Tat aurment L.42.1 Introduction . Measuring instruments are classified according to both the quantity measured by the instrument and the principle of operation. Three general principles of operation are available: (i) electromagnetic, which utilizes the magnetic effects of electric currents; (ii) electrostatic, which utilizes the forces between electrically-charged conductors; (iii) electro-thermic, which utilizes the heating effect. Electric measuring instruments and meters are used to indicate directly the value of current, voltage, power or energy. In this lesson, we will consider an electromechanical meter (input is as an electrical signal results mechanical force or torque as an output) that can be connected with additional suitable components in order to act as an ammeters and a voltmeter. The most common analogue instrument or meter is the permanent magnet moving coil instrument and it is used for measuring a de current or voltage of a electric circuit. On the other hand, the indications of alternating current ‘ammeters and voltmeters must represent the RMS values of the current, or voltage, respectively, applied to the instrument. ee .1 Various forces/torques required in measuring instruments © Deflecting torque/force: The defection of any instrument is determined by the combined effect of the deflecting torque/force, control torque/force and damping torque/force. The value of deflecting torque must depend on the electrical signal to be measured; this torque/force causes the instrument movement to rotate from its zero position. © Controlling torque/force: This torque/force must act in the opposite sense to the deflecting torque/force, and the movement will take up an equilibrium of definite position when the deflecting and controlling torque are equal in magnitude. Spiral springs or gravity usually provides the controlling torque. . ¢ Damping torque/force: A damping force is required to act in a direction opposite to the movement of the moving system. This brings the moving system to rest at the deflected position reasonably quickly without any oscillation o VO"y small oscillation. This is provided by i) air friction ii) fluid friction iii) eddy current. It should be pointed out that any damping force shall not rinfluence the steady state deflection produced by a given deflecting force or torque. Damping force ART Vharsanur Scanned with CamScannerincreases with the angular velocity of the moving system, so that its effect is greatest when the rotation is rapid and zero when the system rotation ft pie Details of mathematical expressions for the above torques are considered in the description of various types of instruments. L.42.2 General Theory Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) Instruments The general theory of moving-coil instruments may be dealt with considering a rectangular coil of V turns, free to rotate about a vertical axis. Mationary iron core Fig. 42.1(a): Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instrument, Scale, -—- PIVOT Pointer ae Balance Control - weight spring Fig. 42.1(a) shows the basic construction of a PMMC instrument. A moving coil instrument consists basically of a permanent magnet to provide a magnetic field and a small lightweight coil is wound on a rectangular soft iron core that is free to rotate around Scanned with CamScannerits vertical axis. When a current is en ourent Is. assed through the coil i i developed on the coil by the interaetion of the magnetic Tel and THe Well et upby tie current in the coil. The aluminum pointer attached to rotating coil and the pointer ae ‘around the calibrated scale indicates the deflection of the coil, To reduce Parallax error a “inirror is usually placed along with the scale. A balance weight is also attached to the pointer to counteract its weight (see Fig. 42.1(b)). To use PMMC device as a meter, two problems must be solved. First, a way must be found to return the coil to its original position when there is no current through the coil. Second, a method 1s needed to indicate the amount of coil movement. The first problem is solved by the use of hairsprings “attached to each end of the coil as shown in Fig. 42.1(a). These hairsprings are not only supplying a restoring torque but also provide an electric connection to the rotating coil. * With the use of hairsprings, the coil will return to its initial position when no current is flowing though the coil. The springs will also resist the movement of coil when there is current through coil. When the developing force between, the magnetic felés (rom permanent magnet and electro magnet) is exactly equal to the force of the springs, the coil rotation will stop. The coil set up is supported on jeweled bearings in order to achieve free movement. Two other features are considered to increase the accuracy and efficiency of this meter movement. First, an iron core is placed inside the coil to concentrate the magnetic fields. Second, the curved pole faces ensure the turning force on the coil increases as the-current increases. It is assumed that the coil sides are situated in a uniform radial magnetic field of flux density B wb/m’, let the length of a coil side (within the magnetic field) be 1 (meter), and the distance from each coil side to the axis be r (meter). Principle of operation It has been mentioned that the interaction between the induced field and the field produced by the permanent magnet causes a deflecting torque, which results in rotation of the coil. The deflecting torque produced is described below in mathematical form: Deflecting Torque: If the coil is carrying a current of Lamp. the force on a coil side = BiIN (newton, N). (42.1) uw“ Torque due to both coil sides =(2)(BD N) (Nm) =GT(Nm) (42.2) where G is the Galvanometer constant and it is expressed as G=2rBIN (Nm/ amp.) =NBA(Nm/amp.). (note A= 2rl = area of the coil.) no. of turns of the coil. B = flux density in Wo/m? W/m’. 