Spring 2020 Math 155 Professor Shneerson

8.1 Sequences.

De…nition. A number sequence is an in…nitely long list of real numbers

a1 ; a2 ; a3 ; a4 ; ::: (1)
written in a certain order. The number a1 is called the …rst term, a2 is
the second term, a3 is the third term, and so on. The sequence (1) will be also
denoted by fan g j1
n=1 (indicating that n runs over the set of all positive integers)
or in short by fan g.
For example, consider the sequence
1 1 1 1
1; ; ; ; ; ::: : (2)
4 9 16 25
The …rst term a1 of the sequence is 1, a2 = 41 ; the …fth term a5 is 25
1
. What
is the sixth term? This sequence has a pattern and usually "..." means that
we assume that the pattern continues. This sequence is understood to be f n12 g
because an = n12 is the most natural formula that matches the …rst 5 terms.
1
This means that a6 = 36 and an = n12 for n = 1; 2; 3; ::: .
Example 1. The sequences

2; 4; 6; 8; :::: (3)
and

1; 1; 1; 1; 1; 1; ::: (4)
have patterns. The members of sequence (3) are even positive integers and
formula for the n-th term of the sequence (3) is an = 2n. The simplest formula
for the sequence (4) which matches the …rst 6 terms is an = ( 1)n+1 . Thus the
sequence (3) can be written in the form f2ng1 n=1 and the sequence (4) in the
form f( 1)n+1 g j1
n=1 . Notice that the choice for the formula is not unique.
For example consider our formula for the sequence (4). We know the integers
n + 1 and n 1 have the same parity, i.e. n + 1 is even, n 1 is even and so
n + 1 is odd , n 1 is odd. Thus ( 1)n+1 = ( 1)n 1 .
We can also verify that cos( (n + 1)) = ( 1)n+1 for all n and therefore three
sequences
f( 1)n+1 g1 n=1 ; f( 1)
n 1
g; fcos( (n + 1)g (5)
have the same n th terms for n = 1; 2; :: .
Exercise. Find the formula for the general term of the sequence

1; 3; 5; 7; 9; ::::: (6)
Hint: This is a sequence of all odd positive integers wtitten in a natural
order. Compare the n-th the sequence (6) with the n-th term of the sequence
(3).

1
 Answer : an = 2n 1.
List the …rst four terms of the sequence f( 1)n 32n g1 n=1 :
Answer : a1 = 23 ; a2 = 29 ; a3 = 272 ; a4 = 81
2
.
Let fan g1 n=1 be a sequence. Then we have a rule, say f that assigns to
any positive integer n a real number an So,we may think of f as a function that
receives n as an input and produces the output an : This means that f (n) = an :
Hence, any sequence (1) can be considered as a real valued function f whose
domain is the set of all positive integers.
We can de…ne the graph of the sequence accordingly as the set of the points
with the coordinates (n; f (n)) for n = 1; 2; ::: .
De…nition. We say that function f (x) de…ned on the interval [1,1) gen-
erates the sequence fan g if f (n) = an .
For instance, the function f (x) = x1 generates the sequence f n1 g1n=1 , the
function f (x) = x2 generates the sequence fn2 g1 n=1 ; f (x) = 3x + arctan(x)
generates the sequence f3n + arctan(n)g1 n=1 .
Exercise. Find the …rst six terms of the sequence generated by the function f (x) =
sin( 2 x).
Answer: 1; 0; 1; 0; 1; 0:
If f (x) generates the sequence fan g, then the graph of the sequence fan g
is a part of the graph of f associated with the those points on the graph of f
whose x-coordinates are positive integers.
Examples. The graph of the sequence f n1 g (see Fig.1 in the …le with
graphing illustrations), the graph of the sequence fn2 + 1g (see Fig.2), the
graph of the sequence fln(n)g (Fig. 3), the graph of the sequence sin(n) n (Fig
4), the graph of the sequence f3n + arctan(n)g (see Fig.5).
Recursively de…ned sequences.
Sometimes the sequence is given by the rule that shows how to …nd the n th
term of the sequence if you know its previous term or a …nite number of certain
previous terms. Then we say that the sequence is de…ned recursively.
Example 2. The sequence fan g is given by the rule: a1 = 1 and an+1 =
an + 2n + 1:
(i) Find the …rst 4 terms of the sequence
a1 = 1
a2 = a1+1 = a1 + 2 a1 + 1 = 1 + 2 1 + 1 = 4
a3 = a2+1 = a2 + 2(2) + 1 = 4 + 5= 9
a4 = a3+1 = a3 + 2 3 + 1 = 9 + 7 = 16:
(ii) What do you think about the exact formula for the n th term?
Hint: the numbers 1; 4; 9; 16 are perfect squares.
Example 3. De…ne the sequence fan g by the rule:
a1 = 1 and an+1 = an (n + 1).
Find the …rst 5 terms of the sequence.
a1 =1; a2 = a1 2 = 1 2 = 2; a3 = a2 3 = (1 2) 3 = 6;
a4 = a3 4 = (1 2 3) 4 = 24; a5 = a4 5 = (1 2 3 4) 5 = 120:
Example 4. Fibonacci Sequence.
Consider the sequence fFn g1 n=1

