A quacultural Engineering 13 (1994) 283-300

© t 994 Elsevier Science Limited

Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved
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ELSEVIER

Gracilaria chilensis Outdoor Tank Cultivation in Chile:

Use of Land-based Salmon Culture Effluents

Alejandro H. Buschmann, Oscar A. Mora, Patricio G6mez,

Manfred B6ttger, Soledad Buitano, Claudia Retamales,
Pedro A. Vergara & Alfonso Gutierrez
lnstituto Profesionalde Osorno,Departamentode Acuicultura,Casilla933,
Osorno, Chile

ABSTRACT

This study describes an integrated culture system developed for Gracilaria

chilensis Bird, McLachlan & Oliveira cultivation using salmon tank
effluents', and tests the effects of algal stocking density, seawater replace-
ment rates" and CO~ addition on biomass and agar production. Effluents
produced by intensive tank cultivation of salmon were an effective source
of seawater for the on-shore tank cultivation of Gracilaria in southern
Chile, giving production values of 48"9 kg(weO/m2 per year; biomass
yields" were seasonal and agar yields were lower when fish effluent as
opposed to pure seawater was used. During the seasons of high growth,
the agar content of Gracilaria was lower in the tanks" receiving fish
effluents'. However, the Gracilaria biomass production was sufficiently
high to compensate for the lower agar content increasing agar production
from 0.8 to 1"2 kg/m-' by using fish effluents during an l l-month period.
These results were obtained without an extra supply of nutrients or CO_,,
with an algal stocking density of 3 kg/m-', and with 10 seawater replace-
ments per day.

INTRODUCTION

On-shore tank cultivation of Gracilaria has been realized in Florida (e.g.

Hanisak, 1987), Israel (Friedlander et al., 1990) and Chile (Edding et al.,
1987; Ugarte & Santelices, 1992). However, the technologies used have
not generally been implemented on a commercial scale. At present such
systems do not produce a sufficient income to make them economically
viable on a large scale (Huguenin, 1976). The high investment costs,
incurred by the need to pump the seawater, add CO2, nutrients and air to
the culture system, are responsible to some extent for this situation.
Salmon cultivation is the most important aquaculture activity in Chile
283
284 Ale]andro H. Buschmann et al.

(Boeuf et al., 1992). Gracilaria cultivation has also proved to be an

important economic and social resource (Santelices & Doty, 1989). The
discharge of nutrients produced by fish farming is a problem of consider-
able concern in Chile (L6pez & Buschmann, 1991) as in other parts of
the world (Gowen & Bradbury, 1987; Folke & Kautsky, 1989; Ackerfors
& EneU, 1990). This is one reason for the development of land-based
salmon cultivation technologies in which it is technically feasible to treat
the effluent waters (Seymour & Bergheim, 1991). The use of seaweeds
for recycling effluent seawater has been proposed, as seaweeds have an
efficient capacity to remove dissolved ammonium (Ryther et al., 1975;
Lapointe & Ryther, 1978; Harlin et al., 1979; Fralick, 1981; Vander-
meulen & Gordin, 1990; Cohen & Neori, 1991; Neori et al., 1991).
However, care must be taken with continuous nutrient addition which
results in a reduction in the growth of Gracilaria due to enhanced growth
of epiphytism (Santelices & Doty, 1989). The use of land-based,
integrated systems could thus increase the income-producing prospects
of Gracilaria cultivation in on-shore tanks, given that the pumping cost
would not be covered exclusively by the algal culture, and also because it
can be assumed that the exogenous addition of nutrients and CO 2 would
not be required. The possible reduction of nutrient concentrations in the
seawater effluents, and the diversification of production in changing
market conditions, might be considered as additional sources of income.
The development of a mixed salmon-seaweed tank cultivation can offer
additional advantages to those mentioned above. Given that wave
protected bays are only. found in southern Chile, aquaculture is
geographically limited in Chile. The use of land-based cultures could
mean that this activity would no longer be subject to limitations imposed
by local geographical conditions.
The aim of this study was to test the possible use of intensive on-shore
salmon tank cultivation effluents for Gracilaria chilensis Bird,
McLachlan & Oliveira tank cultivation in southern Chile. An integrated
on-shore culture system was developed for Gracilaria cultivation using
salmon tank effluents to test the effect on biomass production and agar
yield of stocking density, seawater replacement rates and addition of
CO2 during an annual cycle.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Location and description of the culture system

