~ 826 _ foll/2-x)e 2d+i _ Ge qliaene ence Cae 2 * meu | 2M d2 ~ 2d(2d+t) ‘Similarly, capacitance between plates A and D, Co weg) 2H 2 te “apo | 2d +t) 25.29 PIEZO-ELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS =A piczoclectric-material_is_one_in_which on electric ial ay across certain surfaces of a the a is produced by the displacement of charges, The effect is reversible, i.e., conversely, if a ytential is applied to the poper ans of the ata, rel change ‘the dimensions of the crystal thereby deforming \is effect is ic effect. Element ‘exhibiting piezo-electric qualities are called as electro- resistive elements. ‘Common piezo-electric mat Rochelle = ammonium dihydrogen phosphate, lithium te, dipotassium tartrate, potassium dihydrogen See and ceramics A and B. Except for quartz and ceramics A and B, the rest are man-made czystals grown from aqueous solutions under carefully controlled conditions. The ceramic materials are poly- crystalline in nature. They are, basically, made of barium titanate. They do not have piezo-electric properties in their original state but these properties are produced by special polarizing treatment. ‘The materials that exhibit a significant and useful piezoelectric effect are divided into two categories A. Natural group and A. Synthetic group. ‘Quartz and Rochelle salt belong to natural group while materials like lithium sulphate, ethylene diamine tartrate belong to the syntiietic group. ‘The piezo-electric effect can be made to respond to (or cause) mechanical deformations of the material in many different modes. The modes can be : thickness ‘expansion, transverse expansion, thickness shear and face shear. The mode of motion affected depends on the shape of the body relative to the crystal axis and ‘psi dimensions of he yea ae argeT lication of a mechanical force. This potent Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation location of the electrodes. A piezo-electric element used for converting mechanical motion to electrical signals may be thought as charge generator and a capacitor. Mechanical deformation generates a charge.” and this charge appears as a voltage across the e voltage is E=Q/C. - The piezo-electric effect is direction sensitive. A tensile force produces a voltage of one polarity while a compressive force produces a voltage of opposite polarity. A piezo-electric crystal is shown.in Fig, 25.121. © Fig. 25-121 (2) Plezo-electric crystal used for measurement of force, (b) Axis numbering system for the crystal. ‘The magnitude and polarity of the induced surface ‘charges are proportional to the magnitude and direction, of the applied force F. The polarity of induced charges depends upon the direction of applied force. Charge Q= dx F coulomb (25.130) where d= charge sensitivity of the crystal ; CIN : (itis constant for a given crystal) and F =applied force, N The force crystal. causes, e in thickness of the (25.131) Scanned with CamScannerPrimary Sensing Elements and Transducers 827 Young’s modulus The charge at the electrodes gives rise to an output voltage E, Voltage Fy = Q/C, «o(25.134) where C, =capacitance between electrodes ; F Capacitance between electrodes Czeeale fA= 25135 From Eqns. 25.130, 25.134, 25.135, Q Rawk & F/ A= P =pressure or stress in N/M? F,-1p (25.137) aF eeyATt But --(25.138) where g=d/e,ey (25.139) ‘g’ is the voltage sensitivity of the L. This is _fonstant Tor a given crystal cut, Its units are Vin/N. -4.5it Now g PP But (25.140) F,/ t= electric field strength, Vim eta tected lectric til stress Now Ey/t is the electric field intensity in the cxystal and Pis the pressure or the applied stress to the crystal. Therefore, crystal voltage sensitivity, g, can be defined as the ratio of eleciric field intensity to Pressure (or stress). Now Ey/t =e is the electric field intensity mn the crystal and P is the pressure or the ‘stress applied to the crystal. Therefore, crystal voltage sensitivity, g, can be defined as the ratio of the electric field intensity to pressure (or stress). The units of g are VmN. From Eqn. 25.139, charge sensitivity d= e,¢y g C/N (25.141) 25.142) The values of crystal voltage sensitivity, permittivity and charge sensitivity for barium titatate and quartz are shown in Table 258, [RMBTRTABIR Properties of Barium Titanate and Quartz Vol Charge | Material seatteey Peon e Sensitivity, 9 Van POM Barium | 12x10° | 125x107 150 titanate Quartz | 50x10% | 406 x10"? 