See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/259623980

Using Grounded Theory in sport management research

Article  in  International Journal of Sport Management and Marketing · August 2010

DOI: 10.1504/IJSMM.2010.037503

CITATIONS READS

19 3,155

2 authors:

Popi Sotiriadou David Shilbury

Griffith University Deakin University, Burwood
67 PUBLICATIONS   1,437 CITATIONS    149 PUBLICATIONS   2,814 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Understanding and redefining the role of men in achieving gender equity in sport leadership. View project

WHY DO NATIONS INVEST IN ELITE SPORT? THE MESSI MODEL: mapping the elite sport societal impact. View project

All content following this page was uploaded by David Shilbury on 09 January 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Int. J. Sport Management and Marketing, Vol. 4, Nos. 1/2, 2008 125

Using grounded theory in sport management

research

Kalliopi Sotiriadou* and David Shilbury

Bowater School of Management and Marketing,
Deakin University,
221 Burwood Highway,
Burwood 3125, Australia
E-mail: popi.sotiriadou@deakin.edu.au
E-mail: david.shilbury@deakin.edu.au
*Corresponding author

Abstract: This paper argues for Grounded Theory (GT) to be more widely
used to allow emergence of socially constructed sport related processes. The
aim of GT is to explain social phenomena and the resources that are required to
support social processes. GT is attractive to researchers as it uses the natural
setting where the phenomena studied takes place to examine and understand
social constructions. It ranks among the most influential and widely
used modes of qualitative research in certain fields, such as sociology.
Sport management scholars, however, have largely neglected this method. This
paper examines the reasons why the method is not used and demonstrates the
importance of using GT by using a sport management study to exemplify GT
processes and assess its efficacy in the discipline. Integration of GT method
will strengthen sport management research and enable researchers understand
social constructions associated with sport.

Keywords: qualitative research; grounded theory method; sport management

research; Constant Comparative Method; CCM.

Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Sotiriadou, K. and

Shilbury, D. (2008) ‘Using grounded theory in sport management research’,
Int. J. Sport Management and Marketing, Vol. 4, Nos. 1/2, pp.125–146.

Biographical notes: Kalliopi (Popi) Sotiriadou is with the Sport Management

Programme at the Bowater School of Management and Marketing at Deakin
University, Burwood, Australia.

David Shilbury is with the Sport Management Program at the Bowater School
of Management and Marketing at Deakin University, Burwood, Australia.

1 Introduction

This paper is concerned with the fundamental question ‘why does grounded theory need
to be integrated in sport management research?’ Grounded Theory (GT) is a means of
generating theory which is embedded in systematically gathered and analysed data
(Glaser and Strauss, 1967). It places an emphasis on theory development and discovery
rather than testing of hypotheses or a preexisting framework and deductive reasoning.

Copyright © 2008 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

126 K. Sotiriadou and D. Shilbury

The contribution of this paper is original in the sense that it illustrates that the driving
imperative for another explanation of a technique that has been around for nearly
40 years is the expansion of disciplinary and paradigm boundaries in sport management
research.
Costa (2005) explains that “as in the case of other emerging fields, evidence of
growing pains in sport management is abundant” (p.117). One of the concerns is the
definition of sport management, what is unique about it and whether the development of
sport management as a distinct discipline is justified. She explains that “if sport makes a
difference, then sport management research cannot remain grounded in studies that occur
in non-sport settings, and the intermingling of disciplines might help to elaborate the
unique effects of the sport context” (p.132). However, “if sport were merely another
context for doing generalizable management inquiry, then it should make sense for it to
remain grounded in disciplinary research” (p.132).
Amis and Silk (2005) suggest that, a narrow definition of the field, in many ways,
“blinkers sport management scholars in their ability and potential to provide a critical
examination of the operations and machinations of sport-related industries and
institutions” (p.356). As the use of GT allows for theory to emerge, it helps push sport
management research boundaries. Expanding discipline boundaries can assist in a move
away from testing mainstream management models in the sport management context and
the consideration of exploring sport management issues as they emerge rather trying to
fit them in predetermined variables or hypotheses derived from studies on mainstream
disciplines.
Another concern expressed (e.g. Mahoney and Pitts, 1998; Parks et al., 1999) relates
to research quality and quantity and the future direction of the field. Initially, it was
Olafson (1990) that challenged sport management to strengthen the quality of its research
by using more advanced designs and methods to increase its rigor. Recently, Amis and
Silk (2005) suggest that some related disciplines, such as leisure studies and sociology of
sport, have progressed faster than sport management “in their acknowledgment
of the value of different ideological, epistemological, and methodological approaches”
(p.356). This view is reinforced by Frisby (2005) arguing that “if we are to fully
understand all dimensions of sport management, we need research to be conducted
from multiple paradigms” (p.2). In this paper, the authors do not advocate any one
paradigm over another. This paper argues that the acceptance of multiple paradigms
through innovative research methods and in particular the enhanced use of GT, will
expand sport management research horizons and the fields’ theoretical and practical
insights.
Rinehart (2005) argued that historically “very few attempts at experimentation or
innovation -either methodologically or in reporting style- have found their way into
publications in management and sport management studies” (p.498). Latest
contributions, for instance Markula and Friend (2005), suggest that
“recently, there has been an influx of different qualitative methodologies in
sport studies. For example, in-depth interviews, critical textual analyses and
ethnographies have been embraced by sport scholars who examine a variety of
topics using a number of different theoretical perspectives” (p.442).
This shows that there has been an increase in acceptance of qualitative research within
the field.
A word search on ‘GT’ and ‘sport’ in Taylor and Francis publications including
journals such as Leisure Sciences, Sport in Society, Journal of Applied Sport Psychology
 Using GT in sport management research 127

