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    Mathematics Ub World

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    Oliver Penalber

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    MATHEMATICS inthe Modern World Ethel Cecille Baltazar Carmelita Ragaso Justina Evangelista ‘2018 Copyright © 2018 by C © Publching ne Ethel alan, Carma Ragaes, ALLRIGHTS RESERVED Nopurtof hie publeation ‘tay be repost, stced ina retrieval system, Gr ranamited in any form or by any mean Sectronie, mechanea, photecopying, recoding, Sretherwieathout the por witen permission tthe publisher. ‘Cataloguing ln Pabllation Data ar e Mathes a he modern wot Bg data, Comet fugue aca Sts, fos nu Gonem COS C8 Eaton ‘ook Design: Pal Andrew I. Pogue Cover Desig: Rath Anne D.Blarin Contents ipter 1: The Nature of Mathematics 11 Mathematies in our World 1.2 Fibonacci Numbers. 1.8 The Gotlen Ratio Chapter 2: Mathematical Language ‘and symbols 2. The Language of Mathematics 2.2 Expressions ve. Sentences 2.3 Unary and Binary Operations 2.4 Some Fundamentais of Logie Chapter 3: Problem Solving and. Receeina 8.1 Inductive Reasoning 8.2 Deductive Reasoning... 8.3 Problem Solving with Patierns 8.4 Polya's Problem-Solving Stratepy Chapter 4: The Statistical Tools 41 Correlation . 42 Testing of Hypotheses, 4.3 Regression Chapter 5: The Mathematics of Graphs 5.1 Introduction to Graph Theory. 2 Buler Pathe and Circuits 5,4 Graph Coloring Chapter 6: Apportionment and Voting 6.1 Introduction to Apportionment 6.2 Introduction to Voting Chapter 7: The Mathematics of Patterns and Symmetries 7 Transformation and Isometres 12 Symmetey 7a Teaselations Chapter 8: The Beauty of Codes 8.1 Coding 8.2 Cryptography. Chapter 9: Linear Programming, 9.1 Basic Concept of Linear Programming 9.2 Solution of LP Problems by the Graphical Method, Chapter 10: Mathematical System 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Mathematical System in Geometry 10.3 Algebraic Mathematical System 10.4 Abstract Mathematical System References Index. The Authors 93 m1 ns 126 at ma 2185 156 159 170 184 18s 200 209 217 235 236 238 261 267 for? What (st about? How te done? Who uses i? The firt four chapters discuss the required lessons identified fn the course eyllabua while the remaining chapters are the elecuve ones. Ite important to note thatthe fist four ‘chapters, namely The Natre of Mathematics, Mathematical Language and Symbols, Problem Solving and Reasoning, ‘and The Statietical Tools are the non-negotiable topes, al together with one or two from the elective ones, depending fon the need ofthe students, make up the whole courve. ‘Our entire years of teaching mathematics in the tertiary level helped us to come up with thie book writen Jn a simple tone which we hope to appeal to any college student taking this general edieation course, The elective topice may requlre some level of mathematiosl maturity, bout the style in which they are waitten could help in the lunderstanding of the topies presented. To help both the students and the teachers, we have carefully prepared f wide array of exercises with diferent aificuity levels, Specifically designed to reinforce the earlier lesson and, sometimes to introduce the next tope ‘This book will not be realized without the help of the Instructors of the first generation tenining at the ADMU With Dr. Mlordeliza F. Francisco and Dr. Angela Fatima H. ‘Guzon who unsefsly shared ther expertiae inthe diferent ore areas, We alo acknowledge the help of Me. Rodman F. Manalang (PAD Mathematics candidate at DLSU) who took the fret generation tenining and gave second generation training a the University of the East, Manila. ‘We hope you appreciate and enjoy mathematics with the sid of thi boo, Bc. Baltazar, MAT .¥, Ragan, PRD J.