36 arvunn wvonotoey 1 SRS; =(0.015)%.76 x 0.0003)" = 43% 10-8 ‘hich is greater than 1.9% 10-8 so the criterion is satisfied and Manning's equation is applicable. In the event that the flow is not fully turbulent, the flow velocity may be computed with the Darey-Weisbach equation (2.5.4), calculating the friction factor f as a function of the Reynolds number Re and the boundary roughness. Figure (2.5.1) shows a modified form of the Moody diagram for pipe flow; the pipe diameter D is replaced by 4R. The Reynolds number is given by 4vR Re (2.5.10) where 1 is the kinematic viscosity of water, given in Table 2.5.2 as a function of temperature. The relative roughness ¢ is defined by ia ae 2.5.1) where f, is the size of sand grains resulting in a surface resistance equivalent to that observed in the channel, Figure 2.5.1 for open channel flow was constructed from equations pre- sented by Chow (1959) and Henderson (1966). For Reynolds number less than 2000, the flow is laminar, and fou (25.12) where C_= 96 for a smooth-surfaced channel of infinite width and larger if the surface is rough (Chow, 1959; Emmett, 1978). As the Reynolds number increases past 2000, the flow enters a region where both laminar and turbulent effects ‘gover friction losses and the friction factor is given by a modified form of the Colebrook-White equation (Henderson, 1966): atogy) Be + 25 ~rtogy| 2 qi DRY ke fi (2.5.13) GPE = ~2log £ + 3 efi For large Reynolds numbers, that is, in the upper right region of the Moody diagram, the flow is fully turbulent, and the friction factor is a function of the relative roughness alone. Eq. (2.5.13) reduces to 20g (§) 5.14)nvorotoate macesses 37 “moj Jouueyo uado 10} werReIp ApooW 1st anu aso rz Olson ez z_ leo y cel ’ s ° L r 5 (00000 8 z “or '$0000°0 : aaneioy st i 1090 z 2000 000 > “ssouysin Pores wonsiag up Y 100 stoo ‘wo 90 = nop waynqam Aun 24 _ poy uta FE = feo mae38 areieD uvoroLooy TABLE 2.5.2 Physical properties of water at standard atmospheric pressure ‘Kinematic ‘Temperature Density viscosity kgf? mis ec 1000 1.79 10° om 5c 1000 151 x 107% 872 Wwe 1000 131% 1230 Isc 99 Tid x 1700 20°C 998 100 x 2340 2s°¢ oor 8.94 x 3170 7199 x 4250 724 x 3630 638 x 7380 S34 x 12,300 474 x 20/000 413 x 31,200 3.64 x 447,400 3.26 x ‘70,100 294 x 101,300 fice sia 16610 0.122 Lan x10 0.178 122 x10" 0.256 106 10-8 0.363 0.930 «10-8 0.306 0739x105 0.989, 192 0.609 x 10-8 69 191 0581x105 OSI4 x10 2.89 190 61.00 0.838 x 10-8 0482 x 10-3474 138 60.58 0.726 10-5 0385 x10 751 87 12 0.637 x 10-0341 x10 11.33 136 59.83 0593x105 O319x10°S 14.70 Soure: Roberson, J. A. and C. T. Crowe, Engiceing Pid Mechanics, 2nd ed, Hooghton Milf, Boston, 1980, Table AS. . 62. Used with permission For this case, the friction factor f can be eliminated between Eqs. (2.5.14) and (2.5.8) to solve for the relative roughness € as a function of Manning’s n and hydraulic radius R: = 3x 19 HEI) (2.5.15) where ¢ = 1 for SI units and 1.49 for English units. To use the Moody diagram given R and V, ¢ is calculated using (2.5.15) with the given value of m, then the Reynolds number is computed using (2.5.10) and the corresponding value of f read from Fig. 2.5.1. An estimate of Vis obtained from Bq. (2.5.4), and the process is repeated iteratively until the values for V converge.yproLoate processes 39 ‘The Moody diagram given here for open channel flow has some limitations. First, it accounts for resistance die to friction elements randomly distributed on the channel wall, but it does not account for form drag associated with nonuniformites inthe channel. Emmett (1978) found thatthe friction factor for thin sheet flows on soil or grass surfaces could be as much as a factor of 10 areater than the value for friction drag alone, Also, the Moody diagram is valid only for fixed bed channels, not for erodable ones. The shape of the eross section (rectangular, triangular, cicular, etc.) has some influence on the friction factor but the effect is not large. Because ofthese limitations, the Moody diagram shown should be applied only to lined channels with uniform cross section. 