and the Intentional Journal of the History of Sport resulted in only seven papers that used
aspects of GT. A search within 17 volumes of Sport Management Review since 1998
revealed only one paper which does not use GT but that makes selective use of
GT coding processes. A search within the Journal of Sport Management resulted in two
mentions of GT. First paper claims some consistency with GT and the second is a
methods paper on ethnography that again simply mentions GT. The only genuine use of
GT was a study on parks management found in Managing Leisure in 2002.
The underlying paradigm of each research problem shapes the questions we ask, the
methods we use and the degree to which our research findings impact society (Schultz
and Hatch, 1996). Sport management studies from a non-positivist perspective are
essential to explore ‘truth’ as it emerges from the phenomena being studied and allow
answering research questions that do not conform to the positivist paradigm, questions
that will allow sport management related frameworks and theories to emerge.
Sports are connected with major spheres of social life such as family, economy,
media, politics, education and religion. As parts of society, sports are social constructions
that are given form and meaning by people as they interact with each other (Coakley,
2004). GT aims to explain social phenomena and processes, the conditions that support
the processes, the consequences of the processes and the conditions that support changes
in processes. As sport and its associated processes cut across a varied social demographic
genre and from the professional sporting environment to the leisure, participatory and
sport spectatorship setting, it lends itself to GT to generate rich data to understand the
processes involved and their supporting resources required. Therefore, it is argued that
the management of sport demands an exposition of GT that considers sport management
a stand alone and fast growing discipline.
There is an ongoing debate between the relative value of quantitative versus
qualitative research as it reflects the opposing views that sport management research can
be conducted in an objective positivist way versus those who feel that the management of
sport is socially constructed. In recognition of this debate, the underlying assumption of
using GT in sport management is that sports are socially constructed and GT is a method
designed to help explain social phenomena.
In conclusion, the driving force for the need to expand discipline and paradigm
boundaries and consider GT is that sport management is unique and so are the social
constructions of sport. This paper uses examples drawn from previous sport management
research on sport development that has used GT, to explore how the method is used and
identify the limitations of the GT that may hinder sport management researchers
adopting the method in their research. By embracing GT, this paper argues, that sport
management research, teaching and practice can expand to allow the socially constructed
nature of sport management issues to emerge.
The objective of this paper is to explore why GT is not used more widely and suggest
why it should. To support that, this paper describes how GT can be used and focuses
upon discussing the intended contributions of GT. It achieves this by drawing on data
from a study on sport development to illustrate the appropriateness and uses of
GT in sport management research. By implication, this paper uses sport as a context to
conclude that GT is a viable and recommended method to be used in sport management
research.
This paper is structured in four parts. Part one describes the characteristics of GT and
the basic tenets of the method. These will become more explicit in the following sections
and in particular in Sections 3 and 4. Part two discusses the context and the rationale for
128 K. Sotiriadou and D. Shilbury

this paper. Specifically, it illustrates the scarcity of GT use in sport management research
and interprets the possible causes of its limited use. Part three uses research on sport
development to illustrate and explain when and under what circumstances it is suitable to
use GT. It offers the ‘rules of thumb’ to assist researchers to identify when it is
appropriate to use GT. Part four of this paper articulates the application of GT to a sport
management study and uses data from the research on sport development to make GT
processes explicit.