A land-based salmon-seaweed culture system was located in Metri Bay

(41035'S: 72°42'W) 30 km southeast of Puerto Montt in southern Chile.
 Gracilaria tank cultivation 285

The system consisted of eight circular 8-m 3 tanks for salmon culture.
Seawater was supplied with three 5-HP electropumps with a total
pumping capacity of 1500 liters/min during low tide. This pumping
capacity fulfilled the oxygen requirements for the cultivation of salmon at
high densities (over 25 kg/m 3 at the harvesting stage). As the initial
density of salmon cultivation in January 1991 was 0.3-0.6 kg/m 3, salmon
effluents would be expected to have greater effects in the following
spring and summer, periods of high algal growth. Seawater effluents were
passed through 2500-liter decantation tanks to eliminate suspended
solids. The nutrient-enriched seawater was then conducted by gravity to
three (2500 liters) seaweed culture tanks. A fourth tank, used as a
control, received seawater pumped direct from the sea. Experimental
studies using this system for the cultivation of Pacific salmon
(Oncorhynchus kisutch), rainbow trout (O. mykiss) and the agarophytic
red algae Gracilaria chilensis were carried out during 1991-1992.
Each seaweed culture unit developed for Gracilaria cultivation
consisted of a set of four raceway type plastic tanks of 2500-liter
capacity each (Fig. 1). These tanks were divided into five culture cells of
500 liters each, using removable plastic partition walls. Each culture cell
had an independent water inflow and outflow, so that the inflow of water
in each culture cell could be adjusted to the desirable rate. The water
inflow was supported with a plastic pipe of 25-mm diameter and intro-
duced into the seawater at the surface of the culture cell (Fig. 1). A plastic
pipe with a diameter of 40 mm for the outflow of the seawater was
installed at 0.8 m above the tank bottom to maintain the water level in
each culture cell (Fig. 1). In addition, a double pipe (20-mm diameter)
was installed in the center area of the bottom of each culture cell, with
0.5-mm holes at 5-cm intervals (Fig. 1 ), to allow the entrance of air into
the system, thus producing a rotation of the algae (Bidwell et aL, 1985;
Ugarte & Santelices, 1992). Air was provided by an Alfa-Laval oil-free
airblower.

Environmental factors

The water temperature in the tanks was measured daily using a thermo-
meter (+ 0.5°C). In addition, a Li-Cor data logger (model LI-1000) was
used to obtain the accumulated radiation (Wh/m 2) during a 3-h period
around midday throughout the experimental period, pH was measured
with a portable Extech pH-meter (+0.01 accuracy). NHz+N was
measured by the Solarzano method (Solarzano, 1969); and PO~-P, NO3 =
levels were determined following Strickland and Parsons (1972).
 OC
LANT VIEW F 0.9m I

,eawater inflow

0.8m
T
'artq~on walJ

air inflow ~-
i
outflow "I ~ "11" 'q~
1
ELEVATION VIEW

a~ro,o~ 'r f s,o,~,,~t ..... "'

seowater Ill inflow
inflow ~ •

. . . . W~,er~. . . . . . .

ea w a t e r leve I /0"Sin
outflo Adr d d f u s e r /

1
Fig. 1. Diagram showing the design of the seaweed culture raceways. Each raceway was divided in to five culture cells of 500-liter capacity.
 Gracilaria tank cultivation 287

Environmental factors were taken at different hours of the day (08.00,

12.00, 15.00 and 18.00 h).