1 = length of the vertical side of the coil, m. 2r = breadth of the coil, m _F current in ampere. A= 2rl = area, m’ ae . Truly speaking, the equation (42.2) is valid while the iron core is cylindrical and the air gap between the coil and pole faces of the permanent magnet is uniform. This result my ts ux ently & umst aud forque ts propos hen . leis. Gnear: The wil wurreud and imetrurment. 2659 Ee tr, Kharagpur Scanned with CamScannera > BR Flux deatity « TS [i Caen oS dehy i Force on cot tide = NREL tind ‘ Whore, gc aie bed” div? J apc hic fidd ad the cond” Simee ure 8 eydindwud and pole feces are Mm mabure if gre radial mropachec Field, = ah we forte fer wre) mag ed iy a Fmd gurface . ; “m4 urtace araefers Hence, fer walled Field A=50° BN be or oy perme vaagret, > ensh aot w fer ee om eek ap coil aides RTL peor J tus dy alas 40° Scanned with CamScannerflux-density 2-is-eonstentand-the-torque is proportional-te the coil-current-and instrument seale-istinear: Controlling Torque: The value of contro! torque depends on the mechanical design of the control device. For spiral springs and strip suspensions, the controlling torque is directly proportional to the angle of deflection of the coil. ie. Control torque =L.@ = "Fe where, 8 = deflection angle in radians and {= spring constant Nm/rad. (423) Damping Torque: It is provided by the induced currents in a metal former or core on which the coil is wound or in the circuit of the coil itself. As the coil moves in the field of the permanent magnet, eddy currents are set up in the metal former or core. The magnetic field produced by the eddy currents opposes the motion of the coil. The pointer will \ ; therefore swing more slowly to its proper position and come to rest quickly with very litte oscillation. Electromagnetic damping is caused by the induced effects in the moving coil as it rotates in magnetic field, provided the coil forms part of closed electric circujt 3 CY xf Jecbon, foal aheod Ke Kes er NOAD or Fr Kot NCAT > = eg Version 2 EE IIT, Kharagpur Scanned with CamScannerRemarks: When the moving system reached at steady state i.e. at_final Bef position, the controlling torque becomes equal and opposite to the cling torque. ne deflecting angle is directly proportional to the current in the movable coil (see eq. 42.2). For this reason, the scale of the moving coil instrument is calibrated linearly. Scanned with CamScanner244 Hectricol ond Flectronie Manturamants ond Instrumentation by increasing the ratio of the swamping, resietance ne compared th the meter resistance Put by increasing this ratio, the pad. across the meter circuit would also be increased. Thus the disadvantage of using swamping resistors is # reduction in the full scale xensitivity ae » higher voltage across the instrument is necessary to sustain the full scale current 9.4.5 Multironge Ammeters .x/ ‘The current range of @ dic. ammeter may be further extended by a number of shunts, selected by a range switch Such meter is called a multirange ammeter. Figure 97 shows a schematic diagram of multirange ammeter. The circuit has four shunts Ry, Fax Rys and Ryy Which can be put in parallel with the meter movement to give four different current ranges I, lp Ig and ly. Let my, ma, m, and my, be the, ‘shunt multiplying powers for currents I, Ip, I; and I, =R, Mm, -¥ Rar = Ry Mm 1) m Rare Ry Mm 1 Rys= Ry / (mm -1) and Rugg = Ry (4-1) t v. Switch S Fig. 9.7 Multi-range ammeter. Low range ammeters use a multiposition make-before-break switch (See in Fig. 9.7) provided on the case of the instrument. This type of switch is essential in order that the meter movement is not damaged when changing from the current range one to another. If we provide an ordinary switch the meter remains without a shunt and as such is unprotected and therefore can be damaged when the catge We changed. Mult-range amuneters are used for ranges from | to 0A. When using « multi-range ammeter, first use the highest current range, then decrease the current Fange until good upscale reading is obtained. The universal shunt or Ayrton shunt shown in Fig. 98 ts also used for mult-range amueters. The ‘edvantage of an Ayrton shunt 1 that it eliminates the Possubility of the meter being in the circuit without a shunt But this advantage i» gained at the cost of a hugher meter resistance % : Fig. 9.8 Multi-range ammeter using ; universal shunt. 4 Universal or Ayrton shunt. Consider that the ‘ meter ranges have to be extended to [,, [, and [, For the arrangement shown in Fig, 98 we have, for swith ‘at position 1, tyr = a Ss =R Hime a Ue aR med ee ¢ For switch at position 2, 1 (Ry = Ry # Rag) = (yh) Ry Ry =(Ry + Ry)! my For switch at position 3, 1, (Ry ~ Ry Ry) = (ly = ly) Ry Ry =(R, + Ry)/m, ‘Thus the values of different sections of resistances we. (R,~ Ry) (Ry ~ Ry} and R, may be found, \vaample 9-9 Design a muitrrange dc. millisammeter using 4 basic movement with an internal resistance R,, = 500 and a full scale deflection current |, = Lma The ranges required are 0 - 10 mA: 0~50 mA; 0~ 100 mA, and 0-500 mA Solution. (/)( - 10 mA range: Muluplying power me 1/1, =10/1=10. From Eqn. 9.11, resistance of shunt Ry, = Ry /(m=1) = 50/9 = 5.55 0. (u) 0-50 mA range m= W/L = 50 Ryy = 50/50 ~ 1) = 103.0, (ui) 0 ~ 100 mA range m= 1OO/1 = 100 Ry, = 50/(100 ~ t) = 0.506 0 (wv) 0 - 500 mA range m= 500/1 = 500 Ry, = 5/500 ~ 1) 0.1.0. Scanned with CamScannerTek eTmem > TH _ ey : h T= Si atm a al Zs - Dn Fe vt _ Km me Gn, ** - tm eae ™-\ - on 2 thie -\ Pehy = fim fhe fo. Hyd / MorL Envrs in pmmc :- Weakens “HAA ¢ © rene te amenf moymels gue fo ageing at Usabeni 4 dpa) ® change yore) moving col with femp, Main Bisadvant 4 fmmc ® These instrument are ody used for de. The feorque reverses if the current vevertes. TE ac iy up plied, He goinky cannot flow the repid reversals and the yHechin cwrespendt bo mean Ferque which Zero 3) PMMC can net be wed for ac. @ cose is tuple than moving xn