Figure 1.1 This image might be showing any number of things. might be a whirlpool ina tank of water or perhaps a collage ‘of paint and shiny beads done for at class. Without knowing the size of the object in units se all recognize, such as meters or inches, itis difficult to know what we're looking at, In fac, tis image shows the Whirlpool Galaxy (and is companion galaxy), ‘which is about 60,000 light-years in diameter (about 6X 10'Tkm across). (credit: modification of work by S. Beckwith (STScl) Hubble Heritage Team, (STScl/AURA), ESA, NASA) ‘The Scope and Scale of Physics Units and Standards Unit Conversion Dimensional Analysis Estimates and Fermi Calculations Significant Figures Solving Problems in Physics As noted in che figure caption, the chapter-opening image is of che Whirlpool Galaxy, which we examine inthe first section of this chapter. Galaxies are as immense as atoms are small, yet the same laws of physics describe both, along with all the rest of nature—an indication ofthe underlying unity in the universe. The laws of physics are surprisingly few, implying an underlying simplicity to nature's apparent complexity. In this text, you learn about the laws of physics. Galaxies and atoms ‘may seem far removed from your daily life, but as you begin to explore this broad-ranging subject, you may soon come toe (Chaper | Unds an Messuerent realize that physics plays a much larger role in your life than you first thought, no matter your life goals or career choice. 1.1 | The Scope and Scale of Physics er kcece By the end ofthis section, you will be able to: + Describe the scope of physics, *+ Calculate the order of magnitude of a quantity. * Compare measurable length, mass, and timescales quantitatively + Describe the relationships among models, theories, and laws, Physics is devoted to the understanding ofall natural phenomena, In physics, we wy to understand physical phenomena at all, scales—from the world of subatomic particles to the entire universe. Despite the breadth ofthe subject, the various subfields ‘of physics share @ common core, The same basic traning in physics will prepare you to workin any area of physics and the related areas of science and engineering. In this section, we investigate the scope of physics; the scales of length, mass, and time over which the laws of physics have been shown to be applicable; and the process by which science in general, and physics in particular, operates. The Scope of Physics ‘Take another look at the chapter-opening image. The Whirlpool Galaxy contains billions of individual stars as well as huge clouds of gas and dust. Its companion galaxy is also visible to the right. This pair of galaxies lies a staggering billion trillion miles (1.4 x 104 mi) from our own galaxy (wihich is called the Milky Way). The stars and planets that make up the Whirlpool Galaxy might seem to be the furthest thing from most people’s everyday lives, but the Whirlpool is a great starting point to think about the forces that hold the universe together, The forces that cause the Whirlpool Galaxy to act as itdoes are thought to be the same forces we contend with here on Eart, whether we are planning to send a racket inco space ‘or simply planning to raise the walls for a new home. The gravity that causes the tars ofthe Whirlpool Galaxy to rotate and revolve is thought to be the same as what causes water to flow over hydroelectric dams here on Earth, When you look up atthe stars, realize the forces out there are the same as the ones here on Farth. Through a study of physics, you may gain a ‘greater understanding of the interconnectedness of everything we can see and know in this universe “Think, now, abou all she technological devices you use on a regular basis. Computers, smartphones, global positioning systems (GPSs), MP3 players, and satelite radio might come to mind. Then, think about the most exciting modem technologies you have heard about inthe news, suchas tains tat levitate above tacks, “invisibility cloaks" that bend light around them, and microscopic robots that fight cancer cells in our bodies. All hese gcoundbreaking advances, commonplace ‘or unbelievable, rely on the principles of physic. Aside from playing a significant eoe in technology, professionals such as engineers, pilots, physicians, physical therapists, electricians, and compute programmers apply physics concep in their ally work. For example, a pilot must understand how wind forces afecta light path; a physical therapist must understand hhow the muscles in the body experience forces as they move and bend. As you will learn in this tex, the principles of physics are propelling new, exiting technologie, and these principles are applied in a wide range of careers ‘The underlying order of nature makes science in general, and physics in particular, interesting and enjoyable to study. For ‘example, what do a bag of chips and a car battery have in common? Both contain