Function of the seaweed cultivation cells

In the first stage of the study the air flow necessary to rotate Gracilaria in
each cell was established at different levels of stocking density. A
predetermined biomass of Gracilaria was introduced into the cell and
the rotation velocity was measured by introducing a colored plastic
string with the algae into the tank. The time required for the colored
string to complete one rotation was determined with a digital chronome-
ter. This measurement was repeated three times. These determinations
were carried out using three stocking densities of Gracilaria in the cells:
3, 6 and 9 kg/m2; and three air flow rates: 12, 16 and 18 liters/min. Air
flow was measured via a flowmeter installed at the entrance of each
culture cell.
After determining minimum air requirements, the rotation rate
(measured as described above) of Gracilaria at three stocking densities
(1"5, 3-0 and 4.5 kg/m 2) and three water inflow rates (5, 10 and 15 water
changes per day) was determined at a single air flow of 18-20 liters/min.
The experiments with the different stocking biomass were realized with a
water replacement rate of 10 volumes per day and the experiments with
different water replacement rates were executed with a stocking biomass
of 3 kg/m 2. Each measurement was determined three times.

Culture experiments

Four independent experiments were carried out to study their effect on

Gracilaria production. First, an experiment using fish effluents tested the
effect of the stocking density on algal production. Three stocking density
levels (1.5, 3.0 and 4.5 kg/m 2) were tested in triplicate (total of nine cells)
with replicates distributed at random. Fifteen days after the initiation of
the experiment, all the algae were removed from each culture cell and
the damp weight determined ( +_50 g accuracy). These experiments were
carried out 8 times between March and November 1991 and each time
the biomass produced was discarded. Gracilaria biomass production was
calculated as g/m 2 per day of wet Gracilaria produced during the experi-
mental period. Each experimental period was analyzed independently
using a one-way ANOVA after logarithmic transformation of the data to
assure for the normality of the data (Sokal & Rohlf, 1979). In addition,
the accumulated production was calculated by totalling the biomass of
288 Alejandro H. Buschmann et al.

each replicate, during the entire experimental period. This result was
also analyzed using a one-way ANOVA.
A second experiment was installed which tested three water replace-
ment rates (5, 10 and 15 replacements per day in triplicate), using fish
effluents. At the end of the experiment (15 days) all the algae in each cell
were removed and weighed (+ 50 g accuracy). This experiment was
repeated eight times between April and December 1991. The Gracilaria
production was calculated and analyzed as above.
The third experiment tested the effect of CO 2 on biomass production.
This experiment was carried out during the high growth rate period
(January 1993) of Gracilaria, which corresponds to a higher CO2
demand. A gas difuser was installed inside the seawater inflow pipe to
inject CO2 to four culture cells (Bidwell et al., 1985). CO2 was added
each day between 12.00 and 16"00 h. The seawater exchange in all the
experimental units was 10 replacements per day, stocking density was 6
kg/m 2, and fish effluents were the water source. The increase in Graci-
laria biomass after 15 days of cultivation in the tanks with CO 2 addition
and in the other three replicate culture cells without supply of CO2 was
compared by using a one-way ANOVA after the logarithmic transforma-
tion of the data (Sokal & Rohlf, 1979).
The fourth experiment compared fish effluents with seawater pumped
directly into the tanks. Both treatments were carried out in triplicate
using a stocking biomass of 3 kg/m ~ and 10 water replacements per day.
This experiment was run for experimental periods of 15 days and was
repeated 20 times over an annual period. Each time the biomass
produced was trimmed back to 3 kg/m 2. In order to obtain the annual
production of Gracilaria, the biomass production of each replicate was
added together. The results were analyzed independently for each
experimental period and the accumulated biomass evaluated using a t-
test after logarithmic transformation of the data to assure for normality
of the data (Sokal & Rohlf, 1979). The presence of epiphytes was
recorded, at weekly intervals.

Agar yield
Agar was extracted from the algae grown with and without fish effluents.
Three samples of each treatment were analyzed on nine occasions
between March 1991 and January 1992 using techniques described in
Cancino and Orellana (1987). Agar yield was calculated as the g of agar
per g of dry Gracilaria. Accumulated agar production (g of agar
produced per 11 months per m 2) was calculated by multiplying the agar
yield by the dry Gracilaria production (dry weight = 17% wet weight).
 Gracilaria tank cultivation 289

The results were analyzed using a t-test after transforming the data using
the angular transformation of the per cent data (agar yield) and logarith-
mic transformation for the numerical data (agar production) (Sokal &
Rohlf, 1979).