indruments, Scanned with CamScanneroS Nmneters, Volimeters and Ohmmeters 257 for both instrument and generator, and as curd voltage coils move in a common aa 9.9 MOVING IRON (M.I.) INSTRUMENTS, most common ammeters and voltmeters for laboratory oF switch- ‘use at power ‘are The moving iron instruments. These instruments ‘an Be cont THieasure current and voltage to an accura in m and ~ accuracy needed in most engineering works Still be cheap as compared with any other type of a.c. “Trstrument of same accuracy and ee ~ ‘The general principle of working of a moving iron Instrument (which is strictly relevant to attraction type of moving iron instruments). can be explained as under : ‘A plate or vane of soft iron or of abil steel forms the moving element of the system, This fren ears Social at field produced by a stationary coil. The coil is excited “pa NT oP age de eee TS, Theol i becomes an electromagnet and the iron vane movefin such a way 50 as to increase the flux of the electromagnet. This is because the vane tes to cecapy 2 ponten af oaneniy eee aso freee fe inductance oft (Hs i ects ‘inductance is inversely proportional to reluctance of ‘magnetic circuit ofthe coil) 9.9.1, General Torque Equation of ‘Moving Iron Instruments ‘An expression for the torque of a moving iron instrument may be derived by considering the energy relations when there is a small increment in current supplied to the instrument. When this happens there will be a small deflection d0 and some mechanical work will be done. Let T, be the deflecting torque. Mechanical work done =T, -d0 Alongside there will be a change in the energy stored in the magnetic field owing to change in inductance. Suppose the initial current is J, the instrument inductance L and the deflection @. If the current increases by dl then the deflection changes by, d@.and the inductance by dL. In order to affect an increment dl inthe current there must be an increase in the applied. voltage given by ad dl ey =e, at re (Lys E+ UE i y Ai yin produced and the. moving i from Fie field is produced and the meviny troy ynoves fre ne a head abide, the coih fo the Hone fied insite ik oor im other words, dhe roving how iy vathgacte) in. Scanned with CamScannera fer defleck wg Aerque can alo be Berivd ) From anevhy dprage. ; | Emer gy atevage in the cat Leaks te the werd) dene Energy abrage, va aw.t tr Tee Cupent which b fo be re er ap Ted uctance cod chan : yroved from a m Te a touvarh, abo magne < fil. MY, perBentar vale 4 curtnt, the Bus di) ph dt i eC ewan erg de vebo Scanned with CamScanner258 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation ‘The electrical energy supplied coil to the stronger field inside it or in other words, the ‘eldt = FL ILdl ‘moving iron is attracted in, The controlling torque fs rovided by springs but Sait Sooo oe control can be used ‘The rove energy changes fom for panel type of (struments which are vertically ap ihto s+ dlyi(Le dlp mounted. i oF Ureigtat > for\ \\ Hence the change in stored energy, =futszidieatycedyy-2 AL Neglecting second and higher, order terms in wiraig ‘small quantities this becomes Mdl+> Pat From the principle ofthe conservation of energy, Electrical energy increase in, mechanical upped stored energy * done work - ‘weight Pas Wal = ILA + 2 dL 7 8 1 Thus Tyd0=— Pal or Deflecting torque T, i (9.51) emma : a2) 8 “o") Fig. 9.24 Attraction type moving Iron Instrument. Tisin newton-metre, | in ampere, L in henry, and ee Damping is provided by air friction with the help Ue of a light aluminium piston (attached to the moving ‘The moving system is provided with control system) which moves in a fixed chamber closed at one springs and it turns the deflecting torque T, is end as shown in Fig. 9.24 or with the help of-a vane balanced by the controlling torque (attached to the moving system) which moves in a T= Ke fixed sector shaped chamber as shown in Fig. 7.17(6) where K = control spring constant ; Nm/rad, on page 187. 0 =deflection ; rad. . 2. Repulsion type. In the repulsion ype there ms are_two vanes insi cone fixe other Ce eeermere ear movable, These are similarly magnetised when the T.=T or no-3 2S “current flows through the coil and there is a force of 2 repulsion between the two vanes resulting in the Deflection’ = 2 4& ..(9.52) movement of the moving vane. anes gp Teedilferent designs ae in common use : Hence the deflection is proportional to square (0) Redial Vane Type. In this type, the vanes are the rms value ofthe operating current: The deflecting radial strips of iron, The strips are placed torque is, thenefoce, unidinectional (acts in the, ame withinithe coil as shown in Fig. 9.25(2). The direction) whatever may be the polarity of the current. filed vane le etached to the coil andthe 9.9.2 Classification of Moving Iron Instruments movable oe to the spindle of the ie ae eee (ti) Covaxial Vane Type. In this type of instrument, () Attraction type. the fixed and moving vanes are sections of (i) Repulsion type. cb-axial cylinders as shown in Fig. 9.25(b). ‘1, Attraction type. Figure 9.24 shows the The controlling torque is provided by springs. SGnisiructional détails of an attraction type moving Gravity control can also be used in vertically mounted ifoh instrument. The coil is flat and has a narrow slot instruments. The damping torque is produced by air friction as in attraction type instruments. The operating magnetic field in moving iron truments is very weak and therefore eddy current Scanned with CamScannerMoving-Iron Instrument ‘A measuring instrument whose operation is based on the interaction between a magnetic field that is proportional to the quantity to be measured and a core made of a ferromagnetic material, The main clements of a moving-iron instrument are a measuring circuit that converts the quantity to be measured into. a DC or AC current and a measuring mechanism consisting of a plale. ov vane ett pron ‘An electric current in a field coil