energy that can be converted to other forms. The law of conservation of energy (which says that energy can change form but is never lost) tes together such topics as food calories, batteries, heat, light, and watch springs. Understanding this law makes it easier to learn about the various forms energy takes and how they relate to one another. Apparently unrelated topics are connected through broadly applicable physical laws, permitting an understanding beyond just the memorization of lists of fact. Science consists of theories and laws that are the general suths of nature, as well asthe body of knowledge they encompass. Scientists are continuously tying to expand this body of knowledge and to perfect the expression of the laws that describe it Physics, which comes from the Greek phisis, meaning “nature,” is concemed with describing the interactions of ‘energy, matter, space, an time to uncover the fundamental mechanisms that underlie every phenomenon. ‘is cancer for ‘describing the basic phenomena in nature essentially defines the scope of physics Physics aims to understand the world around us at the most basic level. It emphasizes the use of 2 small number of ‘quantitative laws todo this, which canbe useful to othe fields pushing the pecformance boundaries of existing technologies. Consider a smartphone (Figure 1.2). Physics describes how electricity interacts wit te various circuits inside the device. ‘his knowledge helps engineers select the appropriate materials and circuit layout when building a smartphone. Knowledge “This Opansiax book avellable fortes at hp Jena orleonenveol2094.10‘Chapter 2 [Unis and Measurement ° ‘of the physics underlying these devices is required to shrink their size or increase their processing speed. Or, think about a GPS. Physics describes the relationship between the speed of an object, the distance over which it travels, and the tim takes to travel chat distance. When you use a GPS in a vehicle it relies on physics equations to determine the travel time fom one location to another. Figure 1.2 The Apple iPhone is a common smarsphone with GPS function, Physics describes the way tat electricity flows ‘through the circuits ofthis device. Engineers use their knowledge of physics to construct an iPhone with features that ‘consumers will enjoy. One specific feature of an iPhone isthe GPS function. A GPS uses physics equations to determine the drive time between to locations on a map. (crit: Jane Whitney) Knowledge of physics is useful in everyday situations as well as in nonscientific professions, It can help you understand how microwave ovens work, why metals should not be put into them, and why they might affect pacemakers. Physics allows ‘you to understand the hazards of radiation and to evaluate these hazards rationally and more easily. Physics also explains the reason why a black car radiator helps remove beatin a car engine, and it explains why a white roof helps keep the inside of house cool, Similarly, the operation of a car's ignition system as well as the wansmission of electical signals throughout ‘our body's nervous system are much easier to understand when you think about them in terms of basic physics Physics is @ key element of many important disciplines and contributes directly to others. Chemistry, for example—since it deals withthe interactions of atoms and molecules—has close ties to atomic and molecular physics. Most branches of ‘engineering are concerned with designing new technologies, pracesses, or structures within the constraints set by the laws ‘of piysies In architecture, physics sat the heart of structural stability and is involved in the acoustics, heating, lighting, and cooling of buildings. Parts of geology rely heavily on physics, such as radioactive dating of racks, earthquake analysis, and heat transfer within Earth. Some disciplines, such as biophysics and geophysics, are hybrids of physics and other disciplines. Physics has many applications in che biological sciences. On the microscopic level, it helps describe the propetes of cells and thelr environments. On the macroscopic level it explains the heat, work, and power associated withthe human body and its various organ systems. Physics i involved in medical diagnostics, suchas radiographs, magnetic resonance imaging, and wlrasonic blood flow messurements. Medical therapy sometimes involves physics direc for example cancer racotherapy uses ionizing radaton. Physic also explains sensory phenomena, suc as how musical instruments rake sound, hw the eye detects color, and how lasers ransmit information Ie isnot necessary to study al applications of physics formally. What is most useful is knowing the basic laws of physics and developing skills in the analytical methods for applying them, The study of physics also can improve your problem- solving skills. Furthermore, physics retains the most basi aspects of science, so itis used by all the sciences, and