2.6 POROUS MEDIUM FLOW ‘A porous medium is an interconnected structure of tiny conduits of various shapes and sizes. For steady uniform flow in a circular pipe of diameter D, (2.4.9) remains valid: sm = YRSy (2.6.1) with the hydraulic radius R = D/4. For laminar flow in a circular conduit, the wall shear stress is given by Sav (2.6.2) where 41 is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid. Combining (2.6.1) and (2.6.2) gives yp?) v= (22) 263) which is the Hagen-Poiseulle equation for laminar flow in a circular conduit. For flow in a porous medium, part of the cross-sectional area A is occupied by soil or rock strata, so the ratio Q/A does not equal the actual fluid velocity, bbut defines a volumetric flux q called the Darcy flux. Darcy's law for flow in a porous medium is written from (2.6.3) as ee ATE Sy (2.6.4) where K is the hydraulic conductivity of the medium, K = yD2/32q. Values of the hydraulic conductivity for various porous media are shown in Table 2.6.1 along with values of the porosity 7, the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume of the medium. The actual average fluid velocity in the medium is v.=4 (2.6.3) ” Darcy's law is valid so long as flow is laminar. Flow in a circular conduit is laminar when its Reynolds number40 sor ieD wvonoLoay TABLE 2.6.1 Hydraulic conductivity and porosity of unconsolidated porous media Hydraulic conductivity Porosity K (ems) 1%) 25-40 25-50 35-50 40-70 Source: Freeze and Chery. 1979 2.6.6) is less than 2000, a condition satisfied by almost all naturally occurring flows in porous media, Example 2.6.1 Water is percolating through a fine sand aquifer with hydraulic ‘conductivity 10~* cm/s and porosity 0.4 toward a stream 100 m away. Ifthe slope of the water table is 1 percent, calculate the travel time of water to the stream, Solution. The Darcy flux q is calculated by (2.6.4) with K = 0.01 emvsec = 8.64 miday and Sy = 1% = 0.01; hence g = KSy = 8.64%0.01 = 0.086 miday. ‘The water velocity V, is given by (2.6.5): Ve = ql = 0.086/0.4 = 0.216 miday. ‘The travel time to the stream 100 m away is 100/V, = 100/0.216 = 463 days = 1.3 yeas. 2.7. ENERGY BALANCE The energy balance of a hydrologic system is an accounting of all inputs and outputs of energy to and from a system, taking the difference between the rates of input and output as the rate of change of storage, as was done for the continuity (or mass balance equation in Sec. 2.2. In the basic Reynolds transport theorem, Eq, (2.1.9), the extensive property is now taken as B = E, the amount of energy in the fluid system, which is the sum of internal energy Ey, kinetic energy 4mV?, and potential energy mgz (z represents elevation): B= e+ bmi? 4 me em Hee, oe 1 ya ge B am et 3 +e (2.7.2) where e, is the internal energy per unit mass. By the first law of thermodynamics,vprotoate mocesses 41 q | q =) 23 a gaa 3 das i 5 ae 2 BS 7 033 x 10° kg | i Tuer F829 IRES ter vapor ow 0 100 120 Tenpeaure ©) FIGURE 227.1 ‘Specific and latent heats for water. Latent heat is absorbed or given up when water changes its state of being Solid, liquid, 0 gas. the net rate of eneay taster into the fai, Eid, is equal to the rte at which heat is ansfrred ino the fluid, dd, less the rate at which the fluid does work on its suroundings, aWie: de dH aw aod da ad Substituting for dB/dt and f inthe Reynolds transport theorem 2.7.3) ay _dw ia Ly ff ly ed 4h feeedy + gc)pd¥+ | | (cut 5V?+ gx)pVed (2.7.4) ‘This is the energy balance equation for an unsteady variable-density flow. Internal Energy Sensible heat, Sensible heat is that part of the internal energy of a substance that is proportional to the substance’s temperature. Temperature changes produce proportional changes in internal energy, the coefficient of proportionality being the specific heat Cp dey = CpdT 2.7.5) ‘The subscript p denotes that the specific heat is measured at constant pressure. Latent heat, When a substance changes phase (solid, liquid, or gaseous state) it gives up or absorbs latent heat. The three latent heats of interest are those for fusion, or melting, of ice to water; for vaporization of liquid water to water ‘vapor; and for sublimation, or