RESULTS

Environmental factors

Water temperature and solar radiation in the cultivation tanks showed a

clear seasonal pattern (Fig. 2). High temperatures of 18°C in summer
and below 10°C in winter were registered. Solar radiation values reached
2000 Wh/m 2 in summer with lows of 400 Wh/m 2in winter (Fig. 2).
Nutrients increased significantly in the fish effluents as compared to
the seawater. Nitrate increased in the effluents from 3.38-4.10 to
4.23-5.24 ktg-at/liter. Phosphate increased from 1.72-2.30 to 2.94-4.66
/~g-at/liter. The highest increment corresponded to the ammonia con-
centrations, which increased from 2.86-3.18 to 12.03-13.95/~g-at/liter
at the beginning of fish cultivation, reaching values of over 500/~g-at/
liter at the end of the fish cultivation period (summer) when biomass per
volume of fish was over 25 kg/m 3.

- 24

21
19 /\ 2o

Ol7 ..~. TEMPERATURE / q¢" ""~k 18

uJ15
:::)13
"'"~. "c/~c . X
t'-11
< ./\ *""....-..... -,0
,v 9
w 7 \RADIATION iO / 8
e~ • • NO ~r-

:E s \e~ ./ 6:1-
u., 3£ o~ 4
I,,=-
2
I
i u ! ! i ! ! i l ! , i !

J F M A M J J A S O N D J F
1991 1gg2
Fig. 2. Mean monthly variation of the seawater temperature (°C) and the monthly
average accumulated solar radiation (Wh/m 2) in Metri.
290 Alejandro H. Buschmann et al.

A: SEAWATER INFLOW
0
8.4
"1-
(3.
8.3 Winter Spring

8.2

8.1

8.0 o_y o
7.9

7.8
0

/-
7.7

S-" SEAWATER OUTFLOW

-l-
Q,.
8.9

8.6

8.3
/ o
8.0

7.7
, , . . . . i ,

8- 12"" 15"" 18"" 8"" 12"" 15 "° 18"" 8"" 12 °. 15"'18""

Hour

Fig. 3. Mean pH values during the daytime at different seasons obtained using the fish
effluents (e) and seawater pumped directly (o) to the culture tanks. A, Water inflows; B,
water outflows.

T h e pH of inflow seawater and fish effluents exceeded 8.0 in the

s u m m e r (Fig. 3(A)). T h e p H was lower in fish effluents than seawater
tanks, perhaps attributed to a greater concentration of CO2 especially in
s u m m e r when higher fish loads existed (Fig. 3(A)). T h e p H of outflow
waters reached values as high as 8 in winter, and reached values above 9
in summer, mainly during the afternoon (Fig. 3(B)), suggesting a higher
photosynthetic activity of Gracilaria when fish effluents were used.
 Gracilaria tank cultivation 291

3.0-

2.5'-
Z
\
=E
2.0-

u-=
Z 1.5-
o
m
1.0-

i
o.s-

Fig. 4. Effect of the stocking biomass (kg/m 2) and air flow (liter/rain) on the Gracilaria
mean rotation frequency in the culture cells.

Function of the seaweed culture system

A minimum air flow of 12 liters/min per culture cell was required to

rotate 3 kg/m 2 in each culture cell (Fig. 4). With an air flow of 16 liters/
min the algae in all the stocking densities treatments rotated. In view of
this, all the subsequent experiments in this study were carried out using
an air flow of 18-20 liters/min. In all these experiments the Gracilaria
thalli was maintained short (less than 25 cm), because it was noted that
longer thalli formed dense bundles, which retarded the rotation rates in
the tanks. For this reason, the thalli were fragmented weekly during the
entire experimental period. The stocking density did not significantly
(P> 0"05) affect the rotation rate at an air flux of 18-20 liters/min (Fig.
5(A)). However, an increase in the water inflow did significantly
(P< 0.01) affect the rotation of Gracilaria in the tanks (Fig. 5(B)).