generates an electromagnetic field that pulls the coré into the moving-iron system (Figure 1). coil, thereby exerting, on a shafi, a torque that is proportional to the square of the current flowing through the coil. As a result of the action of a spring on the shaft, a counter-torque is developed that is proportional to the angle of rotation of the shaft. When the torque and the counter-torque interact, the shaft and an attached pointer are rotated through an angle that is proportional to the square of the quantity to be measured. When the torque and the counter-torque are equal, the pointer comes to rest. Figure-1 Moving-iron ammeters and voltmeters are manufactured, mainly for measurements in 50-hertz AC circuits, In a moving-iron ammeter, the field coil is connected in series to the circu containing the current to be measured; in a moving-iron voltmeter, it is connected in parallel. Moving-iron measuring mechanisms are also used in ratio meters. The most Widely used moving-iron sses 1.5 and 2.5, although instruments of class 0.5 instruments are switchboard instruments of cla and even of class 0.1 are manufactured. The latter instruments may be used for frequencies of up 800 hertz. Scanned with CamScannerMoving Iron Type Attraction Type Scanned with CamScannerle “Repulsion Type Scanned with CamScanner260 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation 9.9.4 Shunts for Moving Iron Instruments Moving iron instruments can be built for a range upto 50, in these instruments moving parts do not cai t. Hence shunts are not necessary, except for very large currents. However, if a shunt is required to be used with an ammeter to extend its range, the inductances of both the meter coil and the shunt must be considered along with their resistances, Figure 9.27 shows a shunt placed in parallel with a ‘moving iron instrument. ‘The. currents ‘in ‘meter and shunt are in inverse ratio of their impedances. sien A RMB. : Seafarer ' vis Ry tH (@L/ RF “Rit + (aly, / Ry? Itis clear from above that the ratio of two currents depends upon frequency. In order that the division of current through two parallel branches - meter and the shunt - shall remain the same for all frequencies, the ratio of impedances of two branches must remain constant. It is clear from Eqn. 9.53 that in order to fulfill this condition L,y/Ryy, must be equal to UR or in other words the time constants of meter and shunt should be the same. We have seen that in order to make readings independent of the frequency the time constants of meter and shunt should be equal. But it is difficult to design a shunt with appropriate inductance, and shunts. are rarely incorporated in moving iron ammeters. Ithas already been mentioned that coils of moving iron instruments can be designed to carry as high a current as 50 A since they are stationary and therefore shunts are normally not required. The range ‘of moving iton ammeters for a.c. applications can be ‘extended through use of current transformers. —— (9.53) Fig, 9.28, For operation on a.c. where frequency is 9.9.5 Multipliers for Moving [ron Instruesents/¥ ‘As in permanent magnet moving col "astri ments, the voltage range of moving-iron instriments may be extended by the use of a series resistance multiplier) frith the working-coll_as_shown_in likely to change, it is necessary that the total impedance ofthe voltmeter circuit (series resistance plus impedance of the working coil) should remain substantially constant over a large frequency range. Since the series resistance forms a major portion of the total impedance of the voltmeter circuit, it is desirable that this resistor should be either of non-inductive ‘or have as small an inductance as possible. In this way the total inductance in the voltmeter is practically confined to the working coil itself and because the series resistance of the circuit is large, this is likely to~=¥ swamp the variations of inductive reactance of se working coil With the change in frequency. | Voltage multipliers for moving Iron instruments. Let Re resistance of meter, L= inductance of meter, 1,, = meter current for full scale deflection @= angular frequency. Voltage drop across the meter for full scale deflection ‘vel, VR +E Let Vibe the'voltage to be measured and R, be the resistance of the non-inductive multiplier. Total resistance of circuit = R+ R, and total inductance of circuit = L J, Total impedance of circuit = (R+R,F +02 and the:current in the meter, |, Scanned with CamScannerTon wh shes 4) meee Fm= (Raar FD + jfishere) Fah = Te zyrerhh) . Bh IR or Im [BR rely” Scanned with CamScannerAnalog Ammeters, Veltmeters and Ohmmeters 261 Hence, voltage multiplying power v 84 VR aE ese tis evident from Eqn. 9.54 that the multiplying Power will change with change in frequency. The multiplier may be shunted by a capacitor, in order to compensate for errors cauned by change of multiplying power with change of frequency. This has been explained in Art. 99.7. * 9.9.6 Comparison between Attraction and Repulsion Types of Instruments In general it may be said that attraction-type instruments possess the same advantages, and are subject to the limitations, described for the repulsion type. An attraction type instrument will usually have a lower inductance than the corresponding repulsion type instrument, and voltmeters will therefore be accurate over a wider range of frequency and there isa greater possibility of using shunts with ammeters. On the other hand, repulsion instruments are more suitable for economical production in manufacture, and a nearly uniform scale is more easily obtained they are, therefore, much more common than the attraction type. 9.9.7. Errors in Moving Iron Instruments ‘There are two types of errors which occur in moving iron instruments — errors which occur with both a.c. and d.c. and the other which occur only with ac. only. and A.C. a§gPrS with both D.C. (o Hysteresis error. This error