2 Overview of the basic characteristics of GT

In an attempt to simplify GT data analysis, Turner (1981) suggested the activities

involved in each of the nine stages that follow. Consequently, selected cases are read and
reread comprehensively and passages of relevance to the study are highlighted and are
analysed in order to:
1 develop categories that closely fit the data
2 saturate categories until new data yields little new information concerning a
category
3 formulate abstract definitions of categories to articulate the criteria for particular
categories
4 use the definitions to guide further analysis towards emerging features of
importance
5 exploit categories fully, which requires the researcher to be aware of additional
categories and particular variations of existing categories
6 note, develop and follow up links between categories and hence formulate
hypotheses about the links between the categories
7 consider the conditions under which the hypotheses hold
8 make relevant connections to existing theory
9 examine whether the relationships hold in comparisons of extremes
to test emerging relationships.
Coding and constant comparisons of data continually collected in anticipation of
saturation of codes and categories are the method’s fundamental characteristics. Soulliere
et al. (2001) argued that the process of constant comparison enables emerging concepts
to be informed, shaped and reshaped by the variety of conditions encountered, resulting
in dense, complex theory which corresponds closely to data. Eisenhardt (1989) proposed
as the central idea that the analyst constantly compares theory and data, moving towards
a theory that closely fits the data. Therefore, constant comparison is one way to ensure
validity of findings (Brink, 1989; Glaser 1978). Eisenhardt (1989) continued that a “close
fit is important to building good theory because it takes advantage of the new insights
possible from the data and yields an empirically valid theory” (p.541).
 Using GT in sport management research 129

3 Rationalising the scarcity of GT use on sport management

GT was developed from and has been principally used within the field of sociology
(Haig, 1996). Since its inception in the late 1960s, researchers in a variety of
disciplines have successfully employed GT. The number of GT studies across numerous
disciplines (including nursing, medicine, psychology, psychotherapy, organisational
behaviour, political science, accounting, education, leadership and management
research), verify the claims of Strauss and Corbin (1998), Glaser (1992) and Haig (1996)
of the popularity and influence of GT. Indeed, GT has come to rank among the
most influential and widely used modes of qualitative research (Strauss and
Corbin, 1998).
Grounded theories have been produced by Glaser and Strauss (1965) and their
students (e.g. Broadhead, 1983; Charmaz, 1987). In the sporting context, GT studies are
found sparingly in areas such as physical education (e.g. Giacobbi et al., 2003; Reed and
Giacobbi, 2004; Sirin et al., 2004), sport psychology (e.g. Eccles et al., 2002; Fortunato
and Marchant, 1999; Torregrosa et al., 2004) and sport physiotherapy (e.g. Edwards
et al., 2004; Resnik and Moran, 2002). What is common in these studies is the lack of a
previously empirically derived framework to be tested, and the need to explore socially
constructed processes and the development of theories/frameworks that explain these
processes as they emerge through GT.
In sport related studies, researchers often borrow elements of GT (usually the coding
techniques) to analyse the data (e.g. Pauleen and Yoong, 2004; Smith and Shilbury,
2004). In doing so, they combine GT with other research methods. Combining different
methods is a valid way of doing research, as long as it is justifiable and appropriate to the
research problem. The main implication of this mixing of GT with other research
methods is that the analysis departs from a main tenet of GT, that is, theory emergence.
Finally, a search of online journal databases for sport management related research
employing GT shows a lack of studies using GT as the principle method of investigation
and a narrow number of studies that combined other research methods with GT.
In a discipline that accepts the socially constructed nature of sports the reasons why
GT, an otherwise popular approach to research, is not fully integrated remains a curious
paradox. Apart from the obvious youthfulness of sport management as a field of
scholarly endeavour, it is not known what has historically deterred sport management
researchers from using GT. Perhaps GT is not popular because we do not see its
relevance for practice or perhaps there is an uncertainty as to how to use GT. It could be
the confusion of the method’s philosophical underpinnings and the variations of GT
presented to researchers. In addition, researchers may have good reasons to avoid the
technique considering it can be particularly cumbersome, suffers from fragmentation and
when interpreted from a purist viewpoint, it is also impractical as it does not allow
the researcher to enter the field with previous knowledge of the relevant literature.
The following sections examine these assumptions.