Culture experiments

Gracilaria production varied markedly during different seasons, from

100 g/m 2 per day in March to less than 20 g/m 2 per day in June,
increasing again during the spring to greater than 200 g/m 2 per day
irrespective of the stocking biomass levels. The calculation of the accu-
mulated biomass production for the three stocking densities showed that
292 Alejandro H. Buschmann et al.

A g
LIJ
I--- F(2.6) :0.92" P> 0.05 F(2.6)'9.18; P< 0.01
5.0-
z
:E

z
0
4.0-
I /
/
,-- 3.0-
0
t~ /
/
i/
1.5 310 415 (kg/m 2) 5 1'0 115 ~times/day
Stocking Biomass Seawater Replacement Rate
Fig. 5. A, Effect of different stocking biomass (kg/m 2) on the rotation frequency (rota-
tion/rain) of Gracilaria in the culture cells, using an air flow of 18-20 liters/min). B,
Effect of the seawater replacement rates (times/day) on the rotation frequency of
Gracilaria in the culture cells using an air flow of 18-20 liters/min. Data show the mean
values ( + 1 SD).

A B
Different stocking seawater
replacement
Different

Z
oB
p-
b;masst 15
rate

o
lO lO
i,u

5 5
!
3
I
u
tJ
t
1.5 3.0 4.5 Kg/m2 5 10 15 /min

Fig. 6. A, Accumulated Gracilaria biomass production (kg/m 2) in treatments with

different stocking biomass. B, Accumulated Gracilaria biomass production (kg/m 2) in
treatments with different seawater flow rates. Data show the mean values ( + 1 SD).

no significant differences (F= 0.45; P > 0.05) existed between them (Fig.
6(A)).
Gracilaria production using three water replacement rates also varied
seasonally, from almost 100 g/m 2 per day in autumn (April) to 50-70
g/m 2 per day in winter and greater than 170 g/m 2 per day in spring.
 Gracilaria tank cultivation 293

A -;
-0
B
\ 300 F : 1.34
.@-4wt f1,61
I
OpHin “E , P>O.O5
a . 1
9.2
/@A.
8.2
3/
A-0,
:i
0 .::. :::00?
7.2 -.
:- :
.* . .
.O....@.’ :
6.2 :
:
.
O....O’
*
5.2

1 %%?
,
Fig. 7. A, Effect of the addition of CO? on the seawater pH values during the daytime in
summer: (0) inflow; (0) outflow; (- ) without CO, addition; (---) with CO2 addition.
Arrows indicate the period of CO, addition. B, Mean Grucilaria biomass production in
culture cells with ( + CO,) and without ( -CO?) the addition of CO,. Data show the
mean values ( -t 1 SDj.

Accumulated biomass production did not vary significantly (F= 1.06;

P> O-05) as a function of water exchange rate (Fig. 6(B)).
The addition of CO, produced a significant reduction in pH of the
seawater inflow and outflow of the culture cells. Upon discontinuing
CO, addition, the pH increased but did not exceed 8 (Fig. 7(A)). CO,
addition did not produce a significant (F= 1.34; P> 0.05) increase in the
wet weight production (Fig. 7(B)).
Fish effluent produced higher yields than seawater in 14 of the 20
experiments realized (Fig. 8(A)). The annual accumulated biomass was
significantly greater on fish effluent than seawater (48.9 kg(wet)/m’ per
year to 30 kg(wet)/m2 per year, respectively; t = 1148.8; P < O-01) (Fig.
8(B)). Epiphytism levels were generally low with highest levels during
winter. The principal epiphytes observed were green algae of the genus
Enteromorphu and Ulvu as well as Ceramiales and diatoms. However,
with the arrival of spring, the apical tips started to grow again and
GruciZuria appeared to be clean of epiphytes in a few weeks.