-M. Evangelista, BaD ‘THE AUTHORS CHAPTER The Nature of Mathematics 1.1 Mathematics in ‘our World 1.2. Pbonacei Numbers 13 The Golden Ratio LEARNING ‘OBJECTIVES At the end of the expected to: 1. entity patterns segulaities in the word explain the Importance of sathematice in one's ie; ane ‘express ‘appreciation for tathematice as a human endesvor ® Kevworos Where? who? How? why? Fibonscet Numbers Golden Ratio — Nanematesintne Moc Wort 1.1 Mathematics in our World Have you ever wondered how well jeepney divers give you your change when you hand them your fare? How bout when you buy street food? Most food vendors do not make @ mistake in giving you your change after buying a ailed hotdog on a stick for example, without even using ‘calculators. Routine transactions Uce these, knowingly fr unknowingly, are mathematics at work because they involve computing numbers most of the time, How much time do you alot for traveling to avoid getting late for class? Before that, do you track every second you spend taking the shower, eating breakfast, changing into chou clothe, for preparing your things for school? Most importantly, do ‘you check ifyou stil have enough money for fae, food, ad other expenses for school? Just like budgeting allowance, time is also mathematics at work. Are you watching your ‘weight and your food caloric intake? Do you read the nutrition information ffom the packages of chocolates, cookies, candies, and drinks 90% buy? Consciously or ‘unconsciously, all of these activities engage some fort of ‘mathematics, ‘The heart of mathematics is more than just numbers, ‘numbers which many suppose to be meaningless and Tuninteesting Have you gone for Beach tnps. or Wid ‘mountain climbing perhaps and. noticed” in awe the beautifal world around you? The diferent shapes you see around you, the changing hues of the si from sunrise fo sunset, the clouds transforming from atratus to cumulus, the contour ofthe rainbow in the boron are all beaut decane of harmony. The degree of changing hues of color thas t be of exact measurement to appear pleasing and hharmonious to the ftaman eye. “And ie is mathematics that reweals the simplices of nature, and permits us to seneralize from simple examples to the complexities of the real world. It took many people fms many different areas of human activity to tum mathematical insight into useful product” (Stewart, 1995, pp. 71-72}, IF you count the number of petals of most flowers, notice that they are either of one petal, two petals, three petals, fe, oF eight. Thi sequence of numbers form the fet (L, 1,2, 8,5, 8,13, .} whose pattern was discovered by Fibonacci a great European mathematician of the Middle ‘Ages. His full name in Ialian is Leonardo Pisano, which ‘means Leonardo of Pisa, Because he was born in Fis, aly found 1175. Fibonacd fe the shortened wort fer the Lain term Sus Bonacel," which stands for *son of Bonaccio is father's name wns Guglielmo Bonaccto ‘The German mathematician and astronomer Johannes Kepler (enown for hie laws of planetary motion) observed ‘that dividing Fibonacel number by the “nomber Immediatey before st in the ordeved sequence yields a quotient approximately equal to L618, This amazing ratio Js denoted by the symbol @ called the Golden Ratio. Kepler fence claimed that "igleometry has two great treasures; one 4s the Theorem of Pythagoras; the other, the division of a line into extreme and mean ratio. The fret we may compare o/s mearure of gold, the second we may name a precious Jewer” (Stakhow and Olsen, 2008) ‘The Golden Ratio is 20 fascinating that proportions Of the human body such as the face follows the #0 called Divine Proportion. The clooer the proportion of the body Darts to the Golden Ratio, the more aesthetically pleasing, And beaut the body’ ie. Many printers, including ‘the famous Leonardo da Vine! were no fascinated with ‘the Golden Ratio that they used it in their works of ‘The world and the whole universe is imbued with ‘mathematics. “The Pythagorean believed that the nature of the tniverse was directy related to mathematics and that the whole numbers and the ratios formed by whole numbers ould be used to dseribe and represent all nataral events” (Aufinann, 2014). Can the