3.1 The complexity of GT

It is generally accepted that GT has suffered from a lack of simplicity in articulating how
it is carried out. The dense writing and the use of abstract terms used in generic GT
readings (e.g. Glaser, 1978, 1992; Glaser and Strauss, 1967; Strauss and Corbin,
1990, 1998) to describe GT often results in what Carlson and McCaslin (2003) explain as
130 K. Sotiriadou and D. Shilbury

“far too many magical moments where the researcher must take a leap of faith and leave
behind data, informants, and protocols that may not quite capture the intent of a
phenomenon under study” (p.550).
Using GT is complex in theory and in application. This presents challenges to both
novice and master researchers and may present setbacks that hinder sport management
researchers from utilising GT, especially when the discipline has not traditionally
favoured the method. This may have been especially so in the formative years of sport
management research. To overcome the complexity associated with GT the researchers
involved with the sport development study, had to receive education and training on the
method, that has not been previously offered through their sport management
postgraduate studies and consult researchers who have been previously engaged in GT.
Wells (1995) claims that producing GT is an intensive labour and a difficult task.
She suggests that institutional changes may be required to permit the teaching and
implementation of GT. Frisby (2005) alludes to this point noting that perhaps one of
the reasons for the paucity of certain methods lies in the research training we receive.
Significant “changes may also be required in journals to allow manuscripts the space
required to present grounded theory” (p.36). She explains that most sport management
studies “reflect a positivist orientation that addresses some important aspect of our field”
(p.4). But we need to ask whether we have been trained to ask research questions from
another perspective and to use the types of qualitative methods that might address these
questions. For philosophical shifts in paradigm uses and the acceptance of other
paradigms to be accepted, discourse and training on alternative method uses is significant
as it enables scientific advance.

3.2 GT philosophical chasms

Chasms in philosophical positions (e.g. positivism, post positivism and constructivism)
of GT analysts (e.g. Annells, 1996; Charmaz, 2003) resulted in different interpretations
of the methods’ underpinning paradigms. The difficulty in locating GT in a paradigm has
caused a certain level of ambiguity in terms of the method’s comprehension to those who
might use this approach.
For example, Annells (1996) analyses of the ontological,1 epistemological and
methodological perspectives suggest GT has traditionally been situated in a post
positivist inquiry paradigm but has evolved and moved toward the constructivist2 inquiry
paradigm. As a result, Strauss is perceived to have taken the path towards constructivism.
The main practical implication of GT variations is that Glaser’s approach is more deeply
committed to the principles and practices of the qualitative research paradigm while
Strauss seems to be more concerned with producing a detailed description and is more
closely aligned with the traditional quantitative doctrines. Charmaz (2003) contradicts
Annells’ (1996) argument and maintains that Glaser’s (1978, 1992), position ‘often
comes close to traditional positivism’ (p.250) and Strauss and Corbin’s (1990, 1998)
stance ‘assumes an objective external reality’ (p.250) and moves into post positivism.
By implication, depending on the approach and paradigm the researcher espouses, the
study’s research process and analysis, as well as the results, may vary (Babchuk, 1997).
The issues at this point is not so much about which paradigm the researches maybe
aligned with, but rather to apprehend and explain the integral implications of their choice
to the research results and data interpretation.
 Using GT in sport management research 131

3.3 Grounded theory variations

As the above discussion on GT philosophical chasms infers, in addition to GT being
attacked from qualitative research analysts, such as Annells (1996) and Charmaz (2003),
a divergence of opinion of the original authors exists. The central difference between the
Glaser and Strauss’ versions of GT derive from ontological, epistemological and
methodological divides. To ascertain whether GT is the appropriate method to use, the
researcher has choices of different variants of GT. Glaser (1967) calls for substantive
(open) and theoretical coding by means of saturation and constant comparison of
concepts. Strauss and Corbin (1990), on the other hand, incorporate open coding yet,
differentiate by replacing theoretical coding with axial and selective coding and the use
of a coding paradigm, as elements that offer a more structured approach to GT. Strauss
and Corbin’s (1990) suggested changes have been at the centre of robust debate in
relation to GT. As Glaser (1992) maintains, Strauss and Corbin’s (1990) GT changes
deviate from the original method. As a result, it is crucial that researchers specify their
choice of, justification for, or explanation of the logic for their selection.