the stucy ‘of physies makes other sciences easier to understand.Fy (Chapa | unas an Messuerent The Scale of Physics From the discussion so far, it should be clear that to accomplish your goals in any of the various fields within the natural sciences and engineering, a thorough grounding in the laws of physics is necessary. The reason for ths is simply that the laws of physics govern everything in the observable universe at all measurable scales of length, mass, and time. Now, that is easy enough to say, but to come to grips with what it really means, we need to get a litle bit quantitaive, So, before surveying the various scales that physics allows us to explore, let's first look atthe concept of “order of magnitude,” which ‘we use co come to terms with the vast ranges of length, mass, and time that we consider in this text (Figure 1.3). @ 3) © Figure 1.3 (a) Using a scanning tunneling microscope, sclentiss can see the individual atoms (diameters around 10"! m) that ‘compose this sheet of gold. (b) Tiny phytoplankton swim among crysals of ice inthe Antarctic Sea. They range from a few ‘micrometers (1 is 10 m) to as much as 2 man (L mm is 10" m) in length (c) These two colliding galaxies, known as NGC A4G7BA (right) and NGC: 46768 (lef), are nicknamed "The Mice” because ofthe tail of ges emanating from each one. They are located 300 million lighcyears from Earth in the constellation Coma Berenices. Eventually, these two galaxies will merge into ‘one. (ret a: modification of work by "Eewinrossen"/ Wikimedia Commons; credit b: modification of work by Prof. Gordon T. Taylor, Stony Brook University; NOAA Corps Collections; credit: modification of work by NASA, H. Ford (HU), lingworth (UCSGILO), M. Clampin (STScl), G. Hartig (STScI), the ACS Science Team, and ESA) Order of magnitude The order of magnitude of a rumber is the power of 10 that most closely approximates it, Thus, the order of magnitude refers to the scale (or size) of a value. Each power of 10 represents a different order of mageitude. For example, 108, 10%, 10%, and so forth, are all ifferent orders of maynitude, as are 10° = 1, 10~!, 1072, and 10~*. To find the order of magnitude of a number, ake the base-10 logarithm of the number and round it tothe nearest integer, then the order ‘of magnitude of the number i simply the resulting power of 10. For example, the order of magnitude of 800 is 10° because 10g 9800 = 2.903, which rounds to 3. Similarly, the order of magnitude of 450 is 10" because Tog p50 = 2.653, ‘which rounds to 3 as well. Thus, we say the numbers 800 and 450 are of the same order of magnitude: 10°, However, the ‘order of magnitude of 250 is 10 because 1ogy,250 = 2.397, which rounds to 2 An equivalent but quicker way to find the order of magnitude of a number is first to waite It in scientific notation and then ‘check to see whether the first factor is greater than or ess than TO = 105 = 3. The idea is that YTO-= 109 is halfway between 1 = 10° and 10= 10! on a log base-10 scale, Thus, ifthe frst factor i less than VT, then we round it down to 1 and the order of magnitude is simply whatever power of 10 is required to write the number in scientific notation. On the other hand ifthe fist factor is greater than VT0, then we round it up to 10 and the order af magnitude i one power of 10 higher than the power needed to write the number in scientific notation. For example, the number 800 can be writen in scietiie notation as 8x 102, Because Bisbigger than VTO = 3, we say the order of magnitude of 800s 102* = 102, ‘The number 450 can be wnitten as 4.5 102, so ts order of magnitude is also 10? because 4.5 is greater than 3. However, 250 writen in scietific notation is 2.$ x 10? and 2.5 is less than 3, so its order of magnitude is 10” Te order of magnitude of a number is designe to be a ballpark estimate forthe scale (o size) of is value. I is simply a way of rounding numbers consistently tothe nearest power of 10, This makes doing rough mental math with very big and very small numbers easier. For example, the diameter ofa hydrogen atom ison the order of 10° m, whereas the diameter ‘of the Sun ison the order of 10° m, so it would take roughly 102/10! = 101° yérogen axoms to stretch across the‘Chapter 2 [Units and Measurement a diameter of the Sun, This is much easier to do in your head than using the more precise values of 1.06 10~"°m for a hydrogen atom diameter and 1.39% 10m for the Sun's diameter, to find that it would take 1.31 x 10" hydcogen atoms tostretch across the Sun’s diameter. In addition to being easier, the rough estimate i also nearly as informative asthe precise calculation Known ranges of length, mass, and time ‘The vasiness of the universe and the breadth over which physies applies are illustrated by the wide range of examples of known lengths, masses, and times (given a5 orders of magnitude) in Figure 1.4, Examining this table will give you a feeling for the range of possible