occurs as the value of flux density is different for the same current for ascending and descending values. The value of flux density is higher for descending values of current and “Therefore, the instrument tends to read higher for fing values of current (and voltag ) than for Ting valuesJhis error can ad by ‘parts small 60 that they demagnetize themselves quickly. Another method is to work the iron parts at low values of flux density so that the hysteresis effects are small. Hysteresis may produce a 2 to 3 percent error. With the use_of nickel iron alloys with narrow teresis error may be brought down to Jess than 0.05 per cent. (i Temperature error. The effect of temperature changes on moving iron instruments arises chiefly from the temperature coefficient of spring, The error Thus the compensated instrument pave a power factor nearly equal to unity ly ‘smaller than may be 0.02 percent per °C change in temperature. In | voltmeters, errors are caused due to self-heating of coil and series resistance. The temperature of the coil may increase by 10 to 20°C for a power consumption of 1 W. Therefore, the resistance increases (by about 4 to 8%), causing a decrease in current for a given voltage. This produces a decreased deflection. Therefore, the series resistance should be made of a material like Manganin which has a small temperature co-efficient ‘The value of series resistance should be very large as compared with the coil resistance in order to minimize errors due to self-heating. In the case of switch board instruments, the series resistance is about 10 times the coil resistance. (iti) Stray magnetic fields. The errors due 151 stray magnetic fields (fields other than the operating, magnetic field) may be appreciable as the operating ‘magnetic field is weak (about 0.006 to 0.0075 W/m’? at full scale deflection) and hence can be easily distorted, Such errors depend upon the direction of the stray ‘magnetic field relative to the held of the instrument. ‘These errors can be minimized by using an iron case or ‘a thin iron shield over the working parts. Errors with A.C. onl (i Frequency errors. Changes in frequency may cause errors due to changes of reactance of the working coil and also due to changes of magnitude of ‘eddy currents set up in the metal parts of instrument. Reactance of instrument coil. The change of reactance of the instrument coil is important in case of voltmeters where an additional resistance R, is used in series with the instrument coil. Let the resistance and inductance of the instrument coil be R and L. Then the current | in the instrument coil for a given applied voltage Vis given by (Re RY +o ‘The deflection of the moving-iron voltmeter depends upon the current through the coil. Therefore, the deflection for a given voltage will be less at high frequencies than at low frequencies. To some extent, compensation to this type of error is possible by connecting a capacitor C across the series resistance R, as shown in Fig. 9.29. ‘The idea of shunting the series resistor is to make the circuit behave like a pure resistance so that the frequency changes have no effect on the readings of the instrument. Thus the compensated instrument will As the 1, | 9 , resistance of the meter, R, is considerabl Scanned with CamScannerScanned with CamScanner| 262 | the series multiplier resistance R,, it can be assumed | that it ie ae a to ensure that the magnitude Z of the impedance of the circuit formed id Chas | avalue R, when used on a.c. aan — Fig. 9.29 Frequency compensation for | MAL. voltmeters, Now Z=jol+_—Ri__ 1+ joCR, R= jwCRt 14 aC? R? | Since @CR, <1, we can write Z= joL+(R,- joCR?\1-a°C?R?) L+ R, ~jwCR? -aFC?R? + jac? RE = R,-@C?R? + jfol-wCR2(1 - a C?R?2))} = R,=wCPR? 4 jf@L+ wCR?] = R(1-a?C*R?)+ joo L- CR?) or Z? = R2Q-a?C*R?}? + @(L-CR?Y. This must equal R? in order that the ac. calibration at all frequencies and d.c. calibration is the same. = jol+ 2 = R2(1— a C7R?)? + (LCR?) = R2(1-20°C7R? + w'C*RA)+ w(L-CReP = R2(1-20°C?R?) + w?(L-CR?) a8 of CAR? cl = R2-2ahC2RE + PE + wPC*RS-20P LCR? or = 2-2LCR?-C?R!=0 or L=241 CR? (9.55) It should be understood that the above analysis is valid for a limited range of frequency which in practical cases is upto 125 Hz. Eddy currents, These errors are caused by eddy currents induced in the iron parts of the instruments. Let the mutual inductance between the instrument coil and the iron parts be M. The induced voltage E,(= @Ml) due to current I in the instrument coil lags the current by 90° (see Fig. 9.30). As a result of this induced voltage an eddy current I, flows and its magnitude is oMI Tiree Electrical and Electronic M where R, and L, are respectively the resi inductance of this eddy current path. J, laga E, be an angle 0, = tan“ wl, / Ry. 30 Effect of eddy currents in M.l, instruments. ‘A component of this current I, = 1,cos(90-0,) = |,sin0, opposes the instrument current [and sets up opposing field thus reducing the torque on the moving system, From the phasor diagram shown in Fig. 9.30, itis seen oI ol tanto ai te : yh R+oh ya SM when R, >> oly ie, when ois emall. ME when al, >> R ie., when wis large. Thus at low frequencies the eddy current error increases with square of the frequency while at high frequencies the error is practically constant, For these reasons moving iron instruments are unsuitable for frequencies above 125 Hz. 9.9.8 Advontages and Disadvantages of Moving Iron Instruments 1. Universal use, These instruments can be used for both ac. and d.c. Although, moving iron instruments are responsive to d.c, the hysteresis effect causes an appreciable error in measurement. Therefore, these instruments are rarely used for d.c. applications except for very inexpensive indicators such as charging and discharging current indicators. in automobiles. However, hysteresis presents no problems for use an ac, Therefore, moving iron Scanned with CamScannerfs jects Zrjet+ == ye wr