course of natural events stich fs winning in a contest or in n fame of chance be actually Explained? What ie your chance of winning the lottery? — amematcs nie Medem Wet — Have you ever heard of probabilities? Johann Cart Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855) was a remarkable mathematician ‘who made many contributions to the mathematics of probabilities An important aapect of studying probabilities Tine to called ‘combinstories, = mathematical eld pioneered. by. Blaise Pascal, the mathematician whove Famous Pasealstrangle finds useful applications in algebra fan statins. Nature has its laws These laws, ouch as the law of reky ‘ating bodies, were laid down by Isaac Newton. Newton and Goititied Leitmis developed modern calculus in the 17th Conta. This development would not have been possible Gwithout the Cartesian coordinate eystem—the fusion of rometry and algebra by Rene Descartes (1596-1650), [Abert Einstein (1879-1955), who made a name for his fast and energy equation, B= me?, would not have gone farther in his theory of relativity without mathematics, Marie Sklodowska Curie (1867-1934) a Polish chemist end Iathematician received the 1911 Nobel Prize in chemistry for developing techniques of icolating radionctive isotopes find discovering tO radioactive elements. Biological Scientists have also recently used mathematics extensively to theoretically investigate treatment procedures by modeling end simulating iological processes. Without mathematics, all these inventions and discoveries are not possible. ‘The 20th century saw many breakthroughs inthe elds of sciences and engineering which creatively and critically raployed mathematics, From the fst personal computer Samed. Programma 101 that was released in 1965, to the frat landing of man on the moon on suly 20, 1969, fund to the Brat Global Positioning System (GPS) satelite {fuinched in 1989 for military ise, all of these show that Mathematics plays a vital Tole in the affers of humanity, ‘Today, there are 24 GPS satelites In orbit helping people Tovate' ther travel destinations via applications such as Googie Maps oe Waze on personal computers, tables, oF cel phones. Despite all these scientifc achievements, many ‘millennlale® are hesitant in taking ecience courses partly Iceni they fel anxious of anything intimately connected with mathematics, The Interests of millenials in gadgets, ames, and technologies that appeal to their venses have fino interfered with the afudy’ of mathematics and the Sciences. Unienowingly however, these technologies employ mathematics; ftom the transactions of purchasing. new feadgets, tothe instructions one paces on the newly Bought device which operate based on mathematical logic. Finally, tan Stewart (1995) explains in his book Nature's unbers that mathematice is.» systematic wey of diasing ‘out the rules and structures that le behind some observed pattern or regularity, and using these rules and structures fovexplain whet is going on. Now, think of one of the most loved animation characters Dora the Explorer. When Dora fel lost in the jungle, what docs she need? A map. Thank foRene Descartes, who made the Cartesian map for without it, Dora wll ever nd her way. Mathematlce is everywhere because it Gnde many acti applications in daily Hie. Ged, the Mathematician Architect, designs everything inthis universe to follow rales fr formulas. Whether following regular or iregular patterns, Hs creation benefits bumaniking, fis greatest masterpiece. ‘As Johannes Kepler wrote, “Those laws [of nature) are Ivihin the grasp of the human mind; God wanted us (0 Tecognice them by ereating ue after his own image eo that We could share in his own thoughts” Stewart, 2010), 1.2 Fibonacci Numbers Fibonacct observed numbers in mature. His most popular contribution perhaps is the number that is een in the petals of fowers. A calla lly flower has only 1 peta, trilium has 3, hublecus has 5, cosmos flower has @, corm marigold has 13, some asters have 21, and ‘Adaisy can have 94, 59 or 89 petals. Surprisingly, these etal counts represent the fist eleven numbers of the & Cala rhe U1 a Fibonacci sequence. Not all petal numbers of flowers, however, follow this pattem diseowered by Fibonacci. Some amples include the Brassicaceae family having four elas, Astoundingly, many of the flowers abide by the pattern observed by Fibonacc. ‘The principle behind the Fibonacci numbers is as “Lat, be the mls integer in the Fibonacci sequence, the next (n-11}th term x, i= determined by adding hth and the (n=1)0 integers. - Consider the frst few terms below: Let x, = be the fret term, and x)=1 be the second term, the third term % le found by 2 x,0 014 ‘The fourth term x, is 2+1=3, the sum of the thi an the second term. Ta find the new nth Fibonacci mumber, simply add the two numbers immediately preceding this nih umber nadimjelere2 n=7im=548-13 neste avace n=9:%=13+21=38 n=6:gn0+5-8 Tre Notre ot Mathematics ‘These mumbers arranged in increasing order can be written as the sequence (1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8 13, 21, 34, 55, esas Crow na Romclasuonce feces tenes eee “goanly — clamedunaope sop 123.58:19219455% Similarly, when you count the clockwise and counterclockwise spirals in the sunlower seed head, i ie Ineresting to note that the numbers $4 and 55 gceur— Which are consecutive Fibonace) numbers. Pineapple so fave spirals formed by their hexagonal nubs. The hubs on many pineapples form eight spirals that rotate ‘iagonally upward to the let and 13 that rotate diagonally lipward to the right, again these are consecutive Fbonacet hhumbore(Auftaann, 2015). The same is also observed inthe Cloclewise and counterclockwise spirals of «pine cone Mottematcrin the Mocem Woks Another interesting petters in nature is the honeycomb. According tothe Merriam Webeter dictionary, ‘a honeyeamb isa mas of hexagonal wax cxlls built by honeybees in thei ‘pest to contain ther brood and stores of honey.” But why ‘uild hexagonal ces? Why not squares? Jin Akiyeme, ‘Japanese mathematician, explain it well n an experiment nade on his regular TV show vinjn Math In the experiment, 2 student 1p asked to step on one mass made up of hexagonal cells and another mass made up of square cells find the result & unbelievable! The mass with hexagonal fells related the weight ofthe student while the mass with ‘square ora was completely destroyed. Ils amazing to know that the mass made up of hexagonal cells is stronger than. the one made up of equare ells. Moreover, these patterns ‘exist naturally inthe world Ire Note ot atnematies —— ‘Another interesting observation s the rabbit population beginning from a baby pair of the rst generation. ince it tales the fist generation to mature belore giving birth to a. fffpring, there is an adult pair for the vecond generation, which is ready for reproduction. So, there are two Tabbit pars, the parents and baby pairs, of the third generation. Next. the adult pair begets a baby pair but the previous [baby pair simply matures, 20.8 family of three rabbit paira for the fourth generation exists, and so on. The number of ‘pl rabbit pars at each generation constitutes a Fibonacci sequence, Denoting by F, the Fibonscct sequence of 7 (reertions ia the aet of Fibooace! numbers {that i t#)~f4,9.5,8,19,21,94,55,89,144,..). Tn particular, denote Aj=1 for the 1 generation, Beal for the 29 generation, F=2 for the 3" generation, F,-3 for the 4 generation, and 0 on. Iti interesting to ‘int out that the Flbonace! numbers F, obey the following {lationship [R=R=1 Vn Fathandd “That is, F, is given by the sum of the two previous [Mbonacci numbers, F,, and Py, n23. Forexample: F =F, +F, Mh is also seen that Fig =F +h =34+ 21-55, Te Nate ot Mathematics 1s ing i tht in fo an ieee Be inocu ses ene ‘myetery. What does the golden rato have t do with a rabbit, population model? 