topics in physics and numerical values, A good way to appreciate the vastness of the ranges ‘of values in Figure 1.4 is to uy to answer some simple comparative questions, such asthe following: + How many hydrogen atoms does it take to stretch aeross the diameter ofthe Sun? (Answer: 108 m/10- m= 10" hydrogen stoms) + How many proton are there in a bacterium? (Answer: 107 kg/10™® kg = 10" protons) + How many floating-point operations can a supercomputer din 1 day? (Answer: 105 S10" s= 10° floating-point operations) In studying Figure 4.4, tke some time to come up with similar question that interest you and then try answering them. ‘Doing this can breathe some life into almost any table of numbers2 (Chapa | unas an Messuerent Length in Meters (m) Masses in Kilograms (kg) Time in Seconds (s) som = dameterof proton (0° = maseofelecvon | 108 Meantime of very 1077 time for single floating-point 18m = 127 kg = 10° m = diameter of large nucleus 10-2” kg = mass of proton Ft siete 105 5 = time for one oscilaton of Visible light 10 s = time for one vibration of an ‘ator in a solic 10-5 = duration of a nerve impulse 10-1? m = diameter of hydrogen atom) 10-15 kg = mass of bacterium 10-7 m= diameter of typical vius 10-5 kg = mass of mosquito 10-2 m = pinky fingernail wicth 20°? kg = mass of hummingbird 10° m = height of 4 10° kg = mass of 10° 5 = time for 4 year ota emia inter ot water fone neantbeat R Pp x Qs 102 m = length offootbal field mass of person 105s = one day 107 m = diameter af Earth 1019 kg = mass of atmosphere 10" 5 = one year s = human lifetim: 10! m = diameter of solar system 10? kg = mass of Moon 208s = human Ketime {10 m = distance light travels 10% s = recorded human history Kg - in a year (one light-year) lied ~ mas of Earth 10°” s = age of Earth 110% m = Milky Way diameter 110° kg = mass of Sun 10% m = distance to edge of 10°? kg = upper limit on mass of | 1028 s = age of the universe observable universe known universe Figure i.4 This able shows the orders of magnitude of engih, mass, and time Visit this site (https:flopenstaxcollege.orgil/21scaleuniv) to explore interactively the vast range of length scales in our universe. Scroll down and up the scale to view hundreds of organisms and objects, and click on the individval objects to learn more about each one. Building Models How did we come to know the laws governing natural phenomena? What we refer to as the laws of nature are concise ‘descriptions of the universe around us. They are human statements of the underlying laws or rules that all natural processes follow. Such laws are intrinsic to the universe; humans did not create them and cannot change them. We can only discover and understand them. Their discovery is ¢ very human endeavor, with all the elements of mystery, imagination, struggle, ‘wiumah, and disappointment inherent in any creative effor: (Figure 1.5). The cornerstone of discovering natural laws is “observation; Scientists must describe the universe as itis, not as we imagine ito be. “This Openstax book avllable fortes at penx oriental(@) Enrico Fermi (0) Marie Curie Figure 1.5 (a) Enrico Fermi (1901-1954) was born in aly. On accepting the Nobel Prize in Stockholm in 1938 fr his work on atfcial radioactivity produced by neutrons, he took his family to America rather than turn home to the government in power atthe time. He became an [American citizen and was a leading participant in the Manhattan Project. (b) Marie Curie (1867-1934) sacrificed monetary assets to help finance her early research and damaged her physical well-being with radiation exposure. She isthe only person to win Nobel prizes in both physics and chemisty. One of her daughters also won a Nobel Prize. (credit a: modification of, ‘work by United States Department of Energy) ‘A model is a representation of something that is often too difficult (or impossible) to display directy. Although @ model 1s justified by experimental tests, it is only accurate in describing certain aspects of a physical system. An example is the [Bohr model of single-electron atoms, in which the electon is pictured as orbiting the nucleus, analogous tothe way planets orbit the Sun (Figure 1.6). We cannot observe electron orbits directly, but the mental image helps explain some of the ‘observations we can make, such as the emission of light from hot gases (atomic spectra). However, other observations show that the picture in the Bobr model Is not really what atoms look like. The model is “wrong,” but is still useful for some purposes, Physicists use models for a variety of purposes. For example, models can help physicists analyze a scenario and perform a calculation or models can be used to represent a situation in the form of a computer simulation. Ultimately, however, the results of chese calculations and simulations need to be double-checked by other means—namely, observation and experimentation, Figure 1.6 What is a model? The Bobr model ofa single- electcon atom shows the electron orbiting the nucleus in one of several possible circular orbits. Like all madel, i captures some, but not al, aspects ofthe physical system.