4 When to use grounded theory

As the discussion in part one of this paper alludes to, the research/researcher’s
ontological, epistemological and methodological perspectives (e.g. the support of a post
positivist or a constructivist paradigm) may determine the type of GT to be used.
Even though no evidence suggests one GT approach is superior to another, the nature of
the research problem and goals should shape the decision to use a particular approach.
The discussion in this part of this paper suggests three factors (i.e. the research goal, the
level of existing theory or framework in the research area and the study’s type) should
direct the researchers’ choice of GT. These points are discussed further.
Firstly, the nature of the research question (e.g. a question that explores processes
rather than testing a hypothesis) indicates the research goal. The aim of GT is to explain
social phenomena and processes and articulate the conditions that support the processes,
the processes’ consequences and the conditions that support changes in those processes.
It is, therefore, suggested that when a research question concerns a process, the method
of choice for addressing the question may be GT (Strauss and Corbin, 1994). In using the
sport development research to exemplify the use of GT, the research question was ‘What
are the sport development processes of the Australian sport system?’ The main research
sub questions examined:
• ‘Who are the sport development players?’
• ‘What are their relationships?’
• ‘What are their roles and impact in sport development?’
• ‘How do sport policies/programmes affect or shape sport development?’
• ‘What are the athlete’s participation pathways and how do they take
place/function?’
The aim was to explain sport development processes, the circumstances and setting
within which sport development processes take place, the impacts of these processes on
132 K. Sotiriadou and D. Shilbury

sport and the conditions that support changes in sport development. Hence, the
examination of social processes by using GT met the requirements and nature of research
to investigate and explain sport development processes, their context and implications for
sport.
Secondly, the inadequacy of existing models/theory to explain the research questions
is a good indication that GT can successfully be used to advance understanding in an area
that has been largely neglected or is not well understood. Lye et al. (1997) argued that
“when there is a well founded theory that accurately describes an area of inquiry the
researcher can concentrate on the collection of data applicable to the existing theory”
(p.3). In this instance, the researcher can test and verify a theory. However, many
inquiries particularly in the social sciences do not fit this pattern. In many cases,
“no relevant theories exist at all and even when they do exist, they may be too remote or
abstract to be used in gaining much detailed guidance and assistance” (Lye et al., 1997,
p.3). Under these circumstances it is necessary to use alternatives to the traditional
positivist (or quantitative) approach to research. These alternative approaches have been
described with terms such as a naturalistic approach, an interpretive approach or GT.
It is, therefore, suggested a research problem involving constructions of meanings that
has not previously been explored or not fully understood requires a qualitative method
(Hassard, 1990).
To illustrate this point using the sport development research, literature derived from a
variety of disciplines (e.g. management, marketing, political science and sociology) and
countries (e.g. Canada, England and New Zealand) illustrated a lack on sport
development theory or frameworks either empirically derived or adequate enough to
provide answers to the research question and subquestions on sport development.
More specifically, sport development (i.e. the process where effective opportunities,
programmes and policies are set up to enable people regardless of their socioeconomic
and skill background to take part in sport and physical activities) has been traditionally
linked with the sport development pyramid that illustrates the relationship between mass
and elite participation.
Theoretically, the wider the base, the greater the number of participants at each level
above (Donnelly, 1991; Eady, 1993). Hence, governments inject resources at the bottom
of the sport development continuum, expecting that a broad base will produce many
champions (Veal, 1994). According to Hogan and Norton (2000), this process is referred
to as the bottom-up or trickle-up effect. On the other hand, when government resources
are allocated directly at the top of the pyramid a top-down or trickle-down effect is
expected.
The sport development pyramid (and its associated trickle effects) is not based on
empirically derived data and it has been described as misleading (Eady, 1993).
Furthermore, the pyramid makes implicit assumptions regarding the ways sport
development processes take place, and does not consider the dynamic nature of sport
development or people’s movement across the various participation levels (Shilbury
et al., 2006). These limitations suggested that minimal conceptual work in the area of
sport development was completed and resulted in a lack of cohesive theory in the field.
The existing literature revealed that the sport development pyramid (Bramham et al.,
2001; Eady, 1993) was inadequate in providing answers to the research questions and
subquestions. Hence, a theoretical vacuum with regard to sport development processes
was evident. Consequently, less theory was available to postulate hypotheses.
 Using GT in sport management research 133