1.3 The Golden Ratio ‘The ratio of two consecutive Fibonacci numbers fe n becomes large, approsehes the golden ratio; that 0180599887. This can de verifed by wing some parts of the human body: the length of farm, height, the distance of the fingertips tothe elbow. to Markowsky (1992), “the ratio of a. person's to the height of his or her navel is roughly the golden - We are not told why this is significant; the navel is & "Sear of no great importance in an adult human being” You Tay verily this for yourse, Did you get a value close to 1,6180339887..2 “The ratio between the forearm and the hand also yields @ Let us investignte the ratio of two adjacent Fibonacci numbers as m becomes large. ‘The following table gives values of the ratio ann approaches va sioner I a fps el ng Ta Bees bes ae Cee tare BE im ataret pa tas eeaies tiem SN eat pups of Svs fea ter nd ie ago ene of oe + outer edges of ips: upper ridges of lips — Mathematics in he Maciem Woy + width of center tooth width of second tooth + width of eye : width of rs ‘The golden ratio denoted here by » is gometimes call the golden mean or golden section: 15 16180320887. ‘This cam come about in two ways. One is by an algebeaie relation. Suppose that a line segment in cut into two pieces of length: @ and b. Below it is shown that ais longer than b ‘Cleary, the length ofthe orginal line segment isa ee 8 ang 248 Now, two ratios are formed: © and 2*8. the test i formed: 2 ana the ratio ofthe longer piece a to the shorter plece b, and the second ratio ia the whole lenth to the longer piece eI 18 ‘now ideal to asl wen are the fo ratios equal? This is an algebraic question that can be solved by equating the two F : } — The Nate ot athaes — ‘Simplifying the right side of equation (1), we get ab B12 Beta Denoting the ratio © by y, we end up with ° aed @) ‘On the other hand, dividing in both the numerator and ‘enominator ofthe right side of equation (1) by b. we et ° which by writing = becomes = 22-1 In @). tow, by multpiying both sides of equation (2) by g We get a quadratic equation, 0-120 “ Using the quadratic root formula, we find two rots of Aston (4); the frst root ia p= 1,6180539867 "and tae Becond root is =-0.6180339087... The frst root lo the Fao ¢=1.618 that we are looking for, and we Ignore the Second root because it is x negative number, Hence, the value we are ooking fori lev 2 180399887. The golden ratio »=1.6180299687... is a strange lumber. It is the only ‘umber that if you subtract soe from it, © -1~0.6180329887... you end up mth ita own meciprocal + ~0.6180339887, Molhematcr te Meson Wed — Golden Rectangle ‘What is a golden rectangle? A recangle can be drawn of ‘sacha shape that i iis cat into a equare and a rectangle, The smaller rectangle willbe similar in shape to the larger rectal se Ee : k i sen enn een Se ere eae ge erases Construction of simple continued fraction. Since the <0 ‘otangles are sinilary their sides are in the same ratio as 0 2 8 Tre Noro etnamates Continuing the process, we will arrive at the following ceqation ater cight Heratons: Floofley=16 a eee si dal ai ees a iy 1 rma Tex 2 by repeated Herations the mulitlayer fraction is ‘up as shown above, Iteration means repeating « 35 over anid over again. In mathematics, it means the ted aplication ofan operation om = piven fanction over ‘ver agi. ‘The golden ratio is also given by the ratio of the two ‘of the golden rectangle. The principle of the golden ile is simple. ARer the largest square is cut off Jeftover piece i sin « golden rectangle. The largest is cut off again from the letover rectangle, and 2: In this way, the orginal golden rectangle is eut up into ing squares. ‘Since the squares get smaller by ator, they are sel similer golden squares 1, What is mathematics for you? 2, Where do you apply the prineiple af matlbematics? 2, Do you need mathematics every day? Why? 44. What ave you learned from achool on mathematics 80 far? 5. Do you appreciate mathematics? Why or why not? 6. Did you ever perform well in mathematics? Why or why ot? 7, Who is Fibonacel and what di he do? ‘8, Why did Finonacci became fous? 9 Around what year Waa the ‘Mbonacci sequence invented? 