“ (Chaper | Unds an Messuerent ‘The word theory means something different to scientists than what is often meant when the word is used in everyday conversation. Tn panicular,w a scientist a dheory isnot the same as a “guess” or an “idea” or even a “bypeahesis.” The phrase “ts justa theory” seems meaningless and sily to scientists because science is founded onthe notion of theories. To scientist, a theory isa testable explanation for partems in nature supported by scientific evidence and verified multiple times by various groups of researches. Some theories include models to help visualize phenomena whereas otters do not. Newton's theory of gravity, for example, does not require & model or mental image, because we can observe the objects cirecily with our own senses. The kinetic theory of gases, onthe other hand, is a model in which a gas is viewed as being composed of atoms and molecules. Atoms and molecules are too small to be observed directly with our senses—thus, we picture them mentally to understand what the instruments tell us about the bebavior of gases. Although models are meant “only to describe certain aspects ofa physical system accurately, a theory should describe all aspects of any system thet falls ‘within its domain of applicability. In panicle any experimentally testable implication of a theory shouldbe verified, If an ‘experiment ever shows an implication of a theory tobe als, then the theory is ether thrown out or modified suitably (for ‘example, by limiting ts domain of applicability). [Alaw uses concise language to describe a generalized pattem in nature supported by scientific evidence and repeated experiments, Often, a law can be expressed in the form of a single mathematical equation. Laws and theories ae similar in that they are both scientific statements that result from a tested hypothesis and are supported by scien evidence. However, the designation law is usualy reserved fora concise and very general statement that describes phenomena in nature, sch asthe aw that energy is conserved during any process, or Newron’s second law of motion, which relstes force (8), mass (m), and acceleration (a) by the simple equation F = ma, A theory in conta, is a less concise statement of ‘observed behavior For example, the theory of evolution andthe theory of relativity cannot be expressed concisely enough to be considered laws. ‘The biggest difference between a law and a theory is thata theory is much more camplex and éynamic: ‘A law describes a single action whereas a theory explains an entire group of related phenomena. Less broadly applicable statements are usually called principles (such as Pascal’s principle, which is applicable only in fluids), but the distinction between laws and principles often snot made carefully. ‘The models, theories, and laws we devise sometimes imply the existence of objects or phenomena that are as yet ‘unobserved. These predictions are remarkable tumphs and wibutes to the power of science. It isthe underlying order in the universe chat enables scientists to make such spectacular predictions. However, if experimentation does not verily our predictions, then the theory or law is wrong, no matter how elegant or convenient itis. Laws can never be known with absolute certainty because itis impossible to perform every imaginable experiment to confirm a law for every possible scenario. Physicists operate under the assumption that all scientific laws and theories are valid until a counterexample is “observed. If good-quality, verifiable experiment contradicts a well-established law or theory, then the law or theory must ‘be modified or overthrown completely. ‘The study of science in general, and physics in particular, is an adventure much like the exploration of an uncharced ocean, Discoveries are mage; models, theories, and laws are formulated; and the beauty of the physical universe is made more sublime for the insights gained, 1.2 | Units and Standards em kcencs By the end of this section, you will be able to: + Describe how SI base units are defined. + Describe how derived units are created from base units, + _ Express quantities given in St units using metric prefixes. As we saw previously, the range of objects and phenomena studied in physics is immense. From the incredibly shor lifetime ‘of a nucleus tothe age of Earth, from the tiny sizes of subnuclear particles to che vast distance to the edges of the known, ‘universe, from the force exerted by a jumping flea to the force between Earth and the Sun, there are enough factors of 10, to challenge the imagination of even the most experienced sciemist. Giving numerical values for physical quantities and ‘equations for physical principles allows us to understand nature much more deeply than