2 Sometimes it is desired to express the output voltage or charge in terms of deflection rather than in terms of either stress or force. This is because it is really the deformation that causes the generation. Thus we must know the modulus of clasticity of the material for this purpose. The values of modulus of elasticity are : Barium titanate : 12 x10"°N/m, Quartz :8.6 10° N/m? It has been stated earlier that the piezo-electric effect is direction sensitive. The main characteristics of Piezo-electric motion to voltage transducers can be illustrated by considering only one common mode of deformation i, thickness expansion. For this mode the physical arrangement is shown in Fig. 25.121(). Various double-subscripted physical constants are used to describe numerically the phenomena occurring. The convention is that first subscript refers to the direction of the electrical effect and the second to that of the mechanical effect. The axis numbering system is given in Fig. 25.121(b). lies of constants ie,, the ‘d’ constants and ‘g’ constarits”ate considered: For barium titanate the commonly used constants are dys and a3 _ field produced in direction 3 “stress applied in direction 3 It 5 3 (25.143) Voltage output (25.144) ‘Thus if g is known for a particular material, the voltage output per unit stress can be calculated by knowing the value of ¢. F Fy = 89% B% t= Bayt P Scanned with CamScanner 25 |829 Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers Example 25.47 A quartz piezo-electric crystal having a Thickness of 2 tm and voltage sensitivity of 0.055 V - m/ N is subjected to a pressure of 1.5 MNim’. Calculate the voltage output. If the permittivity of quartz is 40.6x 10- F/m calculate its charge sensitivity. Solution. From Eqn. 25.138, voltage output E, = gt P=0.055 x2 x10 x 10x 1.5 x 108 =165V Charge sensitivity d= ee, 8 16 x 107! x 0.055 =2.23x 10°? C/N =2.23 pC/N Example 25.48 A piezo-electric crystal having dimensions of SmmxSmmx15mm and a voltage sensitivity of 0.055 V - m/ N is used for force measurement. Calculate the force ifthe voltage developed is 100 V. Solution. From Eqn. 25.138, the applied pressure is 100 0.055 x 1.5 «107 .2 MN/m? (Gee Eqn. 25.139) N/m? =12 x 10% 5x5 x 10° =30N (-“zample 25.49 A barium titanate pickup has the dimensions of 5 mmx 5 mm x 125mm The force acting on it is 5 N. The charge sensitivity of barium titanate is 150 pC/N and its permittivity is 12.5 x 10° F/m If the Modulus of elasticity of barium titanate is 12x 10° N/nf, calculate-the-strain Also calculate the charge and the capacitance. Solution. Area of plates A= 5x5 x10 =25x 10° m? Pressure P= 5/(25x 10) N/m? 2 MN | m? Voltage sensitivity d__150x10- ee, 125x10° =12% 10° Vm/N Voltage generated Fy=gtP = 12x10 «1.25 «10x02 x10°=3 V e=at yf Strain a = __ ses Young's modulus 1.0167. Charge Q= dF = 150 x 107 5 C=750 pc Capacitance Q _750x10-? c= 2 =x pe Eo 250 pF 25.29.3 Equivalent Circuit of Piezo-electric Transducers The basic equivalent circuit of a piezo-electric transducer is shown in Fig. 25.124(a) The source is a charge generator. The value of the charge is Q=dF. The charge generated is across the capacitance, G,, of the crystal and its leakage resistance R,, The charge generator can be replaced by an ‘equivalent voltage source having a voltage of aE e G G (25.147) in series with a capacitance, C,, and resistance, R,, as shown in Fig. 25.124(b). tt Ty “T° On % : 4 } (a) _ ® Fig. 25.124 Equivalent circuits of piezo-electric transducers. 25.29.4 Loading Effects and Frequency Response Let the transducer be loaded by a capacitance C, and a resistance R,. The capacitance C, is the combination of the capacitance of the load, the capa- citance of the cable and the stray capacitance. The diagram showing the load connected to a piezo- electric transducer is given in Fig, 25.125(a). The value of leakage resistance, R,, of the crystal is very large. It is of the order of 0.1109. The value of load resistance, R,, is considerably smaller than R,, and hence the equivalent circuit of the Piezo-electric crystal under load conditions is as shown in Fig. 25.125(b) in which the leakage resistance, R,, of the crystal has been dropped Scanned with CamScannerPiezoelectric materials application Optics, Photonies and Measuring Technology + Image stabitzation + Scanning microscopy + Auto focus systems + Interferometry + Fiber optic alignment & switching + Fast miror scanners + Adaptive and active optics + Laser tuning + Mirtor positioning Holography + Stimulation of vibrations Disk Drive + MR head testing + Pole tip recession + Disk spin stands Vibration cancellation Microelectronics. ‘Nano-metrology ‘Wafer and mask positioning Crtical Dimensions measurement Microlithography Inspection systems Vibration cancellation w.wang Precision Mechanics and Mechanical Engineering + Vibration cancellation + Structural deformation + Qutof-roundness grinding, driling, turning + Tool adjustment + Wear correction + Needle valve actuation + Micro pumps + Linear drives + Piezo hammers + Knife edge control in extrusion tools, + Micro engraving systems ‘Shock wave generation ife Science, Medicine, Biology + Patch-clamp drives + Gene technology + Micro manipulation + Cell penetration + Micro dispensing devices + Audiophysiological stimulation + Shock wave generation Scanned with CamScannerLxhtn (anit CAPRA IS pasted Bs zaMD: Arig Instruments 179 yo teh wh there will be either a force of attraction or repulsion Jf the coil is mounted on a spindle between bearings, there will be a movement of the coil. This effect is uti- lized in permanent magnet moving coil instruments. Force between two current carrying’ coils. Consider two current carrying coils shown in Fig. 73. For the directions of the currents shown, the two produce unlike poles near each other and thus there is a force of attraction and if one of the coils is moyable and the other is fixed, there will be a motion of the movable coil. distee ‘This effect is utilised in the dynamometer type of instruments. {0 — Fi ed Force between current carrying.coll and a:permanent magnet. 