10. The following rules ve @ simple model for the population growth of rabbits (a) The rabbits are always in pairs for reproduction. (0) A rabbit pair must grow one generation to maturity ‘and then begels ope baby pair at every generation ‘hereatter. (6 No rabbit pire die of Under these rules, Let F, be the baby pair ofthe 1 generation, F, Since it takes one generation to maturity, there fn an adult pai forthe 2% generation, which ie ‘ready for reproduction, FF, So, these are two rabbit pairs, the parent and baby pairs, of the 3 generation Next the adult pair begets a baby pair but the baby pair elmply matures, so 2 family of three ‘bit pars forthe generation, and so on. Ie Note et Maheratce ‘In particu, =I forthe 1* generation, =I forthe 2 generation, B92 for the 3% generation, 9 for the 4” generation, and s0 on, Find a formula forthe number of rabbits (inching ‘offering in the (m+n) generation, Use the figure on ‘page 10. For any positive integers m and n, use the results in no AO to find formula fOr Fr, Bee ee [Pn he pen op vp ci dps by ras Frat, we reine 2, The postal zip code of Marian is 2019. 3. The name of the shop is "680." Moreover mathematical objets may be represented In many sways mich ao sets and functions, 2.3 Unary and Binary Operations "Not all operations in mathematic involve two operands for numbers such as in the expression 2+3=5. The plus ttign between 2 and 3 sigalfies the operation of addition, ‘The plus symbol here involves @ binary operation. AS you ‘ay guess, 8 unary operation accepts only one walle or operand. ‘The plus and minus signs may not mean addition or subtraction when they are attached belore a single number. Instead, they are read ae positive and negative signs. Matematica Language ar sybet 9 written this way they are called unary operations. ‘accept only one value when they do arithmetic. ‘The positive sign ie very much lke the addition ion but has a aiffeent mesning when attached to ‘one number. For example, consider this expression: 4 ‘2 positive four). It docs not really mean “add four’ value of four represented by the mumber 4 is considered ‘single operand by the unary operator, end that tion produces a value of positive four. Obviously, ‘4 ‘a each represent the same value. 80, one can sey that “Unoiaible positive sign exits before any mumiber ‘The negative, or opposite), ign is = nary operator. ‘this expression’ ~4. Technically here, the negative ‘operator accepts a value of four as ite operand and 8 a value of negative four, Obviously, "4" and 4" Jn summary, unary operstions involve only one ‘There are many unary operations on the set of real rs. For example, negation is a unary operation. The fare the trigonometric functions, the slugle-variable ffl, Use factorial denoted nl, the transpose of ‘AS, the square root of 100 among, others. Additonal ‘runary operations ae gven below sine g ‘On the other hand, when “+” and “" can act on two | operands, then it is called a Binary operation. Aone Mhe binary operators, the ‘and ‘require more attention than all other binary operations. To understand this bet fecal the concept of ‘double negative’ you lernied In high School. The double negative x taught to be equivalent to the statement tuo negatives make a positive’ Consider | thiisexpression: 3~(-2). In tls expression, two operations z = \otnematis athe Woe Were are pretent using the symbol “However, the two “should hot be Interpreted to represent tw identical operations. The fest symbol (eft mes) i the binary subtraction operation. ‘The other [right below the integer 2) is the nary negative ‘ign oporator. ‘So what do you do to this expression? The negative sign operator has precedence over the eubiraction operator, £0 accepts operands fret. In the number line you go three ‘unite fo the rghit of sero fo locale 3. To subtract to fom ‘eee means you go two unite to the left of three but to subtract m negative two mesns you count the opposite of regative two