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    Fdocuments - in A Course in Modern Linguistics Charles F Hockett

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    pe ete A COURSE IN MODERN LINGUISTICS CHARLES F, [Hi 17° IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENTS 275. In $814-16 0 oun the eet nature of grammar and i ‘cationship to other aspects of language In ths nd the lorie ace ‘en ecton we hal nvnigneprammate! nen a oe Speciale have been working for lng te on We eet talysing,desting, and comparing gramme mate era degree of accuracy achieved te tach pene At the sume dine, there remain any poet on whe oes Imps, Some lings Eke to believe that erence vs has become a cnmpltly objective perton, be the & a Phonemic asl has been brought much meme ch a sev thereat of indeterminacy ad ually ace why they rae eae ate But grammatical analyse os eumpeing cea boat and clare deeription of lngwages are ashioed wer ‘eters who flow some ig aot rl but by those wha erg sone ecient of Heisory have develope a er Consent, he eer il nthe ety eg a example pric the writer has handled In one wey ut which sigh ci oe ane a some othe way. The wrt has ht wovgh to Beneaigees, se asbinary, bute refs to speak dently in ess whens he ecg Todend, the reader should be alert for pole intnees wee ‘tenes of stement hs ninentinaly concealed macro In grammateal study we are concerned wth mnnphcse wel thee shapes which repent morphemes. Consent the ae ions we stall ually cite examples in ther aenal steerage, ‘rovided the language in quuton ha oe and hat i own ae 147 148 DOMEDIATR CONSTITUENT Tata pate. Canical Grek ad Chloe exaplsae even ‘weltotbtahed tlt’ or Rates Gencne pone tion wl bed oly when avin for ane pel rao rg ‘Mnpeaps Ine esos wish tare no cada hoppy Pet MerarcielSructre To man on tne © led steal langage with work aod to sk tat oat weds ‘ty langage "Ts vow ncrports wo tore We ovate og ‘en we relse dat merece i ned re he ee thy bling Bs of angange in rama apes tough as SSK of cop i a sips tu word ae seimporan, Tx Stier evors more nies tendon oer sae at ened ‘Santor wads (r morphea) a bled al longer ween Being singly esha combat of he emai z Tits were theese, the ll we wold ave tea in syn a ‘orsign lngunge vol be te cial morphs ead ee ese Inge The meaning of ny whole tere wold be irictl ae cin wth nb than French or Geren Spe fe Pres beeme fen ore Gasca om Bogle a ‘Summa Chine sneer i ng i de wf og sig gle Apr rom natn sh tte nde rn ‘eave egeotal morpbems a low (1) 5“, proximal, ear the speaker (2) “isting oe wats (8) ge dere cnciet objet, anioate or inanimate (ui, ree’ (6) ig ytndial eontine a targe, gress, realy ai general mei; (@) St oe) a5 ow 0) at ie: (00) fir "isioe eto’: (G1) jing ook, howe (G2) marker of modienion neato that soething which pes NIBRARCHICAL STRUCTURE 149 (13) mi “nero, inside’, (18) gam, pial aie (15) bau tows (08) ng leam (ot necmarily dy), expe; (17) Tetarker of compleed ation or completed change of sate, ‘ais evident, some ofthese Chinese morpherms have meanings which fe not ery to decibe peciely in Engl, Ove meets salar ouble is eying to decrte the rcatigs of ome Eaglah morpeary in Chinese—or, in general, the meanings ef morphea aay one lt png vn toy other lnguage (G16 ‘care eatin of the meng fhe seventeen convent mor pees the sentence can at ba ed some vague nono at ie wae sentences about The meaning fhe whole een happens to 1eThis ol dru ea be emprie in about ve mites = ‘No one—notcfen a naive speaker of Calne Koow tht rely on he ba of he srang ofthe lame enmtuent mar hemes’ Other typeof nfrmaten ae ao seqie™—ype Of foe Tnraation which a ear of Chine cre sro nhs bend, ready toa co the informacion eased by what he hear Bp vireo Avance orientation the mative apeker hear the sentence notte Toca nog of mecpheney, Dut were, i ity autowatcly ‘roupig things ogee nthe ght way. “Analogy isin ode, When we lok tthe ie ne drawing B of Figure 174, we se it ter ae oe lke Ayo the ef or Go te Fig Wid abit of ely, we ean make B "jain ete way Pye ‘The depth that we pele les, sot ine gre. Yet or exper | i 150 OMDIATE ConstETvENTS Boe Gare cr tn nee dimen, "arom a rag ie eile he er rad a a Flee ‘ars our Chine sete sry hg wi on Ips as, Fa iene. All man bingy, asl ces ave much te ak = ealeale ‘perience in inal perception dso woul tlw rata est i uals SereoBin Fg t,t he exprineby vee sche i i “an” no uerace ae pelt he presente q) avnciany Z “Thus the Chinn herr autonacaly pepe morpcues 6) ad a a (0 ogee at depicted a Fge F128 Heo epee a) aa al a w]e | os "AL (mae tay win tee | gems, tee | Shison, | tou, cock howe af el Elz ES, | ‘iow pea ig ale ill arom 4] 4] inal pay “revels ed] 5/219 iene “BL_fe ne a 5 (nem embinton i common, and that teases