ere bet, @ wr ch WE = aa = (2) - — folyrowial LXPAM OW five 2s Scanned with CamScannerAnalog Ammeters, Voltmeters arid Ohmmeters 263 itstruments are used extensively in industry for measurement of a.c. voltay voltage an sss friction ct quite small as pes Errors due to friction are these instruments. This i ight ratio is quite high in the canuments This is an account of the fact that i is ying part (heavy part of the instrument) is stationary and the light in weight. moving parts are 3. Cheapn ' ie cuneate Depending upon the magnitude of tuner to be measured, the coil may have.a few of fine acest aca ee ee ee required is the same for a given displacement of the moving system irrespective of the instrument range. Hence identical moving systems may be used for an entire series of instruments from voltmeters which require a small value of current, to the highest range ammeters. Thus in a series of instruments which use an mmf of 200 A at full scale, the highest range ammeter could be for 200 A using one turn while voltmeters of the series could require 50 mA with 4000 turns for full scale deflection. The fact that a single type of moving element could cover the entire range is one reason that moving iron instruments can be built at less cost than some other types. 4. Robustness. The instruments are robust owing to simple construction and also that there are no current carrying moving parts. 5. Accuracy. These instruments are capable of giving an accuracy within the limits of both precision and industrial grades. Modern well designed portable moving iron instruments are expected to have a dic error of 2 percent or less. The initial accuracy of high grade instruments is stated to be 0.75 percent for frequencies between 25 to 125 Hz and they may be expected tobe accurate within 0.2% to 0.3% at 50 Hz if carefully designed. 6. Seale, Moving iron instruments are now available with 240° circular scales. The greatly increased scale length being a certain advantage. The scale of moving iron instruments is not uniform and is cramped at the lower end and therefore accurate readings are not possible at this end. 7. Errors. These instruments are subjected to serious errors due to hysteresis, frequency changes and stray magnetic fields. 8. Waveform errors. The non-linearity of B-H curve of iron means that the deflecting torque is not exactly proportional to the square of the current. Thus, while the theory already given shows that the instrument, once calibrated in rms values, should indicate rms values whatever the waveform will not, in fact, be realized in practice. However the precision grade instruments are so designed that the maximum flux density reached in the vanes is about 30 to 40% of the saturation value. Hence even alternating currents having highly distorted waveforms can be measured satisfactorily. This is not true of switch-board instruments meant for industrial applications where maximum flux density reaches the saturation value on account of the fact that they are designed with a high value of flux density to obtain a large deflecting torque in order to reduce the size of the instrument. 9. Difference between dc. and auc. calibrations. There is a difference between dic. and a.c. calibrations on account of effect of inductance of the meter and the eddy currents when the meter is used on a.c. They must be calibrated for frequencies at which they are used. Example 9.19 The inductance of @ moving iron instrument i given by : L=(10+50-67)HH where @ is the deflection in radian from zero position. The spring constant is 12x10~° N, mrad. Estimate the deflection for a current of 5 A. Solution. Rate of change of inductance with deflection cla de 8 (10+ 50-6?) =5-20 pH/rad. From. Eqn. 9.52, the deflection is 0 = 1 2 (SY (-20)x10 2" 12x10 From above, we get 0= 1.69 rad =968". Zample_9.20 The inductance of a moving iron ‘ammeter with a full scale deflection of 90° at 1.5 A, is given by the expression L=(200 + 400-40? -0°) HH, where is the deflection in radian from the zero position. Estimate the angular deflection of the pointer for a current of 1.0 A. Solution. Inductance L=200+ 400-467 -@° nH Rate of change of inductance, with deflection dL/ d0 = 40-80-30 pH/rad. dL/d@ for 0=n/2is 40 -8x n/2-3(n/2) or 0 wH/rad. an 7 ale Deflection, 6 Scanned with CamScanner PEE264 With 1=1.5 A, we have @= 1/2 and dL/d0=20x 10 H/rad. O35? 20104 I SY «20%10 | | © Spring constant, K =14.32 «10 Nmv/rad. | For I=1A, 2 Deflection, @ =2x —_2"__ 40-59 -367)x 10 2" 1432 x10 From above, we get, 30+366467—40=0 or 0=1.008 rad =57:8 Example 9.21 The law of deflection of a moving iron ammeter is given by 1=40" ampere where @ is the defection in radian and n isa constant. The self-inductance when the meter current is zero is 10 mH. The spring constant is 0.16 N-m/rad. (Determine an expression for self-inductance of the meter as a function of ® and n. (i) With n=0.75 calculate the meter current and the deflection that corresponds toa selfinduclance of 60 mH. Solution. Fi 7 : 1P at ‘rom Eqn. 9.52, deflection in radian 9 =2 1 2K a Rate of change of self inductance dl _2K0 2K fale Be a=2Kq, a P zee Substituting the value [=46" in the above expression, we have dL _1 ygi-2n Sal Kg, a8 Integrating the above expression, we have, K gon im +A where A = constant of integration. We have I = 46”. Thus 6 =0 when / =0. It is given that when I=0 the value of self-inductance L=10x107H Putting this in expression for L, 10x10%=0+A or A=10x10%. Hence the expression for self-inductance as a tunction of @ and 1 is : v= —*_ 9410x107 “T6—n) =) 9" 410x109 H 100(1=n) as K=0.16 Nm/rad. Electrical and Electronic Measu rements and Instrumentation i) With =075, the expression for self: inductance is, L 1_g2-20075 19107 * 7001-075) =0,040°% +10x10°7H Putting L=60x10™, we have 6010 =0.0405 +10% 107. . Deflection, 0 = 1.56 rad =89.5°. 