2
 1; 1; 2; 3; 5; 8; 13; 21; 34; 55; 89; :::: (7)
de…ned by the rule:
F1 = 1; F2 = 1; and
Fn = Fn 1 + Fn 2 (n = 3; 4; 5; :::).
This sequence is called a Fibonacci sequence. It arises naturally and some-
times unexpectedly and has it amazing applications in various branches of mod-
ern science.
Geometric sequence.
Let a and r be …xed real numbers with a 6= 0: The sequence

a; ar; ar2 ; ar3 ; ::::; (8)

is called a geometric sequence:
The number r is called the ratio of the sequence.
In other words, the geometric sequence is the sequence fan g de…ned by the
rule: a1 = a and an+1 = an r for n = 1; 2; ::: :
Which of the following sequences are geometric?
(i) 1; 2; 4; 8; 16; 32; ::: (Yes. a = 1 , r = 2 )
(ii) 7; 7=2; 7=4; 7=8; ::: (Yes. a = 7, r = 21 )
(iii)1; 3; 5; 7; 9; ::: (No. Since in case of geometric sequence, an+1 = an r,
then aan+1
n
= r for all n: Here the ratios aa12 = 31 and aa32 = 35 are di¤erent).
(iv) 1; 1; 1; 1; 1 ; 1; :::(Yes.)
(v) 2; 310 ; 50 250
9 ; 27 ; ::: (Yes.)
(vi) 7; 0:7; 0:07; 0:007; 0:0007; :::(Yes)
Theorem. Let fan g be the n-th term of the geometric sequence (8) whose
…rst term is a and the ratio is r: Then

an = a rn 1
: (9)

Exercise. Find the 5-th term of the geometric sequence whose …rst term is
3 and the ratio is 14 .
Answer: a5 = 3 ( 1=4)5 1 = 3 ( 41 )4 = 256 3

Limit of the sequence.

De…nition. Let fan g be a sequence and let L be a real number.
We say that L is the limit of the sequence fan g and we write L= lim an if
n!1
the n th term an becomes arbitrarily close to L (as close as we like) when n
is su¢ ciently large.
In other words the number j L an j which is the distance between L and
an on the number line, approaches zero as n increases without bound.
Example 5. Consider the sequence
1 1 1 1 1
f( 1)n 1
g1
n=1 = ; ; ; ; ::: . (10)
n+1 2 3 4 5

3
 1
The distance between the n-th term an = ( 1)n 1 n+1 and zero on the
1
number line is j an j= n+1 and it becomes arbitrarily small as n tends to
in…nity. Hence lim an = 0:
n!1
Theorem. Let fan g be a number sequence generated by a function f (x)
i.e. f de…ned on the interval [1,1) and f (n) = an . Assume

lim f (x) = L (11)

x!1

for some real number L. Then

lim an = L: (12)
n!1

De…nition. We say that the sequence fan g is convergent, if it has a …nite

limit. Otherwise, the sequence fan g is said to be divergent.
Remark. Geometrically the equality (11) means that y =L is the horizontal
asymptote for the graph of f as x ! 1. Thus the equality (12) shows that the
line y = L the graph of fan g becomes arbitrarily close to the line y = L as n
increases without bound.
3n+5 1
Example 6(a). The sequence f 7n 6 gn=1 is convergent because