Thirdly, the type of research (e.g. exploratory versus verification research) may
influence the choice to use GT and may assist in forming a decision as to which version
of GT to adopt. For instance, as there was no framework on sport development to
adequately answer the research question, or provide variables to be tested and verified,
the nature of the research had to be exploratory. Hence, the lack of theory or models to
explain the questions under the examination directed the research towards an exploratory
rather than a verification study. Therefore, an explorative research design to better
understand the area of sport development was deemed appropriate. This explains how the
lack of conceptual framework was noted given that a GT from a purist perspective would
advocate no contact with the literature prior to data collection. This illustrates that
GT can be impractical in the sense that researchers do not always enter the research area
with GT in mind as their choice of method, yet the nature of the research may dictate
towards GT.

5 Using grounded theory

Once the researcher establishes the suitability of GT as a method of choice, he or she will
be required to enhance their theoretical sensitivity to facilitate GT implementation and
theory emergence. Theoretical sensitivity refers to the researcher’s manipulation of data
to yield explanations that best reflect the reality that is being studied (Hall and Callery,
2001). Theoretical sensitivity is enhanced by
1 theoretical sampling
2 Constant Comparative Method (CCM)
3 substantive and theoretical coding procedures
4 memo-writing and sorting
5 theoretical saturation, storyline and the analytic story.
These procedures form the basic tenets of GT. Using examples drawn from the study of
sport development, this paper demonstrates the application and practice of GT.
In particular, the sport development research findings are intended to exemplify how GT
can contribute to the emergence of a theoretical framework.

5.1 Theoretical sampling

Theoretical sampling is a distinctive characteristic of GT. Strauss and Corbin (1990)
define theoretical sampling as “sampling on the basis of concepts that have proven
theoretical relevance to the evolving theory” (p.176). Theoretical sampling involves a
process of data collection where ‘the analyst jointly collects, codes and analyses’ (1978,
p.36) data and decides what data to analyse next to developing a theory. The implication
of this sampling process is that, unlike the sampling conducted in quantitative
investigations, sampling in GT studies cannot be planned before embarking on the study.
The specific sampling decisions evolve during the research process itself (Strauss and
Corbin, 1990). Using theoretical sampling, the focus lies within the various incidents
analysed rather than the people that data were derived from. Hence, the emerging
concepts, codes or categories lead to what data to collect next and from where.
134 K. Sotiriadou and D. Shilbury

The theoretical sampling procedures undertaken in the sport development research

began with the collection of annual reports from National Sporting Organizations
(NSOs). It is important to stress that although GT is predominately associated with
qualitative research, as in the example given in this paper, quantitative studies can use it
as well. Initially, this study used public documents as its primary source of data
generation. The justification for examining NSO annual reports lies in the nature of these
documents and the fact that they constitute the formal written source of information
summarising annual NSO operations with regard to sport development policy and
practice and interactions with the federal government and other key agencies.
Additionally, these reports are the annual contributions of all State Sporting
Organizations (SSOs), staff and members from the board of directors collectively in a
form available to the public.
Silverman (2000) maintained that documents offer information on social facts but not
necessarily transparent representations of organisational day-to-day routines and
processes. The implication of this is that we cannot learn how organisations operate.
However, the scope of the study was not to attain an understanding of the
NSOs day-to-day operations. The aim was to examine the sport development processes
as they were reflected at a national level. Therefore, annual reports were approached for
what they were and for what they were used to accomplish. Researchers using documents
are more concerned with the “processes through which text depicts reality than with
whether such texts contain true or false statements” (Silverman, 2000, p.826). In GT,
researcher can use data from various sources, other than just documents in the example
given in this paper, such as interviews and field observations.
What is unique about using documents or interviews as a source of data in GT,
compared to for instance documents or interviews collected for a study conducted using a
phenomenological approach,3 is that the phenomenologist ‘remains centred on eliciting
the experience of respondents so that the phenomenon can be revealed’ whereas the
grounded theorist, is “seeking to develop the emerging theory and may move on to other
data collection methods, or structured interviews, to saturate emerging categories”
(Wimpenny and Gass, 2000, p.1485).
The data gave an extensive range of NSO responses covering sports that varied
considerably in their number of staff and coaches they employed, facilities they offered,
geographic location, purpose, goals, resources, government funding, participants, media
coverage and spectator popularity. Accordingly, annual reports were also collected from
professionally played and governed sports, such as the Australian Football League (AFL)
and from amateur sports, such as croquet. Data from annual reports covered Olympic and
non-Olympic NSOs and ranged from high profile sports (Olympic or non-Olympic
NSOs), such as athletics and cricket, to low profile and awareness sports, such as
orienteering.
To facilitate the selection and theoretical sampling of annual reports for analysis,
Minichiello et al. (1995) ‘analytical induction method’ (p.249) was used. Figure 1
displays the analytic induction method as a spiral process whereby the researcher collects
the first set of data (e.g. first document) and, after analysing it, develops propositions
about the area of inquiry. Then, based on the material and analysis from the first set of
data, the researcher locates another case that will extend their understanding of the social
process under investigation. This zigzag process (Creswell, 1998) allows theoretical
sampling. As concepts emerge, the need to test assumptions about emerging analytic
concepts and their properties or characteristics guides further sampling.
 Using GT in sport management research 135