1240" =4% 1.569% =5.58 A. wres give the relation of a moving iron Current, Example 9.22 The following figu Between deflection and inductance instrument. Deflection, Degree Inductance, 5H sessseeee g o & Find the current and the torque to give a deflection of (a) 30°, (b) 80°. Given that control spring constant is 0.4x 10 Nm/deg. Solution. The graph between deflection and inductance is plotted as shown in Fig. 9.31. 39K [280 374 350} Inductance, L nH 340} 3301 1020 30-40-5060 70 80 90 100 Deflection 8 (degrees) — — Fig. 9.31 Plot of inductance v/s deflection for example 9.22. The expression for deflection is @=(1/2 K)P(dL/ do) ‘Thus in order to find out current I for a particular deflection, we must evaluate dL/d@ at the deflection concerned, Scanned with CamScanner265 The curve is | linear in thie regic (2 Ss-a5 9 40-29) = 1.025 WH/degree ~ S87 uH/rad Putting this value in the expression for 6 Ps 586s 10% Fig. 9.32, Plots of current and inductance v/s deflection for example 9.23. Ty =T. = K0=0.4% 1030 Det aH Deflecting tre a () For @ = 60° Ty PPS 7 pS? «6310 ‘A tangent is drawn to the curve at 80° and slope is 7.09 « 10* New aL 3965 Deflection, 8 S68 rad ( | =e =375 .o55jsH/degree Spring constant a ao oT _7.09x10° = 31.5 wH/rad. “0 0868 14 a = 7.32.10" Nevrad. >* » Px315%10% 2° 04x10 xample 9.24 Calculate the constants of a shunt to or 1=1425 A. ‘extend the range of 0-5 A moving iron ammeter to 0-50 A. Deflecting torque The instrument constants are R =0.09. and L=90 wif FF be eet een the shunt is made non-inductive and the combination is Ty 80 =32 x ism. correct on d.c. find the full scale error at 50 He. Example 9.23 The relationship between inductance of Solution. Multiplying power of shunt ‘moving iron ammeter, the current and the position of the mol/l, ©50/5 «10 pointer is as follows : In order that the meter may read correctly at all, frequencies the time constants of meter and shunt circuits should be equal. Under this condition [Deflection (degree) | 365 | 495 | 615 | 745 || muttiptying power, m=1+ R/ Ry [inductance (ul) | 5752 | 5765 | s778 | 5788 |) an R 0.09 Calculate the deflecting torque and the spring constant k, = 8-2 oor when ‘the current is 1.5 A. ra Solution. The relationship between deflection Also, a ik and current and between deflection and inductance are plotted as shown in Fig. 9:32. Corresponding to a current of 1.5.A, the deflection ye is 55,5 degrees. At this deflection, the rate of change of inductance with deflection is almost linear. From the graph of inductance v/s deflection Inductance of shunt Lt, _ % RK, = xao1-10 Ro 0.09 a With dc, the current through the meter for a total ‘current of 50 A is, R 0.01 I, = oth x f= 4 50250 A. AS71553 «933 yey 63H Re Ry O80 Scanned with CamScanner266 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation With 50 Hz, the current through the meter for a Compute total current of 50 A is, (@) The spring constant ofthe meter and A aT () The series resistence required. ARR, Pree Ral ot Solution. Now, 1=004020 a «50 ftoos + 0.01)? +2 xx 50x90%10->2 2 Lag = 481A, @ 2s 1 pdb Since the meter reading is proportional to the (4) Spring constant, Kase Po current, 1% (100x109)? 0.1 100% (n/180) * 2x = 38% or the meter reads 3.8% low. = 456x10- Nm/rad. imple 9.25 The coil of a 300 V moving iron red i wert the meter to wolineer has reislance of $00.0. and an inductance of sy Qryatreace e cee/GOO103) 2 SOND 28 H. The instrument reads correctly at 50 Hz ac. supply nee Inductance of meter coll full scale deflection and takes 100 mA at full scale deflection, What is the percentage error in the instrument reading 1a 0014020 _001+02%100% n/180 when itis connected to 200 V d.c. supply. an 4n Solution. Reactance of coil at 50 Hz, = 0.0286. X=2nx 50x08 =25139 Reactance of meter coil at 50 Hz Current taken by meter at 50 Hz and 300 V, = 21x 50x 0.0286 = 8.98.2. | Iq = 106 MA =0.1 A. Series resistance required $ Impedance of meter at 50 Hz, R, = (5000)? (6.98)? = 50000. | Z=300/0.1=30000. Wicampt The operat i of 0 250 V : Sxample_9.27 The operating col Resistance of meter circuit ‘moving-iron voltmeter has a resistance of 500 0 and an =Vz?-x? = (2000)?-(251.3" ‘inductance of 1.0 H. The series resistance is 20000. The = 29899. instrument reads correctly when a direct voltage of 250 V is 220, ‘pplied. What will it read when 250 V at 50 Hz is applied ? Current taken by meter at 200 V, 50 Hz supply i ue ofcapacitance must the series resistance be +=200/3000 = 0.06671 A. ‘shunted to make the meter read correctly at 50 Hz ? Current taken by instrument with 200 volt d.c. Solution, The impedance of the voltmeter circuit =200 /2969 = 0.0669 A. at50 Hz, : The deflection is proportional to the operati 5 cuifent Alo ihe instrument wads coneely win, Z=V(R+ RY +H aoa = (2000 + 500)? + 2x 50x 1)? = 252022. Hence reading of instrument with 200 V dc With dc. Z=R+ R, =25009. converted toa 0- 500 V, 50 He voltmeter by adding a series ‘ resistance withthe ci. The col has negligible resistance ake ea ar mn of capeciiance required to and an inductance L=(001+020)/4n henry, where 0 is the defection in radian, The total angular span of the meter ceo -o41x— , corp. R (2000)? . vis 1008, a ‘current with 200 volt d.c x reading with 200 volt 50 Hz a.c. ‘The error is due to change of current on account of t ‘current with 200 volt 50 Hz a.c. i .c. i _ | | =20668,.299=2006v, 200 0° EEF Reading at 250 V and 50 He Uso ese | | 1 oases a 7 se Example 9.26 A 0-100 mA moving iron ammeter is 3590 *250 = 248 V. . f i | | Scanned with CamScannerfoo Ammeters, in instrument for full scal t "Vv Wont le deflection ' 5x10° 4, Deflecting torque |-NBIdI 2 100% Bx 30% 1025x1054 19-3 =375x10*Qm, Controlling torque for a deflection 0 T, = KO =0.375 «10° 129 5% 10 Nem. At final steady position, T=T, or = 120%, 375% 10 B= 45» 10°, | © Flux density in the ar gap Be Sx10* i 37510 Resistance of coil winding R.