he eather mei pep ‘unpredictable, meaning probably kewl, he automatically groupe (0, (1, and (1) togetber, ain Figure 17.2, bun # more com pleated way. I we were alk him wht dp fmrpherser 6a) sean he could el wy andi we were oak wha fing (10,11) ‘ean he could ell us. Bat we were to ask what eng (6) mar, ‘he would be pull fr tng 8 doesnot mean anything” He wo ‘probably be unaware tht had heard thi parent orp ‘ene in the wentence, and the peer he sentence wen seep ‘ean that he hd a ie In Figure 17.3.9 portray the organization of se whole Chinese sentence atthe native peer pereiei Diagrams ofthe ot shown In Figures 172 and 17.3 ae desgnd to show the ashlar orem tie! ate of compte 2a bees gens ely geal, macy | 2s be enpied nao fe mie BL cpincica contin | otpae i a 4 Sinema” [| a A) pronat drum cab cope nae fre an 152 BOMEDIATE constitvENay ‘costing tee acu i fg Se arte Satire : "All ofthe above i appliable bot Bogch cr any oter language Arpeasinglen quence of morphic ke ame ae ca xa bene fe normal speech Te aceurs in Th sn ond dang of mah tt + = SVE reoiand dngieen aman | = | Th cee cma tity dng oisng nae) i Figure 174. The a ‘toons wither th mec rere od {ence worn wich bye prove te wiles Sime tn the two tgmen tr ng of en ad th lei ete owe ro a Vo ano Aap “catinaon morpeney io hettecfir wach to bo 8p ‘ey te anor dangle, a hee ar a whine 173 kag. 1s poublefr » Sole eee af ene morro ohare wo seme here eum aly hte idence of tig Sonny bunt any he aig Tne ty nunton of ter ost Anti nt come {sci et hyo exp he 1 cay a od yo he at ars its ano te ue ao ‘ona stro intonation) we cannot el wheter the mass dancing he MARKERS 153 pares i out or nt. The ambiguity of is LGstracture i showa ta gue 17.5, A and B. Litewte, the exresion olf mon ed ome ca {ve ether a tro meanings and lier ef oro coreapanding TO neue fara shown by Figure 12.6, Aan, Acbigly ifn eliinated by context: Ti sn maj wifi sey ‘hs, The stu maj’ ae has «ney hn ash, Te lene soe fie af me we te yong ent sary Td em end omen ‘ed oe whe an ols wt dig svat [eae [J wie sent [moe Lo ite l ” B [ete Le Such ambiguities eed agin of the analogy wth vss prep Son: Figure 17.18 ambiguus in that cooks now move lke A nd sow more ite ©, 1A. Markers Wet account fr the slanting lines appearing a some ofthe diagrams. In Figure 174, or example the dag ad fates that he TOs of snr and dag ae the two worth oad Saphrs How about the end? How ean a fon pareipte ins nrget farm without being a content of? ‘Ot coune, a diferent nerpreton would be posi, but the ooe we have chosen indent hat and rather than beg ne te 13 [san deer, what ny calla str marron. Some Serphemes tht verve ot deel a eases of ttarog, bat ly 1 markers ofthe sructral relatos beeen her form dd ‘vl the fet hat something befor (hereon) ad sein er f 154 Iomep1are consttreRNTs ‘ie Qhere den) ar the 1G of asp gramematc fr, ae ag rarla tat larger frm at bingo 4 certain type: We mou ehoe 17.5. Maltple IC. al our diagrtn so ay composite forms have been shown costing of jut two ICs ipartts compara ae rama common, but there inno univers restriction to tw Ce Englih has a ew evr of eomposit fort wth tee Ifo exaap, Jost pndsnd or etnias, Figure V7.7 shows the wa ‘iagramming ter, ag | ind | we: «| te | orf pod | send | tem Get 17.6. Discontinuous Tos, Our examples 20 far have had another property which common bat not universal Sacre which belong to. eter ae TC of Inrger fren Have ecm net fo each eer in lteee fequence: Bue denna eootvents are ot a all wacom For ‘ample, in the Baglsh erence Jon gig who, eng intonn tin ade, one TCs Jon and the other ithe dooaovous quence ‘ es ging with us, Figures 178A and B show two graphic deve for healing th: Ta igure 178A, the orn Joi ener tthe begining to seer dae ramming easy, buts parental to indent tha I ot aay ‘Spoken there; the erpty parece air i indica he postion tually oetupes inthe Sequence Figure 178 we avoid the dl Eaton, bu place «bene line below the etry ya ask wth Abt aon th ennerfon between Ja and he age om hich : leis one Ie i 17,7. Simultaneous 1Ce.Aa intonation morphere i pbb a vas to be iterpetad a one IC ofthe aberorenent wich nce 155 156 munteDtaTE consrtTUENTS i the reminder of the macrergment, no ater how comple, eon: sitting the eter IC In nde to sow this ingracimasaly ws have to rodace anther special device, Musvated in Pgue 173. Tels ‘eceaary to mare the psoas othe PL and TC corey, ee any ‘ermation in thls paidon might yeld a dileent setence (eg, Tinie mt be) ‘Diagramming ia not an end in isell, bu a convenient meses af sealing Mearchicl stccue. For ti stl to have diagram Tate convention But where the strict la until, dagrcing say become exceuvely complee Ta such iatanca, we sal east lagen and ror to webal