qualitaive descriptions alone. To ‘comprehend these vest ranges, we must also have accepted units in which to express them, We shall find that even in the potentially mundane discussion of meter, kilograms, and seconds, a profound simplicity of nature appears: all physical ‘quantities can be expressed as combinations of only seven base physical quantities. “This Opensiax books avllable fortes at penx element‘Chapter 2 [Uns and Measurement 3s ‘We define a physical quantity either by specifying how it is measured or by stating how it is calculated from other ‘measurements, For example, we might define distance and time by specifying methods for measuring them, such as using, ‘a meter stick ané a stopwatch. Then, we could define average speed by stating that i is calculated as the total distance waveled divided by time of wave “Measurements of physical quantities are expressed in terms of units, which ae standardized values. For example, the length ‘of arace, which sa physical quantity, can be expressed in units of meters (for sprinters) or kilometers (for distance runners) ‘Without standaréized units, i would be extremely difficult for scientists to express and compare measured values in a ‘meaningful way (Figure 1.7), Figure 1.7 Distances given in unknown units are maddeningly useless, ‘Two major systems of units are used in the world: SI units (for the French Systéme International d'Unités), alsa known as the metric system, and English units (also known as the customary or imperial system). English units were historically ‘used in nations once ruled by the British Empire and are still widely used in the Uniteé States. English units may also be referred to asthe foot-pound-second (fps) system, as opposed tothe centimeter-gram-second (cgs) system. You may also ‘encounter the term SAF units, named after the Society of Automotive Engineers. Products such as fasteners andl automotive tools (for example, wrenches) that are measured in inches rather than metric units are referred to as SAE fasteners or SAE wrenches. Virtually every other country in the world (except the United States) now uses ST units as the standard. The metric system is also the standard system agreed on by scientists and mathematicians SI Units: Base and Derived Units {In any system of units, the units for some physical quantities must be defined through a measurement process. These are called the base quantities for that system and their units are the system's base units, All other physical quantities can then be expressed as algebraic combinations of the base quantities. Faci of these physical quantities is then known as a derived quantity and each unitis called a derived unit. The choice of base quantities is somewiat arbitrary, as long as they are independent af each other and all other quantities can be derived from them. Typically, the goal is to choose physical ‘quantities that can be measured accurately to a high precision as the base quantities. The reason for this is simple. Since the derived units can be expressed as algebraic combinations ofthe base units, they can only be as accurate and precise as the ‘base units from which they are derived. Based on such considerations, the Intemational Standards Organization recommends using seven base quantities, which form the International System of Quantities (ISQ). These are the base quantities used to define the SI base units. Table 1.4 lists these seven ISQ base quantities and the corresponding SI base unit. 1SQ Base Quantity SI Base Unit Length ‘meter (m) Mass kilogram (ka) Time second (s) Table 1.1 1SQ Base Quantities and Their SI Units16 (Chaper | Unds an Messuerent 1SQ Base Quantity SI Base Unit Electrical current ampere (A) ‘Thermodynamic temperature kelvin (K) ‘Amount of substance ‘mole (mot) Luminous intensity candela (ca) Table 1.1 1SQ Base Quantities and Their SI Units You are probably alreacy familiar with some derived quantities that can be formed from the base quantities in Table 4.1. For example, the geometric conceot of area is always calculated as the product of two lengths. Thus, area is a derived ‘quantity that canbe expressed in tems of SI base units using square meters (m X m= m?). Similarly, volume is a derived ‘quantity that can be expressed in cubic meters (m'). Speed is length per time; so in terms of SI base units, we could ‘measure it in meters per second (mis) Volume mass density (or just density) is mass per volume, which is expressed in terms of SI base units such as kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m). Angles can also be thought of as derived quantities ‘because they can be defined asthe ratio ofthe ae length subtended by two radi ofa circle tothe radius ofthe circle. This is how the radian is defined, Depending on your background and interests, you may be able to come vp with other derived ‘quantities, such as the mass flow race (Kgs) oF volume flow rate (5) of a i electric charge (As), mass