ditect conversion, of ice to water vapor. Figure 2.7.1 shows how the intemal energy of water varies as the result of sensible42. arrun nvoRoLocy and latent heat transfer Latent heat transfers at phase changes are indicated by the vertical jumps in internal energy at melting and vaporization. Internal energy changes due to sensible heat transfer are shown by the sloping lines. Phase changes can occur at temperatures other than the normal ones of 0°C for melting and 100°C for boiling. Evaporation, for example, can occur at any temperature below the boiling point. At any given temperature, the latent heat of sublimation (solid to gas) equals the sum of the latent heats of fusion (solid to liquid) and vaporization (Liquid to gas). Latent heat transfers are the dominant cause of internal energy changes for water in most hydrologic applications; the amount of latent heat involved is much larger than the sensible heat transfer for a change in temperature of a few degrees, which is the usual case in hydrologic processes. The latent heat of vaporization 1, varies slightly with temperature according to Jy = 2.501 x 10° = 23707 (kg) 2.76) where T'is temperature in °C and J, is given in joules (J) per kilogram (Raudkivi, 1979). A joule is an SI unit representing the amount of energy required to exert a force of 1 newton through a distance of 1 meter. 2.8 TRANSPORT PROCESSES. Heat energy wansport takes place in thuee ways. conduction, convection, aul radiation. Conduction results from random molecular motion in substances; heat is transferred as molecules in higher temperature zones collide with and transfer energy to molecules in lower temperature zones, as in the gradual warming along fn iron bar when one end is placed in a fire, Convection is the transport of heat energy associated with mass motion of a fluid, such as eddy motion in a fluid stream. Convection transports heat on a much larger scale than conduction in fluids, but its extent depends on fluid turbulence so it cannot be characterized as precisely. Radiation is the direct transfer of energy by means of electromagnetic waves, and can take place in a vacuum, ‘The conduction and convection processes that transfer heat energy also transport mass and momentum (Bird, Stewart, and Lightfoot, 1960; Fahien, 1983). For each of the extensive properties mass, momentum, and energy, the rate of flow of extensive property per unit area of surface through which it passes is called the flux. For example, in Darey’s law, volumetric flow rate is Q across area A, so the volumetric flux is ¢ = Q/A; the comesponding mass flow rate is ti = pQ, so the mass flux is pQ/A. By analogy the momentum flow rate is iV = pQV and the momentum flux is riV/A = pQV/A = pV?. The corresponding energy flow rate is dE/dr and the energy flux is (4E/d1\/A, measured in watts per ‘meter squared in the SI system; a watt (W) is one joule per second. In general, a flux is given by flow rate area Flux 2.8.1)voroLoate mocesses 43 Conduetion In conduction the flux is directly proportional to the gradient of a potential (Fahien, 1983). For example, the lateral transfer of momentum in a laminar flow is described by Newton's law of viscosity, in which the potential is the flow velocity du MG Here + is momentum flux, 4 is a proportionality coefficient called the dynamic viscosity (measured in Ib-s/ft? or N-s/m), and dufdz is the gradient of the velocity 1was a function of distance z from the boundary. The symbol + is usually used to represent a shear stress, but itcan be shown that the dimensions of shear stress and ‘momentum flux are the same, and + can be thought of as the lateral momentum flux in a fluid flow occurring through the action of shear stress between elements of fluid having different velocities, as shown in Fig. 2.8.1 ‘Analogous to Newton's law of viscosity for momentum, the laws of con- duction for mass and energy are Fick’s law of diffusion, and Fourier’s law of heat conduction, respectively (Carslaw and Jaeger, 1959). Their governing equa- tions have the same form as (2.8.2), as shown in Table 2.8.1. The measure of potential for mass