3n + 5 3x + 5 3
lim ( ) = lim = (13)
n!1 7n 6 x!1 7x 6 7
2
21n 3n+500 1
Example 6(b). The sequence f 0:5n 2 6n+120 gn=1 is convergent. Indeed,

21n2 3n + 500 21x2 3x + 500 21x2

lim = lim = lim = 42 (14)
n!1 0:5n2 6n + 120 x!1 0:5x2 6x + 120 x!1 0:5x2
Example 7 The sequence f(1 + n1 )n g1
n=1 is convergent because

1 n 1
lim (1 + ) = lim (1 + )x = e. (15)
n!1 n x!1 x
See (Fig.6 for graphing illustration)
Example 8. Find the limit of the sequence farctan(n)gn=1
n=1 . Solution:

lim arctan(n) = lim arctan(x) = . (16)

n!1 x!1 2
Exercise. Find the limit of the sequence fcos( n4 )g j1
n=1 : Solution:

4 4
lim cos( ) = lim cos( ) (17)
n!1 n x!1 x
Put x4 = t: (Since here we consider the function f (x) = cos( x4 ) on the
interval [1; 1), then, in particular, t is always positive).
It is clear that t ! 0+ as x tends to in…nity. Thus
4
lim cos( ) = lim cos(t) = cos(0) = 1: (18)
x!1 x t!0+

4
Answer: 1.
Exercise. Show that the sequence fan g = f( 1)n n+2 1
n+1 g jn=1 is divergent,
but the sequence fj an jg converges.
n+2
Hint: lim j an j= lim n+1 = lim x+2
x+1 = 1: Thusj an j becomes arbitrarily
n!1 n!1 x!1
close to 1, when n is su¢ ciently large. At the same time an = n+2 n+1 ; if n is
even. So, an ! 1 when n ! 1 through the even values. If n is odd, then
(-1)n = 1. So an = n+2 n+1 = j an jand an becomes arbitrarily close to 1,
when n approaches to in…nity through the odd values. This shows that this
sequence cannot have a limit and it diverges.
See Fig.7 for graphing illustration.
De…nition. We say that the sequence fan g is bounded above, if there exists
a number M such an M for n = 1; 2; :::
We say that the sequence is bounded below, if there exists a number K such
that K an for all positive integers n.
De…nition. The sequence fan g is called bounded if it is bounded above
and bounded below.
Examples:
(i). The sequence 1; 3; 5; 7; ::: is not bounded above, but it is bounded below,
because each term is greater than or equal to 1.
(ii). The sequence 0; 1; 2; 3; ::: is bounded above, but it is not bounded
below.
(iii. The sequence f10 sin(n)g1 n=1 is bounded because 10 10 sin(n) 10
for n = 1; 2; ::: (In fact, 10<sin(n) 10):
(iv). The sequence farctan(n)g j1 n=1 is bounded because 0<arctan(n) < 2
for all n.
Remark: Since arctan(1) = 4 ; and the terms of the sequence are increasing
as n increases, then we have arctan(n) 4 for all n .
Theorem. Every convergent sequence is bounded.
3n+5
For example, since the sequence f 7n 6 g (Example 6(a)) is convergent, then
this sequence is bounded.
Corollary. If the sequence is not bounded, then it diverges.
De…nition. The sequence fan g is called increasing, if a1 < a2 < a3 <
::::: < an < :::
(i.e. an < an+1 for n = 1; 2; :::). In particular, for any positive integers m
and n,
m > n ) am > an (19)
The sequence fan g is called decreasing
p if a1 >pa2 >p a3p> :::::
p > an > :::: :
Example p 8: The
p sequence fa n g = f ng = 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; ::: is increas-
ing because n < n + 1 for any positive integer n.
The sequence
3 5 7 9 11
; ; ; ; ; ::: (20)
2 3 4 5 7
2n+1 1
with fan g = n+1 is also increasing, because an = 2 n+1 . Thus, an+1 =
1 1
2 n+2 >2 n+1 = an :