ux density (kg/(m*-s)}, and so on. We will see many more examples throughout this text. For now, the point is that every physical ‘quantity can be derived from the seven base quantities in Table 1.2, and the units of every physical quantity can be derived from the seven SI base units. or the most part, we use SI units in this text. Non-SI units are used in a few applications in which they are in very common use, such as the measurement of temperature in degrees Celsius (°C), the measurement of fluid volume i liters (L), and the measurement of energies of elementary particles in electron-volts (eV). Whenever non-SI units are discussed, they are tied to SI units through conversions. For example, 1 Lis 10° m4 CCheck ou & comprehensive source of information on SI units (https:llopenstaxcollege.orgll21SiUnits) at the National Instat of Standards and Technology (NIST) Reference on Constants, Unis, and Uncertain. Units of Time, Length, and Mass: The Second, Meter, and Kilogram ‘The intial chapters in dis textbook are concerned with mechanics, fluids, and waves. In these subjects all pertinent physical ‘quantities can be expressed in terms of the base units of length, mass, and time, Therefore, we now turn toa discussion of these three base units, leaving discussion ofthe others untl they are needed later. ‘The second ‘The SI unit for time, the second (abbreviated s), has a long history. For many years it was defined as 1/86,400 of a mean solar day. More recently, a new standard was adopted to gain greater accuracy and to define the second in terms of a ‘nonvarying or constant physical phenomenon (because the solar day is geting longer asa result of the very gradual slowing ‘of Barth's rotation). Cesium atoms can be made to vibrate ina very steady way, and these vibrations can be readily observed and counted. In 1967, the second was redefined asthe time required for 9,192,631,770 of these vibrations to occur (Figure 1.8). Note that this may seem like more precision than you would ever need, but it isn't—GPSs rely on the precision of atomic clocks to be able to give you turn-by-turn directions on the surface of Earth, far from the satellites broadcasting their Tocation‘Chapter 2 |Unts and Measurement a Figure 1.8 Anatomic clock such as this one uses the Vibrations of cesium atoms to keep time toa precision of better than a microsecond per yea. The fundamental uni of ime, the second, s based such clocks, This image looks down from the top ofan atomic fountain nearly 30 feet al. (ret: Steve Jurvetson) The meter "The SI unit for length is the meter (abbreviated m); its definition has also changed over time co become more precise. The ‘meter was fist defined in 1781 as 1/10,000,000 of the distance from the equator to the North Pole. This measurement was improved in 1889 by redefining the meter to be the distance between two engraved lines on a platinum-iridium bar now kept near Paris. By 1960, it had become possible to define the meter even more accurately in terms of the wavelength of light, soit was again redefined as 1,$50,763.73 wavelengths of orange light emitted by krypton atoms. In 1983, the meter ‘was given its current definition (in part for greater accuracy) asthe distance light aves in a vacuum in 1/299,792,458 of a second (Figure 1.9). This change came after knowing the speed of light to be exactly 299,792,458 ms. The length of the ‘meter will change ifthe speed of light is someday measured with greater accuracy. SS ES Light travels a distance of 1 meter in 1/299,792,458 seconds Figure 1.9 The meteris defined tobe the distance light travels in 1/299,792,458 of a second in a vacuum, Distance ‘raveled is speed multiplied by ime, The kilogram ‘The SI unit for mass is the kilogram (abbreviated kg); it is defined to be the mass of a platinum-iridium cylinder kept with the old meter standard at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures near Pars. Exact replicas of the standard kilogram are also kept atthe U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), located in Gaithersburg, ‘Maryland, outside of Washington, DC, ane at other locations around the world Scientists at NIST are currenly investigating, ‘two complementary methods of redefining the kilogram (see Figure 1.10), The determination of all other masses can be ‘raced ultimately to a comparison with the standard mass, “There is currently an effort to redefine the ST unit of mass in terms of more fundamental processes by 2018. You can explore the history of mass standards and the contenders in the quest 10 devise a new one at the website (https:iwww.nist.govipmilproductsservicesiredefining-kilogram) of the Physical Measurement Laboratory.ry (Chapa | unas an Messuerent @ (0) Figure 1.10 Redefining the SI unit of mass. Complementary methods are being investigated for use in an upcoming ‘redefinition ofthe unit of mass. (2) The US. National Institute of Standards and Technology's watt