deipdon, [New tema: Kiril sate, imnuit cutis (m= I), die timant 1 sma Iy tral marker: For ICz we allow Booms 193, p. 1, as elaborated by Wel 1947, and with odieatons ply expounded fa Hocket 1984 a FORM CLASSES and CONSTRUCTIONS 184, Recurrent Paters, The property of language which render lesuch 2 powesul meas of communeadan hat one can ty ome thing that hs never been sid Belore aod yet be psec unde, ste without ther speaker rauihce beng sve ofthe ool. A ‘ove uerance ir bl ro fla rematerny, by fae at {er of pug raw-materi together Nite the faw-atelas or ‘he pateres need be new i der forthe uterance tobe diferet fn ty that bas occured proly. We ksow fom easier dacision dat the raw.mateials ee mor ies aod Ut she pater ate heachia ater tan eve eat Jowapeion. Here we ball pam the mater of patter frter (Consider the two Engh senteees "Si bit net ht] aod ‘iets toms dgramened in gre 183, The toa ome eel isin in der contuent grammars no morphea Sod no compost fom a ether ceca he ote, Yet hey const of fe anne number of eopsttuenty In eae the sume hierar ar genent. Furthemoe there ea arty in meaning beyond that Shoot tomeone and each arto lveloe sone conden. ‘Wie smmasze the sie oy sying tha the wo ete ee the same pater, and that the eomimon pattern i repose fr She sinily of meaning. We cau poy the omanon pater inp ‘without eg any forms a shown In Figure 18.3, The empty bon gram is obtained fom eter agra in Figure 181 singly by de- Teng all the enti 157 i 158 FORM CLASSES AND CONSTRUCTIONS # (nthe oer hand, two ene may invelve excl the sae con suents al err lvela ad yt dle in meting treme ‘Mfierent patcrne Figure 183 gives one caample. The eifecone ht ‘oti ensue, but nthe rangement abn repectiely bog we] to P= [elo] =] [reeme | | ‘aga ae he Seether ae 2ske tosh aw RECURRENT PATTERNS 159 ue technique of dlogramming cannot alwayy be exonted on © rereal he dferenee between viol dig! patterns, Th ope ‘Sh ks fee ad Shelter ml fc, pail agra oe 15. Insta athe dngrana reveal the patter, ian be shove ey ite 1846, ba she wo compat form fk mil ad ll oa — F — : — co v= Lym] + Boa Tite ei man : Jie Bie i Joe 2b edo Tinto | 7 he or within i re. For another example, compa the diagram of Se apt ee a i Figure 183 with at fhe bong a a Figure 184 The ener the intonation diferent plced, ough the intonation, apd al ther contents, aze Semel. (Thee amples are no He od mew and samy ccd in §173, fr In that ‘rape only the ulate cnmtuents wee the ams the here owctre beng sebigvs) serally quite diferent. The former can otc in many context (Fk ‘ii god fre, Mat it with och mil) he Inter gone ee Suppose, However, that we had some way to lsioguih Betwecn aero dat yielded the same empsy-bo dagracy ad that we were to dagram hundreds of Hag semeney, delet the nea all the lee ening empy-box agra, Tie woul obo give wa very Inge number of dilerent wholesentence pterae Be 160 ORM CLASSES AND CONSTRUCTIONS me] omar] [> [omen] [oi Tease [ sev Tee ee ie boat ape Bat in| ae | eat | mie] [ate | te |] it | 60 aa ath wl Ti sik ies ilk Biren * p cannot simply assume tat al these patent are completely iinet, LLL | ee tai ne over sane Sa mate contuens(morpent) which te therefore alo the I of the whole femtene: 3 and 2 ae the 1G of Seance B conte nce tan 0 intent, ut, one ag ony Smeaton Sand 2 asin A, ate the TCs Sinlr rematia apply to wenteacesC and D. Forthertae, the raloahip berween the to 1Ce of each whole = ‘Sentene A cons of only two us RECURRENT PATTERNS 161 sentence ithe sae, Ths if we make jt one TC-eut in each eaten, ‘gearing any smal contents for the moment, then ll our se. ‘exes conor to pater X of Figure 168. Bow 3a plte eas be . "by paler ; ro NOpieN fl, Plo iy Ls a 4 ‘ed with ay fhe fo tools marpheneangne yy se set etn tr, Bova be hte i akg suptene /() 7 ingore it xaioe bn, and Sia steno 8. and D, Int ofr 3 hn ede 102 FORM CLASSES AND CONSTRUCTIONS vrhich are therefore ao it Cs: tote bs ones § and 4, Now i a dentences Cand D we out he fom of tox 3 oly ita mete ee ‘uty iguorng any Boerqrained rate, we Od the tame ey, ain the IC ofthe farm in box 3 of any ofthe enone By Cy ad B ire the forms in boner Sand 4, This parton o B,C, aod D te tom font othe pater abled Yin Figure 188. Box 5 of pater cay ‘elle withthe morpheme sy and box 4 with any of the rphece, sequen ong re ‘Silly seing bth A and B sade, we te that the boxe aed 4 in Gand D, providing we make ony one-car etl apd ‘form to pitern Z in Fire 18 Bow 1 of patecn Z ean be Sed with the morpeme can ad bo 8 with ether go og ae. ‘Ocr treatment shows that sete composite frm and ome gh smorphemes ae lke in that they can palpate ley fa large ferme For ample, the single tocphene yr td the thee composts ern cnc go, as en hr, despite intra iene, stare at