ffom three whichis counting two units to the Fight of three. The result of this is fve, represented by the ‘umber line 5 units from zero. We write: 5$=3-(-2). This expression also equals 5-942. Since both expressions are equal to five, then Fight-hand sides must equal one another. Hence, 942-3-(-2} ‘The binary operation ia! differentiated with the unary ‘operator in the flowing igre . Unary negative sign operator at Binary subtraction aperstor Binary operations take two values, and include the ‘operations of addition, subtraction, mitipiation, division, land exponentiation, There are many binary operations on, eal mumbers, An operation ie binary if tekeo two real ‘numbers as arguments to produce another real number. Hf we let multiplication, denoted by the symbol x be a binary operation, then 46 yields the real number 24 or 446-28 IMotnematicl tanguage ord Symbo ‘Aaivonal examples are given below: 4. Addition eg, 465=9) 2. Subtraction eg, 10-8=2) ‘The properties of two binary operntions, addition and plication, over the set of real numbers are fellows: Closure of Binary Operations “The product and the sum of any two real numbers is ‘also a real numiver. ln symbol, we write Veyettc+yem and yeh Vey eRxry=yrx Yayeteyay-e {adation) (emtipiction). +1 fadition) ana 2 (multiplication). ‘of Binary Operations Given any three real numbers you may take any ‘and perform addition or multiplication as the case ‘and you will end with the same answer, For “dition in symbo we write, VepineR erpirsexelyes As an example, consider (142)+2=14(2¢3) On the other and, for multiplication we wste, vane, bouh-2=x-y-3} ‘This is illustrated by the example (2:3)-4=2-(3-4) {in which both sides of the equation are equal to 24, 2 Motpemats nthe Mel Wes Matnemicel enguage and Symbos — 4, Distributivity of Binary Operations Bie ik, Se audit we hare Distributivty applies when multiplication ie pevformed on ‘a group of two numbers added of ‘Subtracted together. Given three real numbers yy and 2 this property is stated in eymbolic notation which case the inverse of i under multiplication ix Yay. 2 09 a2 ym ed ay, +0. fem in fern oh deer ee Rete eee a edaion a aeemaias ‘multiplication, Some Fundamentals of Logic Sen mee are ee day ee my elit es ce ee a ey An element of the set of real numbers is an identity “they do not see eye to eye.” This expression means cua ar eae ihe pope vowed in an Mpument Sor gt tage am i a ay cae, eg ‘This means that the identity is the number that ee, erst corinne the ote yes ead © tay Netecter ca i ou See ene Samer num The ony umbe tatsltes ts sete cay i the aaty of material pete fee ey 2 a te rome bib borer ‘the importance of precision and conciseness in cedegee-= ating mathematica ‘Theretore, the Heatly clement ein the above deaniton emo or €=0. ions What then Ie the Hlentty clement under Many times, proposiions remade. in peoples aulpietion? Obviously, the Ment for multiplication ms. A propetion ia & statement which i etter Bl eee later eer ake ee thor fale The snl cizene ray cai thatthe eeeaeu ta ten Tove they ever saw in Sond of Mesa, a movie that. |. Inverses of Binary Operations ge 0 F at cannot bot: Rach of the following statements is « proposition, Sone fre true and some are false. Can you tell which are true, find which are false? I fae, state why. ves x4(-) . 46. 9194 prime number po se3-8 0 x answer is the negative ofthat number, ~©. In symbols, Matnematicnthe Hose vere) 6 24y20 4. 10<-3 Anamers ‘4. False, Prime numbers have no other factors than Land itself 9 ean be expressed as 33. . True Tre 4, Fale, A negative number is always less than a positive smumber The Tuth Table ‘A truth table is @ table that shows the truth value of ‘8 compound statement for all possible truth values of its ‘Smple statements Negation [A statement is a negation of another ifthe word is not introduced in the negative statement Let Phe a proposition. ‘The negation of Pis “aot P* ar “P. “The following is its trath table: Example ‘What isthe negation ofthe following statements? 