2. Thermal effect. The current to be measured is, passed through a small element which heats it. The temperature rise is converted to an emf by a thermocouple attached to the element. A. thermo-couple consists of lengths. of two dissimilar electric conductors joined at ends to form a closed loop. If the junctions of the two. dissimilar metals are maintained. at different temperatures, a ‘current flows through the closed loop. This current can be measured and is indicative of the r.m.s. value of the current flowing through the heater elements. (LU Fig. 7.4 rE 00 Force between two current carrying coils. 3 Electrostatic effect. When two plates are charged, there is a force exerted between them. This force is used to move one of the plates. The instru- ‘ments working on this principle are called electrostatic instruments and they are usually voltmeters. 4. Induction effect. When a non-magnetic con- ducting pivoted disc or a drum is placed in a magnetic field produced by a system of electromagnets excited ere is no pokembal difference at ofp conbacty if wan Deere pe ft apex cher waapache 6 ql gueke pret Te uneven data buhes creas ofp terminals . Thy! & fin SGeek J seusicoud uch’ Bld present the curren R dedi Ts vo. by alternating cuntents, an emf is induced in the disc or drum. Ifa closed path is provided, the emt forces a current to flow in the disc or drum. The force pro- duced by the interaction of induced currents and the alternating ma induction effect is mainly utilized in ac. energy meters. 5. Hall effect. If a strip offfbhdueting material carries current in the presence of a transverse, by creates a ig catidea Plath Vo stage Q etic field as shown in Fig. 75, anemfis produced \., between two edges of conductor. The magnitude of the voltage depends upon the current, flux density and a property of conductor called’ “Hall Effect Coveffcient” Magnetic flux Hall effect ‘materia Hall effeét element. ‘The emf may be measured after amplification. Hall effect elements are extensively used in magneticmeasure- ments. They can also be used for sensing of current. ‘Another instrument that uses Hall effect is Poynting, Vector Wattmeter. This wattmeter used for measuring. the power loss density at the surface of a magnetic material, Table 7.1 gives effects utilized by various types of instruments. ‘Table'Zd! Effects used in Instruments for their operations Effect Instruments Magnetic effect | Ammeters, voltmeters, watt meters, integrating meters. Heating effect | Ammeters and voltmeters, wwattmeters Eteguostatcetect | Volimeers Induction effect | A.C, ammetecs, voltmeters, watimeters, energy meters. Hall effect Flux meters, ammeters and Poynting vector wattmeter. Scanned with CamScanner—-> Ny Primary Sensing Elements and Transducers 835 le 25.54 A pulse is applied toa C Examp) Piezo-electric ransducer for a time T. Prove that in order to keep the undershoot to a value within 5%, the value of time constant should be approximately 20 T. Solution. The value of voltage at = Tis given by KA = ep t- = ep-T/) The voltage reduces by a factor exp(—T/t) from its value at #=0, For 5% undershoot, the value of voltage at =T should be 0.95 of its initial value 095= exp(-T/) or T/t=0.0513 or 1=195T Therefore in order to keep the undershoot to 5% within its initial value x =20T. 25.30 HALL EFFECT TRANSDUCERS The principle of Hall Effect Transducers has already been explained in chapter 7 on page 179. This is being re-introduced for continuity. The principle of working of a Hall Effect Transducer is that if @ strip of conducting material carries a current in the presence of a transverse magnetic field as shown in Fig, 25.128, a difference of potential is produced between the opposite edges of the conductor. The magnitude of the voltage depends upon the current, the strength of magnetic field ani the proj ‘of the conductor called Hall Effect. The all effect is present in metals and semiconductors in varying amounts, depending upon the densities and mobilities of carriers. ‘nee, _-_@ magneticfield Fig. 25.128 Hall Effect Element. Let us consider Fig, 25.128, current is passed through leads 1 and 2 of the strip. The output leads connected to edges 3 and 4 are at the same potential when there is no transverse magnetic field passing through the strip. When a transverse magnetic field passes through the strip, an output voltage appears across the output leads. This voltage is proportional to the current and the field strength. The output voltage is, E,y= Ky Bit 25.168) v-m ‘A-Wb