leat one pre of waren each ean be concioed bike Intonation /€) 81) to produc av aternce, The morpheme car aed {hecampate oma cans sade tr tate a atte pig ccrrence each canbe ed with preceding hf ull ager fe faa certain kind. Silty fr the morpheme go and the eompoie form g tha. TRE, For-Clames, A clas of forms which have similar piveges of ocurene In baling leper forma i foro ‘Thay, by vue of ter interchange in box 3 of pater X. (igure 18.8), the fos ye ecm ana he ee tar tether with una thos of eter forme, belong to sale ee tae ‘Skat, sie o cee inbox 2 of pattern X pus the inten rmorpheme /() i/o a form la together with anyother fata Nop morphenes "Bon Sof patern ¥ deine 3 frmelan which includes dy h, i Mary th man on herr my id Bi, and x on ene a which by no means ihe ll ray sac we ean name many which re exh yh thm, id rz iw ere ‘Bor of prem ¥ defies formant whe nha cen ily og ago tr sl Joly, mt om fate tet bt which xa ‘so, bey him eB Jb, ary, A900 constructions 163 rer ote oe a gran ily eine frm Tee arc nat on many msl slang tee ee bea he Tdingrams one cull dram, saee fen bes fen Stee the ‘One pit sou ented at the way we ave chown exes foethe canes dened by sand Spates Wo tf be ie) eve might wat ta, hy teen ce sey ek hich ca ocarre cnc gang te nd (al, {enpcc) on igh want i le pate fc a a og {hr and ie we can cer ser te The exo oe {ce wat Itasca Fora ae comtied thy e ‘epic en deen oar yh ota ay tien ay nenber of te Bae mig cer wih op meer ef tet Had we xed he tcp gped shove ee {i woul ot hal fr oon pang andar Bagley ls a fol ry gad 183. Conarocon If we wee 1 dele the boc aumber fom diagrams Van? (Figure 188), he wo emp bo dlapras as oe ‘temic Ths west conteal Sa sagan serene A dad, fuses campo fom Ike vom ssn pi mao ‘rer [sn the pater ame compote fe ‘Tacos thts ite pce "he frene can be underly repating the mune inthe bene in diagrams X,Y, adr anor fsa, Tho, “3° means “any meter he ola wh nes Si ay, oe Bat mee Xe neal poor key [Epa] — a ta deine tone ef ome |_Seartee | pene toe wou! be et. Le ot ‘pac by pon ge Bin bp at rade, at" by peat, Dr ¥ shen ths the frm show a igure 189, ad can been of ob ‘so: “any Died pean gut net, talowed by ty ol Pred, lia penton “ithe 3 veer ol hs, ara us wo Nese | 164 FORM CLASSES AND CONSTRUCTION levels in which the boxes contain abl fo form-clae ited tog “S consructen I tua pate for bung compost om of a pie rma out of Tr of see formlaues "The detertion 1 iperige comtrucion avers that “any meober of sch-and-aueh forma, cosine wo any member fa cera ther formas, poe ducra ferm which beloogt toa cra thd formate” We azn: ‘nedtly why care mut be exes In derouoatng betwee fora ‘Gawes Lfveput F long wi hy so ies oat aloo tha, ‘esl ie tte, oar ssp wl ave oe completed by ‘reieaton of ecepdonn, "he IC lt eompot form ate common sd to and 2 cern onstruction with each other, andthe compete form but om the Gey the contruction eal callad sonra ‘Allsonsats bal by swings consrceon are necmarly emben the nate forrlan The formas, owerer, may icles {oot til by me oer eonstection, and een gle serpbeme For exatpe al predation are renin of age forms wick ‘weiay momentary ell sentence ateleton oro which be ean TMA sn Intonation to yi a sentence. But not all entencesiletons fe presicnon: yn ly the mre the marin, alk fo heh ace the farmer but not he ner Aine rections ae bul by eonoig ‘td penon singular aujoet and nodal prodist (one cota), Tua ai bul by several other onetrtons ae ino | er tate, Team gy ie ptsoe “Twa compat forma bat by singe contraction may have eter IC in cormmon: ie eon goad shld lite ptt. The eomD00 featur of mening of aces pit at due Wo ay shard geminata forms we theft ay tha ee eoigof te arc. "Retursing fo te examples and problems lacuna 41. we 2 ter tht contraction ave te ot of alr pater ou f we te Davee of hole sentence are built Tae wo sontenes agreed it Figure 181 resemble each oter in Ut te same esting of const ‘hoon evolved. Thr na | at an ol | man are bal by a single ome bervetion A |asha and he ad maw ae pape both but by = fecond thought we at sy ete tat hey ae ba by Wo Night sna coatacdone, The feature of rearing common to the fo sentences are he meng of the rsurentconsrsetone ‘coNsTRUCTIONS 165 Simic difeences of meaning in pia sentences which conta, sxe de to dierences in cosreton In Jn ifr, te 1a Jn ad Ish sana in ane consreton i Joa he te tine 1s ai ‘eres constration Figure 18.) 1 (he i) fo mil he Te rh ‘nd milf stand in one comtrason (hat of | | m (ie ites) mu fro he ame ICs wd i another comtaction (gure 185. Nores New tes: rig of werent fom satin, ming of & comiaton, onsite (= orf ay bot ony when bg di fed atthe product of I ned by a spee ensuing) “Te erm "the pene gua bj” dal print” an “eit” hae tecnica! nan the rpc prc Angage only wien formal intedsced fo he teateat of at ‘nngage They tre ells Engl here general guaran hat they a of val sy ter ang ‘Sine grammar te “coset in place of er “ont” Some we "emntton satinouly ee our ea” and 1 WORDS. 