1. P: Bis @ rational number. ', R lean odd number. Solution: 4. VB is not rational aumber or V3 is irrational. in Symbols. =P 1.6 i not an odd number or 6 is an even number. In ‘symbols, R. 32 Motnematicaltangeage ane Sybo ———— ‘al Connectives Pand Q be propositions, A logical connective is the ical equivalent of a conjunction in englch. The ‘common conjunctions in mathematics are “and” and ‘ich are denoted by and v, respectively. two statements are joined like P and 0, denoted by ‘then PO is a statement that i true if and only Pand Q are true. Another logieal connective isthe or". The statement Pv is true if and only if Pis (Qs true, whichis taken fo include the case when Tanguage statements Tike prella” je an implication.“ rains! is P or the Matnemotesin the Mode We =|=]3|~ =|=|-|4 ‘A. more complicated form of implication is the ‘bi Implication or the bleondltional denoted by the symbol <>. The statement PQ is trae ifand only if both P and Q are either both true of both false. The sentence P20 is equivalent 0 the statment P2Q=(P20)A(05?) Construct the truth table for the logical operator <> ‘and chek that indeed it is equivalent to (P= 0) (=). ‘Abiconditional is often siated as, Pitand only Pie necessary apd sulficient for Q ‘Example 3: Write the following in symbolic form using ?, ‘and for statements and the symbole —.\4=, => where 'F Pres, Duterte is a good president. @ Government oficials are corrupt. 1: People ae happy. a. If Pres. Duterte is a good president, then government officals are not corrupt ‘bs I poverdiment ocala are ot coup, then the! people are happy. If Pres. Duterws ls a good president and people are ‘happy, then government officials are not corrupt. Ifnot Pthen not @ Ir Qthen P. Irnot @ then not P determine whether the conditional statement ie true ‘we come up with the following truth table. Referring truth table of the implication statement P= Q below, reate the truth table for the inverse, converse, and matomatesin the Mac Wart Mathematica Longzage ond Symi freee pic P: A function has an inverse. Fee See] a Sc Be eciead nt oP = (QAR) The statement can also be written [P20R)s|(0AR)=P] ‘Example 4: Glve the converse, inveree, and contrapsitive ‘of tie following implications: If this movie ie intresting, then 1am watching i . pie. prime number, then it is odd. Anrwers: 1. The untvereal quantifier is usually written in the 4 English language as forall" or “Tor every” It is 4 ovr: la mai ot resting. then am HE ee 2. The existential quantifier is expressed in words ‘Converse: If 1 am watching this movie, then it is " ome tan a Ce ee, noted by 3. CContrapositve: Iam not watching this movi, then it ‘snot interesting 1 Inverse: fp is nota prime number, then # i not odd. Converse: I pis an odd mamber, then It spre CContrapositive: I pia not odd, then itis not & pie mbar tiflers are used ta deseribe the variable in a (Quan = Ten one quantity is imohed in statement, it ft nannies more than ome. Guanine ee Statement. Special care must be taken in the order me exe quant sr. Order does not ee rage Seer Eee BET Ge cae quent: (nas, Bacacane, the statement below and‘label them #, Q, and R. Then express : ‘symbolically the statement using. the logical operators ‘avy. Pty) fs the same as ¥y.We.Flcuh NN OF iy, for the quantifed sentence 3 3y,P(e,y) in Statement function Fhas an inverse if and only if fis nt to 3y.3x,Plxu) For mixed quantifers, order is foneo-one and onto. important. The statement ¥3,39,P(6y) never equivalent tothe sentence 3y,¥x, PCs Moremates nthe Maem Woes ‘Example 6: Write as an English sentence and determine ifit fs tue or fale. 2 Ween ay eR xey=10 b, Wrezayemy? =x Anrwers: 1 For every real number x, there existe a real number y ‘such thatthe sum of cand y is equal 010. TRUE ». For every postive integer x there exists real number y ‘such that the square of ye equal to TRUE 2. 2,3) &f fie a finction 8. xe or xc3 is equivalent to 4

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