m? where Ky, = Hall effect coefficient ; 1 thickness of strip ; m, and I and Bare respectively the current in ampere and flux density in Wb/m*. Thus the volt produced may be used measurement of either the current I or the magnetic field strength B. Typical values of Hall Effect Coefficient of different materials are given in Table 25.9. [Table:25:103 Hell Effect Co-efficients Materat| POO reno ee |W °c A-Wo-m? As 0.4 to 0.8 20 452 «10° c 04 t018 Room | - 1173 x10 Bi on3 20 -bao* cu 08 to 22 20 52x10? Fe Ww 2 Laxio? |n-Ge |oon-o8 | 25 8x10? si 2 B 41 10% Sn o4 Room | -2x10"? Te 03-09 20 _| 3x10°* The Hall effect emf is very small in conductors and is difficult to measure. But in some semicon- ductors, such as germanium, the emf produced is sufficiently large to be measured by a sensitive moving coil instrument. 25.30.1 Applications of Hall Effect Transducer The following are some of the applications of the Hall Effect Transducer. 1. Magnetic to Electric Transducer. The Hall Effect Transducer can be used as a Magnetic to Electric transducer. A semiconductor plate is inserted into the magnetic field to be measured. The magnetic lines of force are perpendicular to the semiconducting plate The transducer gives an output voltage which is proportional to B, the magnetic field density. The Scanned with CamScanner | | |and without making electrical connection between the Cwro-magnchc Tale, ock os magne Ne" oncentrwtey 636 Electrical ond Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation system has the advantage of requiring a very small conductor and sets up a magnetic field surrounding space in the direction of the magnetic field and the conductor. This magnetic feld is proportional to therefore, the Hall element can be inserted in narrow the current. A Hall effect transducer is placed in a ‘gaps for magnetic measurements in air spaces. Alo, slotted ferro-1 ! etic tube which acts a8 a magnetic the element gives out a continuous electric signal in ‘concentrator. ‘The voltage produced at the output direct response to the magnetic field strength. {ferminals is “proportional to the magnetic field Its disadvantages are a high sensitivity to tempe- skrength_ and hence ts Proportional to the current rature variations and to the fact that the Hall flowing in the conductor. The system can be used for co-efficient may vary from plate to plate, thereby sya rom | necessitating individual calibration in each case 2. Measurement of Displacement. The Hall effect element can be used for the measurement of the -. —— — — ‘fect clement and thu can cause appreci f Tocation or displacement ofa tructural element ie, i tee lement and thus sen sue appreciable outpet can serve as an indirect acting position displacement = ‘or proximity transducer in cases where a change of geometry of a magnetic structure causes a change of Magnetic magnetic field strength. An example is shown in oo Conductor) Fig, 25.129 which shows a ferro-magnetic structure | having a permanent magnet. The Hall effect trans- ducer is located-in the gap, adjacent to the permanent Ey magnet. The field strength produced by the > permanent magnet in the gap, where the Hall effect Hal effect element is located, is varied by changing the position clement of a ferro-magnetic plate. The voltage output of the Hall effect transducer is proportional to the field Fig. 25.130 Measurement of current using strength in the gap which is a function of the position Hall effect transducer. of the ferromagnetic plate from the structure ic, the 4, Measurement of Power. The method for displacement. The method permits measurements of jreasurement of power using a Hall effect transducer displacement down to 0.025 mm. has been explained in Art. 11.7 on page 365. Ferromagnetic — 2Xample 25.55 A Hall efect transducer ig used for the Structural plate ‘measurement of a magnetic field of 0.5 Whim’. The 2 mm thick slab is made of Bismuth for which the Hall's co-efcient is— 1% 10° V m/(A- Wb mi*)and the current is 3.A. Solution. From Eqn. 25.168, the output voltage is, Ey = Ky 1B/t — =-1« 10% «3x05/(2¥ 107) =-0.75% 10% V =-0.75 mV 25.31 MAGNETORESISTORS —, ‘The resistivity of some metals and semi ed lore nena ee conductors at low temperatures changes if exposed ¢ a magnetic field. The effect is known as magnet resistance. Magneto-resistive elements operate on th law of electrodynamics which says that Lorentz force act upon mobile charge carriers in a magnetic fic causing electrons to move in an indirect roub veer thereby lengthening the current path and increasin imilar in the resistance of material. The amount of deflection | “Taction to the clamp on ammeter described on the electrons depends upon electron mobility. It is tt “page 323) A current (dic. or a.c.) passes through the highest in a semiconductor such as indium antimonis 3._Measurement of Current. An interesting application of Hall effect transducer is shown in Fig, 25.130. The device serves.to measure current in a conductor without it Scanned with CamScanner