=03%20-60 Length of meaa tum Ley = 2(1+d)=2(30+25) = 110 mm. Let a be the area of cross-section of wire and p be p resistivity. Resistance of coil, R, = Np ly, /a. Area of cross-section of wire, 8 100%1.7 10% x110%10" 46 6 =31.37%10 mm? jameter of wire, d ={(4 / n)(31.37*10~)}"? =02 mm ample 9.3 The coil of a moving coil voltmeter is vrim long and 30 mm wide and has 100 turns on it. The ctrol spring exerts 0 torque of 240 10°* N-m when the éection is 100 divisions on ful scale. Ifthe flux density of ‘magnetic field in the air gap is 1.0 Whim’, estimate the cistance that must be put in series with the coil to give one 1 per division. The resistance of the voltmeter coil may be plected. Solution. Controlling torque at full scale deflection T, = 24010 N-m. Deflecting torque at full scale deflection i T, = NBIdI ‘ 3 3 210041 40% 10°? #301071 = 120+ 107 1 N-m. At final steady position, . T,=T, or 120*10 *1=240 10%. Current at full scale deflection, 1 = 2x10 A=2 mA. = 0.12 Wo/m?, vv Voltmeters ond Ohmmeters 241 Let the resistance of the voltmeter circuit be R 107 R This produces a deflection of 100 divisions Volts per division =2» 10" R/100 This value should be equal to 1 in order to get 1 volt per division. 26107 R/100=1 or R= 50000 92 = 50K Voltage across the instrument =2 743 Ammeter Shunts The basic movement of a d.c. ammeter is a PMMC d’Arsonval galvanometer. The coil winding of a basic movement is small and light and can carry very small Currents since the construction of an accurate instrument with a moving coil to carry currents ter than 100 mA is impracticable owing to the ‘bulk and weight of the coil that would be required When heavy currents are to be measured, the major part of the current is bypassed through a low resistance called a “shunt”. Figure 9.5 shows the basic movement (meter) and its shunt to produce an ‘ammeter. Basic Shunt ae © ‘5 Basic ammeter circuit, ‘The resistance of the shunt can be calculated using conventional circuit analysis. See Fig. 9.5, where R,, ternal resistance of movement (i¢., the coil) 2; resistance of the shunt |, full scale detlection current of movement, A; shunt current, A. current to be measured ; A. Since the shunt resistance is in parallel with the meter movement, the voltage drops across shunt and movement must be the same. or Ty Ry = I Ry Ry = by Bu Hy (9.6) But y= td, Therefore, we can write, Ky = Igy Ry (Ey) (97) Thy Vs Ry Ry . or 1/1, <1 Ry 1 Ry (98) Scanned with CamScanner242 This ratio of total current to the current in the movement is called multiplying power of shunt. Multiplying power m= 11 Ip (99) a1+R,/ Ry (9.10) «. Resistance of shunt Ry = Ry / (m1) (9-11) The shunt resistance used with a d’Arsonval movement may consist of a coil of resistance wire within the case of the Instrument, or it may be external shunt having a very low resistance. ‘Construction of Shunts : ‘The general requirements for shunts are (® The temperature co-efficient of shunt and instrument should be low and should be as nearly as possibly the same. The resistance of shunts should not vary with time, They should carry the current without excessive temperature rise, They should have a low thermal electro- motive force with copper. @ i (i) Mangarin’ is usually used for shunts of d.c. instruments as it gives low value erm with “copper although it is liable to corrosion and is difficult To solder. ‘Coustantan’ is a useful material for a. “Grcuits since its comparatively high thermal emf, being unidirectional, is ineffective on these circuits. ‘The construction of shunts is the same as that of low resistance standards explained in Art. 6.4. Shunts for low currents are enclosed in the meter casing but for currents above 200 A, they are mounted separately (so that heat produced can be effectively dissipated). Example 9,4 A 1mA meter d’Arsonval movement with aan internal resistance of 100 9 is to be converted into a 0-100 mA ammeter. Calculate. the shunt resistance required. What particulars should he specified on the shunt ? Solution. Shunt resistance Ray = pq Ry /E=Iy )=1% 100 / (100 -1) =1.019. Voltage drop across the shunt =(L.0) (100) = 100 mv. Equivalent resistance of shunt and meter in parallel =100x 107 /(100x 10) = 1.09. ‘Therefore the indications on the shunt should be: (9 100 mA, 100 mV (ii) 1.0.9, 100 mA or (ii) 109, - mV. . Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation Example 9.5 Find the multiplying power of a shunt of 200 Q resistance iIvanometer of 1000 2 200 © resistance used with a gal 0 resistance. Determine the value of shunt resistance to give a multiplying power of 50 Solution. Multiplying power m=1+ Ry, / Ry, =1*1000/200 We have, m=14 Ry, / Ry, Shunt resistance, Ry =") 1000 _ 29.40. Example 9.6 A moving coil ammeter has a fixed shunt of O20. With a coil resistance of R = 100022 and a potential difference of 500 mV across it, full scale deflection is obtained : (@) To what shunted current does this correspond ? (b) Calculate the value of R to give fuil scale deflection when shunted current I is (104, (it) 75 Aand (0) With what value of R is 40% deflection obtained with 1=100 A? Solution. (2) Current through shunt, I, = 500% 10" /0.02 =25 A. Current through the meter to give full scale deflection = 500x107 /1000 =0.5x10°° A. © (0 Voltage across shunt for a current of 10 A 02x10 =0.2 V. ~. Resistance of meter for a current of 10 A to give full scale deflection .2 1 (0.5x 10) = 400.2. (ii) Voltage across shunt for a current of 75 A =002x75 =15 V. Resistance of meter for a current of 75 A to give full scale deflection 5 /(0.5x10™) = 3000 2. (©) Now 40 percent deflection is obtained with 100 A. Current to give full scale deflection =100/0.4=250 A. Voltage across shunt for a current of 250 A = 002 «250 =5.0V Resistance of meter for a current of 100 A to give 40 percent of full scale deflection =5.0/(05x 10) =100000 Example 9.7 A simple shunted ammeter using a basic ‘meter movement with an internal resistance of 18000 and a full scale deflection current of 100 wA is connected in a Scanned with CamScanner