194, The everyday we of the Bglsh word “word i ot very pee, i tn general the layman loko wring, ad laser av a word wat ver he finds ween beeen sutcemie spaces So mauris doe weed, ina ee to and matt voor one depending on wheter orang ‘yphen inintrpetad as pect wor of space. That Ue tee pl fogy refer single combination of morphea with & se Protane Stion~/rnl-Py ie gnee ‘When we boa language desi eather than vin wring, we me sec eter ctra fo the determination of morta, Thre te several Uwableeteria, bot dey do no ped idenel rel, The etron that icenet eply ye nite ie te word ofthe nya, ‘0d infor tee that weal reserve the em Te oer extern es cls of nits which der more rally rmn the laps’ wen fod we shall not cal them ord, despite thee wondlike proper Tread, we hall nde pial for them 192. Determining Words trough Pae and Llability A the fit step in determining the words in an itera, we nk speakers to repeat the uteranee sow and eae. Suppose wns hat Je ‘wh Jin ret hs le stars wy ney in the nol away, a 8 ingle macreepment (4) we fora ow repeiton, he ay ee ‘he wentence up ino at many at even amceive sores, each ith ts wa intonation and with intervening panes. Jat, wets it tides, 0 ml. Or a my nt pa tev fen hs eli, ot ‘ey ely right be kepe a3 single trenton, Thos we ey have ‘oli tore than oe sow cae delivery bare we an be ne We Inve obtained the maximo breaicup. Only under very arate 166 t DETERMINING WoRDS 167 ions, however, would anyone pause at atonal pin sty be tween id and “A word is th any segment of «sentence bounded by mecenive pina kip ipl The example cones seven wor Te ota this mer wheter seul delivered sone macreegent frat eer Snce words ee deinen rm of lps nt the ‘cual pause in anyone elie. ‘The passing habits of linerate speaker of Eagith ae doubles con- Aidoned by hs Iteray, fr he may pate more ely where wg Ibis lave a space than where they do mit But thee are eeepont many a speaker wil re maton op Bacbd into te macros. ment Furthermore, out bale of lating pacer in writing he ne Aevloped by mere chance. They reer, with sone dato, mesh bis inching habits of where ne pani slow caret pec Ae the pause procedure for determining weds al yes content eis when aplid to a Isguage for whlch there iso commonly oe ‘rig apie ‘When we suspect thar some fatr it ocuring the resus of the atte procedare, tere a supplamenary procedure to which we can fare. We lok for other contexts fr 2 frm, In which it wil deed ecu ata whole macresegment. Ths romeene righ consent il {0 break up the sentence im gig ete itn sore than fue Maceo sedoent amy ung ade Yer we might heat the same perco laying role Bin the lowing conversion ( onveranon the tr ar actly bes) 4 Whe yo ing? 2B: Ste “From twecorelade that ete o words, not oe ‘Weds ths defined are not alway ental wth he eymna’s word (uta dear sngle werd he aya breve he paling, ‘bt two each fru. Yet our wards have many of the popes a he layman's, Thy ae, onthe average, larger than gle morph, aya, mn one marphee eal, but byt, minty two eachy mails ‘hres ado on. At the same ne, hey reo the serge ale that 168 wore uterances: anton uterances Ike Hi! and Ye? ae aor, but ‘he minority. We towtien unblnlogly stare that » sentence ig ‘impoae ly of words, This fae wader either the ay defo of “word” or our ova cei leaves bation oto ace. Tha car finial empl nvlves the intonation morpheme /** 1/98 wall ax "Al morphemes ean be clawed according t thei at rlaive to wore A morpeme which pzur ony ax porto all of me wo egret morphine: Jon att Amorphis whichis par a ‘word pragma al ntonations, nd some ther morphea eh ‘the secondary steas // om the vcood mgmental counieat ‘Tost balay hich wt part of te od br ‘A form contig of to or more words plate 1953. Minimum Free Forme Ano ny expectation abot won is dat they are ivaraiy grasamadcal un on our term re saa forms, This sot Wue under ou deflton. Teeny ao ahh dre wer so that teats. But the TOs of tent tare aot {he words ty and ght; they are the ft wn el we socks and the form hy let than 4 word “There are two type of worden which fll lay expetaont a the present cout atthe expen of et of detertiaation au ine ‘ft other properties aoe thou Kke worl una to have. One a ‘es I hemi fe fr ‘Some fore foot ot tote segmental morphemes, like Eaglsh a, ot hat at al Soe, Jo's el Tb el tle tt propery hat on aceon they may eccr at whole uiteraaeey ri {ng only the adeton of table etonation. ‘Tht In anawer to Wie ‘ati th? one gh amply my i /. "Tis property edo fora that bee iare fr Other