Figure 1 The analytical induction model

Source: Adapted from Minichiello et al. (1995, p.25).

5.2 CCM and coding procedures

The continuing collection of cases that the analytical induction model suggests entails
constant comparisons of data. The CCM is used to identify similarities and differences,
to uncover dimensions and facilitate the systematic development of theory. The types of
comparisons involve the following:
• Comparing incident to incident to derive the study’s codes.
• Comparing incident to existing codes once initial coding structure is developed.
• Clustering of similar codes to construct the study’s categories.
• Deriving to the core category that facilitates writing the study’s theory. The
characteristics of this category are that it is inclusive and central in relation to all
other categories and subcategories allowing it to explain much of the data in the
phenomena studied.
The above comparisons are a reflection of GT coding processes. More specifically, GT
involves substantive and theoretical coding. Substantive or open coding, is used to
unravel substantive codes and their properties (i.e. the characteristics that describe them
or their subcategories). Theoretical coding is used to link the substantive codes and their
properties, and develop hypotheses – or to build a ‘story’ that connects the categories
(using the core category as its backbone). This story will eventually form the foundation
for writing the theory on the phenomena studied. At this point, it is equally important to
reassure the reader and stress these coding processes and types of comparisons apply to
other types of data, such as interview transcripts.
136 K. Sotiriadou and D. Shilbury

Open coding is the first stage of constant comparative analysis, before delimiting the
coding to a core category and its properties – or theoretical coding. Glaser (1992) argued
that:
This initial categorizing of incidents through the constant comparative method
is the first basic analytical step into the data. During open coding the data are
broken into incidents, to be closely examined and compared for similarities and
differences, while constantly asking of the data the neutral question what
category or property of a category does this incident indicate? (p.39)
The CCM facilitated the coding and theory advancement processes used in the sport
development research. To illustrate the CCM process, in comparing incident to incident
within annual reports 219 codes were given to incidents of conceptual similarity. After
repeated refinement, the codes were clustered according to conceptual similarity into
these three overarching categories, each containing numerous subcategories:
1 Sport Development Stakeholders.
2 Sport Development Practices.
3 Sport Development Processes.
Table 1 is a small section of Australian Swimming 1999/2000 annual report (Australian
Swimming, 2000) as an example of data that reflects the three categories that emerged
after open coding.

Table 1 Example of an extract from the Australian Swimming 1999/2000 Annual Report

The high performance and talented coaches programmes were supported A. Stakeholders
with funding from the ASC. Whilst Australian Swimming will review and
refine our programmes to meet the challenge of a drastic reduction in
government support beyond 2000, it is obvious that this will impact on our
ability to support our swimmers and coaches as they prepare for 2004.
This report reveals that our elite programme has provided our swimmers B. Practices
and coaches with the support to succeed; the presentation of our major
events is now of world standard and the public profile of Australian
swimming is at an all time high. However, our elite swimmers need a
strong grass-roots programme from which to emerge. The transition from C. Processes
learn-to-swim to club competition is an area of concern, which is being
investigated.
Sponsors and government support allowed us to put in place a high A. Stakeholders
performance support programme to assist our swimmers reach the
performance levels they have.
Australian Swimming in conjunction with State Swimming Associations C. Processes
continues to support the grassroots levels of the sport. A. Stakeholders
In recent years, the Federal government, through the ASC, have urged A. Stakeholders
National Sporting Bodies to implement specific Sport Harassment policies
in the areas of administration, coaching, athlete participation and
officiating. B. Practices

Source: Australian Swimming (2000).