Agar yield

In summer, Grucifuriu cultivated in fish effluents showed a reduced agar

content that varied from 13-16% to 2 l-23% for seawater grown
seaweed (Fig. 9(A)). In winter there was no significant difference
294 Al@andro H. Buschmann et al.

~ J . . ~ FISH EFFLUENTS
~3C~- o - -o SEAWATER

02OO . - . : ...... f~
= ~- :,'.. . . ,~..~

a ~" D • ~, ., •
0,.,, I~ •[~ .© . .. J~
. .,.,/0 o I' -- J I
•

~. I i •

17 1C)25~) 2510 1'6 2 2~34181 1 5 2 8 1 4 3 1 1 5 1 2812 < S FE

F MMA AM J J JAASS S OO N D J F
Fig. 8. A , Seasonal (Jmciluria biomass p r o d u c t i o n ( g / m 2 per day). B, A c c u m u l a t e d
Gracilaria biomass (kg/m:) over a year: (FE) fish effluents; (S) seawater. Data show the
mean values ( + 1 SD).

B
~'E 1.5•
A
e . . e SEAWATER • •
ol
1.2.
~- 231
-- 21- ~"~ o=% .
• *
O - - • F I S H EFFLUENTS
,.
.,~ . ' * " "*'"
309-
C} 19- • Q= °* a
tlu
,~" .,...& ,..~ ~-
O----o- - ° - ° ' ' v .... o'"'qv "'b-,, ,,o
-.~) . . . . O" ~0.3-
13- U

a ~ M J 3 ~ +
s F 6 N 6 5
Fig. 9. A, Seasonal variation of the agar yield (dry %) in tank culture cells using fish efflu-
ents and controls with pure seawater. B, Accumulated agar production (kg/m 2) in culture
cells using fish effluents (FE) and controls with pure seawater (S) during an 11-month
period. Data show the mean values ( + 1 SD).

between fish effluents and pure seawater, with agar contents of 1 7 - 1 8 %

in both cases (Fig. 9(A)). However, since the biomass production was
higher in fish effluents than seawater, total agar yield increased signifi-
cantly (1-2 kg/m 2 to 0"8 kg/m 2 over an l 1-month period, respectively;
t = 13.5; P < 0.01)(Fig. 9(B)).

DISCUSSION

T h e system functioned adequately during the experimental period. Air

flow alone was sufficient to rotate algae inside the culture units, but
 Gracilaria tank cultivation 295

higher water flows negatively affected the performance of the algae. This
indicates that the water inflow system must be redesigned to achieve
optimum efficiency regarding the air flow required to rotate the algae in
the tanks. Other variables such as depth of the culture units are also
important as they interact with other factors (e.g. air flow, stocking
density) and also impact the construction costs (Bidwell et al., 1985).
Nevertheless, the Gracilaria production obtained in this study (48 kg/m 2
per year) was many times higher than that obtained in the traditional
open systems (Pizarro, 1986), and two to three times higher than
biomass production obtained in previous tank cultures in central and
northern Chile (Edding et al., 1987; Ugarte & Santelices, 1992) where
winter temperatures and solar radiation are higher. The results of the
present authors are similar to those obtained in other parts of the world
with other species of Gracilaria and different culture conditions (Table
1). The fish effluents are a complex set of factors that increase nitrate,
phosphate, ammonium, CO2 and possibly other elements. The present
culture system was not improved by addition of CO 2 or nutrients, which
suggests that effluents alone provide concentrations high enough to
maintain high biomass production.
The authors performed a series of short experiments during which the
production was harvested back to the original starting density every 15
days and subsequently allowed to continue growing. This protocol
allowed the authors to calculate the annual yields. As the algae were not
replaced with fresh material, in addition to ascertaining that Gracilaria
chilensis can be kept productive over a year, the authors were also able
to maintain the productivity and agar yields over a two-year period
(Retamales et al., submitted).
The optimal nitrogen range necessary to obtain high biomass and agar
production was the same (Craigie et al., 1984). Fish effluents contained
higher concentrations of nitrate and phosphate than seawater, but the
most significant increase was in ammonium concentration. High
ammonium levels were not toxic contrary to other experiments
(Lapointe & Ryther, 1979). Studies are needed to determine toxic levels
and effects of pulse-addition of effluents to maximize productivity in the
Gracilaria culture units. However, as it is not possible to optimize both
seaweed growth and nutrient removal at the same time, we must state
that in this study we intended to maximize Gracilaria production. Never-
theless, Gracilaria removed between 70 and 95% of the ammonium
concentrations found in the fish effluents during spring and summer
(P6rez etal., 1993).
The agar yields were lower in fish effluent compared to seawater and
they followed a distinct seasonal pattern. During seasons that growth was
high the agar content was lower in tanks using the fish effluents. How-
 tO