wget ora ae ot ree and are Therefore called Bun ther of at, theo of ago he or of ‘ur heaton of emda ‘Some free forms cet IG which ae ll a ee ols a ‘example since both Jub aad fa are foe. Many, however, Jo ot ons whol fre IOs ey are theeore minima fe for, “ei, tga gual: ineacy ne 1G ar Jot, ga) ee, bate ter (or Fe) is bound. Cf aio quiere & mare han ‘morphine Givenigatrs degree) then ta ICs are cm nf both ound. der inimum res frm Bocas bs wo 1h LExEMEs 169 ‘The wordike properties of simu re frm ae clear. They ae leaps rumen ec, ere we py tet attennn ts Tus ‘Stole ning and deny oem on te eer arg than Serpent tod enaller than wine wtennea, Te were operty stat sonetines they ae larger than slogle words: Tomy Fgh so wor, Dut on on miss eft, aces of 6s (atu Bound Even the formord mguese tr Moy of a's (atin te Aor of Boos hat) ea sage masini fe fare, sine he Doan form one oft 194. Lexemes. The other variety of wordike unit which fl the expectation that "word ould always be grammatical frm is the tome ent ar . 35 wana 2 nem Sac “The science Sh out ¢ naw Mat agra in Figure 19. “The sentence include calytvenultinate cantiuent (ype), but here ate thireen igereat yeaa frei aly at various “rrarchical level. The diagram aca a box for cach The mogphemesquente waren cca thi sete, tony stan “ecient” conatnation (ie aman ain Ti to dog (of aman re hier, $17.2. The marge aequete «me hho the ote hae occur in the sentence ars rama! orm, However, wwe ean easly find some oc enteac in whch the rame eucne,¢ ea xr only acide Sir ota attack wll do Pigare ay ‘Another morphewesequesce inthe eetence it at, Wont is a ‘rama frm nth senence st nen a Btn cle \ 170 worns from 2 nee at in that we ea find no Enh trace In which ‘man ccur only a a acident I ia grammatical fom wherever cca. This propery le manieed by every single cepts of Inguage bt only by sme ofthe ccartent queso of rpms “This yields threat claifenton of ll the movphesses oad smorphetecomblnatlon fs lnguge (1) thse which over oly a cellent ame ar ots ena (2) tase which xe seine ‘celdens, sometimes at grammatical fem as () thes het ‘occur only a grammtisl ore se a wt || fale ae es {et ws monty cll oy morte or morpemesequene ef set variey an. Aton 6 ele seas pe ite ayn sane event tia 1G ft rg whee ‘Gabe evtonoens so For erp an se ‘reo aut ba eo awh Ws an ut we {ate Thy at ato pt on Le lage fra whe take ‘ay any contin whic Ie nt an 1 flare Xi tom: xe nan mtn Se ta AT canton ees oe nee asa, ‘and ntnaton more 4 ‘yamaha eee ni Ti tem sages nt sappropriny an a ealer ees mck Inger see ‘eta nms whe he ns thems on ater ern te ae Inger gramme! rm agin ered ec afk The sone roroms im forms nour sample setene (Figure 191) ae ne a, na a ants ‘thatthe intonation mtn lt athe whee, “The wore propery ef lemme resent, A lene tess grammatical form, by definition. Lexemes are on the neerage Inger ian single morphemesbutsmalerthan whole ateranees Magy ora te levees in many eccrrencsy, aad any lect are node tinor deviation i that intonation eount mene: whos peace of ‘wer or of minimum fee farms lntanatons have to eee Sa scout separately ‘Bat levees are in many eae sale than what we sully ell words, eve by the formal detnison of 19.2, The lexmerin the to word Sequence eaigth are ann gh and th Thee lth Me {of Bois tee Moyo of, Beton, aes Reba ee ee ‘Risa single mins ee oem oe he Tee ee (Re) eed (ound) sand ste lense ea, ad 19.3, Idioms A Sina lay aseipton aout “word which does not ‘scualy hold ether forthe lsyman's words or fr une ee Should abeays have some sot af resting of thet ow, grease, 'n terms of thee atctre I they are Jeger than morpenes, aod "esnably constant ftom one eae to ante ‘The units which do ae the lar wordike of anya the seo ge a luc. The best approach thw uy which we sal lean ‘in examples in sone ote engunge, ‘The Chines form yung hat a1 the fo morphs 96‘ re and ig “ge epinricl containers te far Te modes ne ‘cond, A blak made ip Sat eto peau moliferiat nae rat, Give this information, bt kncring tring ee abot Cea = the culture of Chin, we can venture a resale gue os te smeaing of ting ol consiner"dru! or the Ihe Tis gos ‘he TOs of Chinese mist are mi ‘hone! and sd space oe hors, top, send Asin the preceding example, the fst contest ‘oiler the second. Rewonable gueats wt the tearing of mini would Be ‘hore’ back “heck or poly ‘om hone The, ‘re wrong. The mesning guy, right sway? “This eaning ino surprising when we ere that unt recently ‘he mont ap mode af travel was by hore Bat itis pe hing toca, 172 woros sider a meaning rexsooable ater we know i, and quite direst w oduce the esting of 2 frm fom is sructare A naive sped (Cicero better of than we, or he can know m3 shy ao ‘ot understand mise ule e bs learoed the meaning ofa