conduction is the mass concentration C of the substance being. transported. In Chap. 4, for example, when the transport of water vapor in air is described, C is the mass of water vapor per unit mass of moist ait. The propor- tionality constant for mass conduction is the diffusion coefficient D. The measure of potential for heat energy transport is the temperature T and the proportionality constant is the heat conductivity k of the substance ‘The proportionality constant can also be written in a kinematic form. For example, the dynamic viscosity 4 and the kinematic viscosity v are related by 2.8.2) w= pv (2.8.3) Wall shear x FIGURE 2.8.1 ‘The relationship between the momentum Aux and the velocity gradient in a free surface flow. Momentum is transferred between the wall and the interior of the flow throvgh molecular and turbulent eddy mocion. The shear stress inte interior ofthe flow isthe same asthe momentum flux through 2 unit area (dashed line) parallel to the boundary.44) arruirn uvorotocy so Bq. (2.8.2) can be rewritten 2.8.4) ‘The dimensions of v are {L?/T). Convection For convection, transport occurs through the action of turbulent eddies, or the ‘mass movement of elements of fluid with different velocities, rather than through the movement of individual molecules as in conduction. Convection requires a flowing fluid, while conduction does not. The momentum flux in a turbulent flow is not governed by Newton's law of viscosity but is related to the instantaneous departures of the turbulent velocity from its time-averaged value. It is convenient, however, to write equations describing convection in the same form as those for conduction. For momentum transfer, the flux in a turbulent flow is written as Fart = PK ms 2.8.5) TABLE 2.8.1 Laws of conduction and corresponding equations for convection of mass, ‘momentum, and heat energy in a fiui Extensive property transported Mase ‘Momentum Heat energy ‘Conduction: Name of law Fick's Newton's Fourier’s ac du a Bquation fn DE we th Fux Sn . fi Constant of proportionality D » k ittasion coef) viscosity) heat conductivity) ac du a Potential gradient “ “ @ « de a (concentration) elocity) temperature) Convection: du a Equation = pK = PC pK Ditfsivity 1.271 Kn Kivorocoate cesses 45 where Ky isthe momentum diffusivity, or eddy viscosity, with dimensions (L2/T] Kp is four to six orders of magnitude greater than v (Priestley, 1959), and turbulent momentum flux is the dominant form of momentum transfer in surface water flow and in airflow over the land surface. Equations analogous to (2.8.5) can be written for mass and energy transport as shown in Table 2.8.1 It should be noted that the direction of transport of extensive properties deseribed by the equations in Tuble 2.8.1 is transverse to the direction of flow. For example, in Fig. 2.8.1, the flow is horizontal while the transport process is vertical through the dashed area shown. Extensive property transport in the direction of motion is called advection and is described by the term [Bp V-dA in the Reynolds transport theorem, Eq. (2.1.9). Velocity Profile Determination of the rates of conduction and convection of momentum requires knowledge of the velocity profile in the boundary layer. For flow of air over land (or water, the logarithmic velocity profile is applicable (Priestley, 1959). The wind velocity w is given as a function of the elevation z by wot a= ta(2) ess Where the shear velocity «” = AiJp (1» is the boundary shear stress and p is the fd deny) E's von Karan’ constant (= 0.8), and co the roughness heig ofthe src. Tale 2.82 gives vals ofthe toughness beg fot some Struc. By cifeentating @.8.6% the velocity print found tbe de aE This equation can be wsed to determine the laminar and tabulent momentum 2.8.7) TABLE 2.8.2 Approximate values of the roughness height of natural surfaces ‘Roughness height x, Surface fem) Ike, md fas 0.00 Water 0.01 -0.06 Gras (upto 10 em high) 01-20 Grass (10 ~ $0 em high) 2-5 Vegetation (1-2 m high) » ‘Trees (10 ~ 15 m igh) 40-70 Source: Brasae, W., Evaporation ia the amasphere, D. Reel, Doe rec, Holland, 1982, Table 5.1 p. 114 alapted