TABLE 1
Production and Culture Conditions Summary of Several Tank Cultivation Experiments of Gracilaria
Gracilaria species Dry production Wet production Cultivation Reference
(g/m 2 per day) (g/m 2 per day) scale (study area)
(liters)
Gracilaria sp. 17"0 170"0 350-600"
Lapointe et al. (1976) "~"
(Florida)
G. foliifera 8'9 -- 23 000
Ryther et al. (1978)
(Massachussets)
G. tikvahiae 22-25 -- 2 400-24 000 Hanisak ( 1987)
(Florida)
G. chilensis 8"7 62.2 200
Edding et al. (1987)
(northern Chile) z
G. chilensis 11"3 70'6 1 000
Ugarte and Santeliees (1992)
(central Chile)
G. chilensis 22'1 130"0 500
This study
(southern Chile)
"Capacity of tanks.
 Gracilaria tank cultivation 297

ever, as Gracilaria biomass production was higher in those tanks, total

agar production increased. The authors' results are not consistent with
the data reported by Ugarte and Santelices (1992) which indicate that
the agar yield of Gracilaria cultivated in tanks exceeds those found in
natural beds of 18-22% (Cancino et al., 1987). Other results obtained
previously by cultivating Gracilaria in intertidal enclosures indicated
significantly higher agar yields than those for algae grown in open
systems (Bravo et al., 1992). However, biomass production was four
times lower than yields obtained in the tanks with fish effluents.
Epiphytism is a major problem in Gracilaria open and tank cultivation
in Chile (Kuschel & Buschmann, 1991; Ugarte & Santelices, 1992) and
elsewere (Hanisak, 1987; Friedlander & Ben-Amotz, 1991; Haglund,
1992) and fish farms can increase epiphyte loads and shift the
dominance of brown and red algae epiphytes to green algae in open
systems (R6nnberg et al., 1992). Agar yield and epiphytism resistance
have been related inversely with growth. During periods of fast growth
photoassimilates should be directed principally towards the production
of starch rather than to polysaccharides (Rotem et al., 1986). For this
reason it appears that it will be difficult to isolate strains of Gracilaria
with optimum levels of growth, agar yield and epiphytism resistance
(Buschmann et al., 1992; Santelices, 1992). However, as epiphytism does
not appear to be a serious problem, the authors' efforts to optimize this
culture system should be directed at manipulating the culture conditions
to increase the gel content shortly before harvesting (Santelices, 1992).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study was supported by FONDECYT-CHILE (Grant No. 0888-

90) and Pkisticos Semar (Osorno). Equipments obtained by an IFS
Grant (No. 1600-1) were also important in this study. The authors
acknowledge the help of Nelson Pardo, Claudio Chanceulme, Ram6n
Rebolledo, Andr6s Bravo and Carlos Vargas for installing, sampling and
maintaining the culture system. In particular, the first author wishes to
acknowledge the help of Patrick Golven of the CEVA-France for his
suggestions in the design of the seaweed culture tanks and Juan Carlos
Segovia, Alberto Medina and Juan Carlos Uribe for their support during
the realization of this project. The suggestions to the manuscript made
by R. Simpfendorfer and three referees and the English review made by
S. Angus are greatly appreciated.
298 Alefandro H. Buschmann et al.

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