokes and commands that can be played back in order
to automate routine tasks, such as logging on to an online service.
Scroll Bar Allows the user to control which portion of the document is visible in the window; available
either horizontally or vertically or both
Search engine A WWW site that serves as an index to other sites on the Web.
Server A computer (or service) that provides information or a service to other computers on a network.
Shareware Software provided at a minimal cost to users who are on their honor to send in payment to the
programmer
Shareware Software that is sold by individuals or companies for a nominal fee. Typically the software is
downloaded and tried out before buying and
registering it.
Signature A three- or four-line message, used to identify the sender of an e-mail message or Usenet article.
Small computer systems interface (SCSI) Used to connect hard drives and tape drives to computer.
Software: set of instructions that operate in hardware
Spam Generally referred to as the Internet equivalent of junk mail, spam ranges from annoyances like mass
e-mailings and advertisements, junk mail,
and chain letters, to fraudulent product or service promotions, and harassing or threatening e-mails.
Spreadsheet A program arranged in rows and columns that manipulates numbers
Storage device Any device upon which a computer may store data in permanent form. Data is not lost from
a storage device when the electricity to a computer is turned off, as is the case with electronic memory.
Sometimes called non-volatile memory.
Surge protector Electronic device for protecting a computer or other electronic device from the harmful
effects of sharp surges of voltage in electric power lines.

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T-1, T-3 line High-speed digital lines that provide data communication speeds of 1.544 megabits (T-1) and
45 megabits (T-3) per second.
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) A set of instructions that dictates how
packets of information are sent across multiple
networks. This includes SLIP and PPP. Also included is a built-in error-checking capability.
Telnet A program that lets the user log onto a remote computer. Also, the name of the program
implementing the protocol.
Template A pre-programmed set of instructions that may be used with an electronic worksheet or
spreadsheet program for doing a particular job. Akin to a computer program.
Tool Bar A graphical representation of program activities; a row of icons used to perform tasks in a program
Upload To send or transmit a file from one computer to another via modem.
URL (Universal Resource Locator) A Web site‘s address. An example is:
https://www.extension.iastate.edu/ (ISU Extension‘s home page).
URL Uniform resource locator; the address of a site on the World Wide Web; a standard way of locating
objects on the Internet
Usenet Refers mostly to the newsgroups, but also to e-mail. Usenet travels on the Internet, but also over
modems and satellites.
Username, user-id An address that designates a personal account on a large computer. For example, in
jsmith@xyz.com, ―jsmith‖ is the user-id.
Utility software Computer programs for handling the organizational and ―housekeeping‖ chores in running
a computer, such as deleting files of old data, copying disks, printing a directory of the information stored on
a disk, etc.
Virus A deliberately harmful computer program designed to create annoying glitches or destroy data
Virus A piece of programming code inserted into other programming to cause some unexpected and usually
undesirable event, such as deleting or damaging files.
WAN Wide area network
Web server A computer that is connected to the Internet that stores and manages Web documents. A Web
server handles requests from other computers and delivers requested Web documents.
Web site A group of related pages, images, and files on a Web server.
Window A screen in a software program that permits the user to view several programs at one time
Word processing Using a computer to accept, edit, organize, and print out text.
Word Processor A program that allows the user to create primarily text documents
WWW (World Wide Web) One of several features of the Internet. It contains graphics, video, audio, text,
and much, much more.

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