5
 Example 9 . The sequence 1; p12 ; p13 ; p14 ; p15 ; ::: is decreasing.
De nition:The sequence fan g is called monotonic if fan g is either increas-
ing or decreasing.
Theorem. Every monotonic and bounded sequence is convergent.
Example 10. Consider the sequence
a1 = 1; a2 = 1:2; a3 = 1:22; a4 = 1:222; a5 = 1:2222; ::: . (21)
This sequence is increasing. At the same time, 1 an 2 f or all n. Thus
the sequence is bounded. So, it converges.
(We will show in the next lecture that lim an = 11
9 ):
n!1
In…nite limits.
Let fan g be a number sequence such that an becomes arbitrarily large (as
large as you like) if n is su¢ ciently large.
Then we say that an approaches 1 as n tends to in…nity and we write
lim an = 1:
n!1
We write lim an = 1 if lim ( an ) = 1:
n!1 n!1
Examples:
p
(i) lim n = 1; lim 2n + 9 = 1:
n!1 n!1
Exercises.
(a). lim (1:5n3 5n2 15n 400) = lim (1:5x3 5x2 15x 400) =
n!1 x!1
3 3
lim 1:5x = 1:5 lim x = 1:
x!1 x!1
1 0 0
en +100 ex +100 ( 1 ) L Hospital s Rule!! (ex +100)0
(b). lim = lim = lim 0 =
n!1 4n 5 x!1 4x 5 x!1 (4x 5)
x
lim e =1
x!1 4
1 4 1
(c). lim 1000 n + 6n2 + 9 = lim 1000 n
4
= 1. (See Fig.8)
n!1 n!1
Remark. If fan g is a sequence satisfying lim an = 1 or lim an = 1,
n!1 n!1
then it has unbounded behavior.
However, the converse statement is false. Namely, the sequence
fn cos( n)g = 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; ::: (22)
generated by the function f (x) = x cos( x) is unbounded but it takes in…-
nitely many positive (when n is even) and negative (when n is odd) values.
Thus lim n cos( n) cannot be 1 or -1. See Fig.8 for graphing illustration.
n!1

The Squeeze Theorem for sequences

Theorem. Let fan g; fbn g; fcn g be sequences such that an bn cn for
all su¢ ciently large values of n.
If lim an = lim cn = L, then lim bn = L.
n!1 n!1 n!1
1
Exercise. Evaluate the limit lim cos2 (n).
n!1 n
1 1
Solution: Since 0 < cos2 (n) < 1; then 0 < n cos2 (n) < n. Put
fan g = 0; 0; 0; ::: (23)

6
fbn g = n1 cos2 (n) and cn = f n1 g.
Then an bn cn (in fact, an < bn < cn ). Also, lim an = 0; lim cn =
n!1 n!1
1 1
lim = 0: Then, by the Squeeze Theorem, lim bn = lim cos2 (n) = 0.
x!1 x n!1 n!1 n

Limit laws for sequences.

Let fan g and fbn g be convergent number sequences. Put cn = an + bn ; dn =

an bn and hn = an bn :
The sequence fcn g is called the sum of the sequences fan g and fbn g; fdn g is
called their di¤erence and fhn g is called the product of fan g and fbn g:
Theorem. (Textbook, 8.1, p.435.) If the sequences fan gand fbn gare con-
vergent then so are the sequences fcn g; fdn g and fhn g. Furthermore,

lim (an + bn ) = lim an + lim bn ; lim (an bn ) = lim an lim bn (24)

n!1 n!1 n!1 n!1 n!1 n!1

and
lim (an bn ) = lim an lim bn . (25)
n!1 n!1 n!1

6n+5 6n+5 6
Example 10. lim [cos( n ) + 11n+3 ] = lim cos( n ) + lim = 1 + 11 =
n!1 n!1 n!1 11n+3
17
11 :
Theorem. If the sequence fan g1n=1 is convergent, then for any real number
k; the sequence fkan g1
n=1 is convergent and

lim (kan ) = k lim an . (26)

n!1 n!1

Example 11.
1 1 1
lim arctan(n) = lim arctan(n) = = . (27)
n!1 4 4 n!1 4 2 8