eee ss separate fate about i langue Levan momentary sete te "Yor any grammatical fr the menting of which ot deduce from its aucture. Any Yn a ‘rourence fa which iis at a cooeteat o's gers a ie ‘ant amber of compote for in aay languages ons: Tw ant to be consent in ou we ofthe definon, we are oer abo to fant ‘tery morpheme idlematc stats save when It oecurng aw one ‘tent ofa larger idiom, since a marpheme Iw no stoi om ‘which ts meaning could be deduced "Thus nari an io i Sh mtn abt not nm gig Nan Fork, ecnic here it prt ofthe lager Wins New Paks Neo Teli tary ian im inte preceding estenee but aot Ti New Yor Tins of The Baw Tok since in te lte expres Na Tk ‘ecu ax pare of lager idk, The advantage of thi ete of cur “etnidon and of th acaion of morpheoe sims when they ate ot prs of larger iio, tat we ean pow set tat any wera ‘which i not itl imate cons of smaller Frm Wich ae ‘A composite frm in another language canot be ealled an idiom smerely bea it easing seams queef ts The est mst be appl ‘witha the lnguage Fresch Ele gemalaie "Sb ea re? ay ‘oem pci Beene x ental no equalent for Eaglh tt ‘his the requlrhait in Freeh ad the seatece sp ilo, On he ther hand hough French marae de cena Gd eae ote Partin English mevisge of commie, Sot the Treach and te Baga frm thats aoe ikomati. Wits opr ram om when refers 8 Certain tort of gorermentl document, but not when i rel erly gle fr canbe too more lms. St of Lib son om, the designation ofan object in New York Bay ie sate in ts Fetereace toa cera play in utah Be is presumably the same wi0Ms AND MORPHREMES 173 rpms ia womet ba lide adi Ta bo he ay bu te (Gilet tio in tee fo enone, Teioms are uawordlke especialy im tat they can be much ager sha ane word Howie ine foal ged mato ome i of th (pe. Yetsome dns ar sale than word Bog t,o ng ot Conlt of two merphemes each. One i esptvely, bz, pov ngs ngs he oer in all thy the "pat ten a fica, Thanet ecurences, however, te meaning of he whole fre {predictable fom te easing fhe conan 2 thatthe wile owt are notions Tn eheary, aod agely i practice, Mom ae the lof which dc- nosis are made, The rent obo dconary maker need net iSelude «noosidlomatie noneeform nce a speaker ofthe language would ever look up eich a form. He woul look up the componest Fart, if be noted to, and sutomatally know the meaning of te ol In practice, of our, no Giooary vc complete. Thar are Tirta many ions in any langue, ad ere cre ato estence 10.6. Idimaand Morphemes. The ecogltion fins lege than single morphemer rues a odientin of what a heetlore been ‘Be bout morpemer ar the rwemateras fon which we bul ter ‘acl An lomate comport form, ke any single mcpher,hs fo ‘etecned ata whole Ths equally lagtimate oy that ther ‘ater fom whith we ud wteranee ar dione Furthermore we anf etre that anal for a ios, even en t's dial to dee whether It one morte or mre than (oe. For example, Engiah har many were ofthe typ ren, dm on ree dcr, roi, ech spacey bull of tro wall pars, 1 pretty dey fr th Hi, at x eco past my dv, 0 the Fe. Bu de tlaonbie of meaning are tenaoun. Grannis are sein agrcrent, Some buh ae the rerante ficales and tae tach word a wo morphs, following the phovense taper thes ‘Rear the paaleisof phonemic shape st uoconvaciog ne take fc ward at single merphese. Similar probes appear in the Salis of alma every language An obvious pac sep ost ‘he morpemie poten ade, rengrsing that each fr ta on whether iis on o more merghenes 174 worms Nores Neve terms ae the flowing nd ena and! rtp mr ‘Maer minis fe fom, fr frm, bond frm ths tne, ay Sens ia "The word citerion tems fom carent Sell practice. Freedom aad bondage were fist developed by Blooms especilly 1955, chapter 10). The definion of lew fle unpublahed werk wf Berto Bloch. The tem "ecerne” has alo been wed in the tose of so “ion; eg by Swadesh 19460, ‘Poll. The fine ad second vies of problems below ae ta what say be cal ure dtraional tye ; nthe ist sere each problem preentaset of utterances." ech repreated bya myuence of an o more capital eters allowed a2 Pid. Isto be named that, within singe problem, any rere eter artuence fees ha eracty the ame vos en von nll ‘ccurencs Each problem ibd: that te “langage” io queion Included only there "ateratee” wich ar sed, None ofthe" ‘ages lavlverepravermentl meptemes, The data cach pbs ive to be anaiynt in terms of morphea minimus fee Toms ‘Phra, eed ted forma The Sr prebler i worked out oho procaine (8) A.AG.AD, ADC. 8. 