balance is a machine that Dalances the weight of atest mass against che current and voltage (he “watt” produced by a strong system of magnets. (b) The International Avogadro Project is working to redefine the kilogram based on the dimensions, mass, and other known properties of aslicon sphere. (credit a and credit b: modification of work by National Insitute of Standards and Technology) Metric Prefixes SL units are part of the metric system, which is convenient for scientific end engineering calculations because the units are ‘categorized by factors of 10. Table 1.2 lists the metric prefixes and symbols used to denote various factors of 10 in SI units. For example, a centimeter is one-hundredth of a meter (in symbols, 1cm = 10"%m) and a kilometer is a thousand meters (1 km = 10° m), Similarly, a megagram is a million grams (1 Mg = 10° g), a nanosecond is a billionth of a second (1 ns = 10? s),and a terameter isa wilion meters (1'Tm = 10"? m). Prefix Symbol Meaning Prefix Symbol _ Meaning you rr you. y 10 rete Z 10% zepto- 2 10 exa- e 10% atto- a 108 peas oP 20 femo- 10 tera- T 1012 pico- Pp 10 oi G 10° nano- on 10? mega- M 108 micro- Hw 1 kiosk 10? mili. om 10° ecto —h a cente 10? deka. da 100 gece d ot Table 1.2 Metric Prefixes for Powers of 10 and Their Symbols. ‘The only rule when using metric prefixes is that you cannot “double them up.” For example, if you have measurements in petameters (1 Pm = 10" m), it is not proper to talk about megagigameters, although 10° x 10° = 10", In practice, the‘Chapter 2 [Unis and Measurement Py only time this becomes abit confusing is when discussing masses. As we have seen, the base SI unit of mass isthe kilogram (kg), but metric prefixes need to be applied to the gram (_), because we are not allowed to “dovble-up” prefixes. Thus, a ‘thousand kilograms (10° kg) is written as a megagram (1 Mg) since 10° kg = 10° x 10° g = 10° = 1 Mg. Incidentally, 107 kg is also called a metric con, abbreviated t This is one of the units outside the SI system considered acceptable for use with SI units As we see inthe next section, metric systems have the advantage that conversions of units involve only powers of 10. There {are 100 cm in 1 m, 1000 m in 1 km, and so on. In nonmetric systems, such as the English system of units, the relationships are not as simple—ihere are 12 in, in 1 ft, 5280 ft in 1 mi, and so on. ‘Another advantage of mewic systems is that che same unit can be used over extremely large ranges of values simply by scaling it with an appropriate mewic prefix. The prefix is chosen by the order of magnitude of physical quantities commonly found inthe task at hand. For example, distances in meters are suitable in construction, whereas distances in kilometers are approprite fr ar travel, and nanometers are convenient in optical design. With the metric system there is no need to invent ‘new units for particular applications, Instead, we rescale the units with which we are already familiar. Using Metric Prefixes Restate the mass 1.93 x 10! kg using a metic prefix such thatthe resulting numecical value is bigger than one Dt less than 1000. Strategy Since we are not allowed to “double-up” prefixes, we first need to restate the mass in grams by replacing the prefix symbol k with a factor of 103 (ee Table 1.2). Then, we should see which two prefixes in Table 1.2 are closest tothe resulting power of 10 when the number is written in scientific notation. We use whichever af these two prefixes gives us a number between one and 1000, Solution Replacing the k in kilogram with a factor of 10°, we find that 1.93 x 10!"kg = 1.93 x 10) x 103g = 1.93 x 10! From Table 1.2, we see that 10's between “peta (10!) and “exa-” (10). If we use the “peta” prefix, then we find that 1.93 x 10! g = 1.93 10'Pg, since 16 = 1+ 15. Alternatively, if we use the “exa-” prefix we find that 1.93 x 10" g = 1.93 x 107?Eg, since 16 = —2 +18. Because the problem asks for the numerical ‘value between one and 1000, we use the “peta” prefix and the answer is 19.3 Pg Significance I is easy to make silly arithmetic errors when switching from one prefix to another, so itis always a good idea to check that our final answer matches the number we sarted with. An easy way to do this is to put both numbers in scientific notation and count powers of 10, including the anes hidden in prefixes. If we did not make a mistake, the powers of 10 should match up. In this problem, we started with 1.93 x 10)kg, so we have 13 + 3 = 16 powers of 10. Our final answer in scientific notation is 1.93 x 10! Pg, so we have 1+ 15= 16 powers of 10. So, everything checks out If chis mass arose from 2 calculation, we would also want to check to determine whether a mass this lange makes ny sense in the context ofthe problem. For this, Figure 1.4 might be helpful. 141 Check Your Understanding Restate 4.79 x 10° kg using a metric prefix such that the resulting number Js bigger than one but less than 1000.