8c. mD. BDC. ‘Sehtion: morphemes A, B,C, and D sch ocr in ere than oe ‘ivtoament: each, by defniton, i iemeptbe of ed ther avis). " rinimum fie forms: A,B,C, AD, and 8D (ath ecu al {3 whale tera, but nant Dine It tw do 2. ‘ phrase: AIG, BO, ADIC, BDIC (the vera ine mast the boundary beeween ICs i each ete both 1G ate E fre for wtb esteem e tence IDIOMS AND woRPHDAES 175 (9) A. ACH. ADH. AG. AGC: AGD. B. BoH. BDH. BG, BoC. DOD. G cit D. DH. BF, EFCH. EPDM EtG. BPGC: EPGD. (08) A. AG. AGE. ACG. AGH. ACHEL ACHGL AD. ADF. ADG. ADH. ADHEL. ADHGI AE. AER, AEG. ABH. AMMEL ABHGL AH. AHTI. AHGL BBC. BOF BOG. NCH. BCHEL BCHGE, BD. RDF. BD. BDH. BDHPL BDIOT BE. BEM, ‘BEG. EH. BEMFI, BEHGH. GD... Fl. G.GL Jn te wean wale he ate ae he a fhe i aie Ta cach case the atonal analye ruled i to deserts the fos sl, ist the members af each, ant deve ail the eoteactows Formclases can he named array with meme can conten ions and the Iter can be dee in term of the labo tas ferme. We strate with thes problems (23) Data as fr tn above Sotion:form-clame 1A, B 2 €. 3D, construed: [3-42-5428 (20), 2), 28) Data at byte, aod seve ‘The final weit of problems hast do withthe reogsition ome in Englsh. Remember tha complete agreement beeween diferent People can hay be expected idimatcy ta mats of depen, (Ga) Lista hems legs than sing orphemes a the lwo (a) He ton of hs at, (0) The sehoothowe burned down last ight (©) Em going to town; want to come sons? (@) They were dancing with abandon, @) Hes ediny foruser! { Wreseata pata pack on that dor Are yon ad of phone? (@) Tite out ace tht fT ean (0 yor cant he geo, be ete (0) Have you rend Fe gy ont 7 (@ Stic nd one wl break my bones but name ean never 176 woros (0) For lunch we had our choice of tated Baglsh maf, Seach broth with barley, French fled potaton, Wel rabbi, Spanish omelet, Italian spagheth weer snd wich, cr southern fed chiske, with ioe ean oe dence () Tm asi your toy har wo ake gaint him (@) That new het extremely Besming toy. (@) That he become ou, (G0) Fd tea examples of lone Inger than single “word” Ga the onnary sense of the ater term) whieh iavolve ad are ued ‘et: One example: He re of soma 20: MORPHOLOGY and SYNTAX, 204, tn many Innguagen, words ply an import grammatical sole in that they are ult ot of aller clement by extn patere, Sure put ager ito semen by rather diferent pater exo ‘Sey ei catmary tryst the rammstal sem of language st Coote of two subeytens Mell inl estck of eet furptensy, andthe may which words are but out fem. Sta Inlet wae in which wor, sod sopesepentl erpety, a ‘Stange relative teach oer im uteranen To trate, we aia ue the cele of 141 ol nt ide i ey ‘The ukimate ont nl consivents of thi eetece be the intonation rrpheme 0 and the seven werd aby ty may The Fnac stracture ie shown in Figure 20-1; ths ies om carer ‘Enpame ony in thatthe breakdown sop with whole word, ‘Gur sentence ae a whole a no morphology only the ida words int do, Jo nd sy have the spent pomble morpbological vet, since each a sigle orpeme Trt coms of the wo "oepbeois at ands fst abd; ad 4 Taner ato words whic have sar yar! peg stoccureice ala have paral! morphologies ucts and ice ea ‘Conse, das the Bogish vets (0) 4 omy i ya oo, ad (Hy geomet, go 0 on. Verb type oc ey with subj ke yyy ta, th men, BEE only with Bh ith abject of heater vary (hg th ma os) but ot with 7 i MORPHOLOGY AND syNTay 178 thes ofthe former. But gare morphologically elated tog at ry tocameand soo: each vero of ype Il cones ofa verbo ype pag ‘fe (a phonemic shape /-/ inal our eal, Whe this amount = mola! maring of the sync prea of sme words. Some languages ave def thiy ant asking aot complete in ay Inguage lo Engl vt ie (1) (as, wl, mat, may are single morphs jut at are thee of pe ‘There thane overt morptoloseal iferice to ask teeytacea fact tht yr of epe I, une tote of type Tea secu th eae asia of sbjet ex ei, Jae | eae | be 204, The Morphology-Synisx Boundary. The line of demarc sr beeen morphology sod syntax ent sbvay a eau a ‘scion v0 fe may have suggested gh n-th hates the dct. The TCk ace mit fod sh The contracdon in which tee ICs wind fe not ety ‘morpnogcal, Heese the eonrte built by the contruction & hen, ota ingle werd. Nori ely yma since one fhe Ta a ae than sword, Pores of thi special stuctare ae aie common in Eagar act rre i he languages ; “The best pocedae seam tobe tad the defo of “morphs 05)" 40a to Inelade alleontracone i which one TCI than 4 wrod even i the ether IC ad the constate ae wmeimes pst Father than Single words opts of words Thus we cla the Eagh compuexity 179 comuructon by which ordinasng hs added toa umber a orphoe Toles, hough wih the special propery thatthe umber may beh pire (emit te ded ety out ater that wo, We {othe same withthe Engh coramction by whch geal det toa word er pre (Job's te Mer of Bat) Consuctiont wich we should Rady expect ara up in his pil we sometines 4p, The formation ofan adjective from anon by ang al with shit of sre ie ly commons mur | may io fh, rept

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