Each overarching subcategory had numerous subcategories. The subcategories of ‘Sport

Development Stakeholders’, for instance, included:
1 Governments (e.g. Federal, state and local governments and their agencies)
 Using GT in sport management research 137

2 Sporting Organizations (e.g. NSOs, SSOs, clubs and affiliations)

3 Significant others (e.g. volunteers, paid staff, coaches, umpires and sponsors).
As the above examples suggest, each subcategory had its own subcategories. ‘Significant
others’, for example, was the term used to describe all the sport development
stakeholders that were involved with sport development in an operational and
sport policy implementation role. These included volunteers, paid staff, sport members,
coaches, umpires and sponsors.
Glaser (1992) argued that, once identified, the categories must be saturated by
theoretical coding. Theoretical codes represent the relationships that are discovered to
relate the substantive codes to each theoretically. Figure 2 displays the substantive (open)
and theoretical codes identified by this research and their relationships.

Figure 2 Substantive (open) and theoretical codes

An example of subsequent coding of the code Sport Development Stakeholders

(or category 1) for identification of its properties revealed that stakeholders were
involved with the Sport Development Practices (or category 2) (i.e. player development
programmes, facilities/training camps/venues, coaches, umpires and administration/
management, promotions and competitions/events) through either initiating them
(e.g. government and sporting organisations) or assisting with their implementation
(e.g. significant other sport development stakeholders). These practices, depending on
which sport development segment they are designed for (e.g. junior, women, indigenous
or senior participants), result in three Sport Development Processes (or category 3)
(i.e. attraction, retention/transition and nurturing process).
Once categories and their subcategories were shaped it was relatively simple to
theoretically code data, reorder it and group the passages where comments on each
category and its subcategories were evidenced. Therefore, theoretical coding was a
‘property of coding and constant comparative analysis’ (p.38) that generated the
conceptual relationship between categories and their properties as they emerged.
138 K. Sotiriadou and D. Shilbury

The theoretical codes enable the analyst “to see the research, the data and the concepts in
new ways to be used for generating theory” (Glaser, 1992, p.29). Therefore, theoretical
coding generates the conceptual relationships between categories and their properties as
they emerge. Eventually, the three categories and their subcategories began to become
integrated and the ‘stakeholder’s involvement with sport development’ emerged as the
core category.
Data comparisons were also performed from a general to a more specific level.
Comparisons started at a general level, by comparing sport to sport. For example, data
found within a high profile Olympic sport, such as athletics, were compared with data
of thematic similarity of a low profile non-Olympic sport, such as orienteering.
Following this, comparisons within the same sports were conducted. A series of annual
reports from the same sport were used to compare the same or similar incidents across
different time periods. For example, Gymnastics Australia’s annual reports from 1999 to
2001 (Gymnastics Australia, 1999, 2000, 2001), were compared for the potential change
in their views regarding the role of coaches in sport development. These comparisons
illustrated a consistency in their beliefs on the importance of coaches in building a
significant base for the future regardless of time.
The process of constant comparison and analytic induction previously described
(see Figure 1) enables emerging concepts to be informed, shaped and reshaped by the
variety of conditions encountered through going back on the field or pool of data for
additional information to enrich our understanding of the categories and their properties/
characteristics. Hence, one case or set of data leads to the next for collection of more
information that helps explain the properties of a category. The process of analytic
induction continues until an adequate level of explanation of the social process under
investigation is provided, resulting in dense, complex theory which corresponds closely
to data (Soulliere et al., 2001). Eisenhardt (1989) reinforced the argument that a constant
comparison offers new insights from the data and yields ‘an empirically valid theory’
(p.541).
Constant comparison has been applied through every step of data selection, coding
and analysis, from the initial identification of concepts to the very end of theory
generation and its integration with the extant literature. In particular, the constant
comparison of incident to incident, a concept to more incidents and concept to concept
with the purpose of finding the best fit of concepts to a hypothesis as suggested by Glaser
(1978) was employed in this study. Ultimately, similarities and differences indicated
patterns that were used as part of the theory development.

5.3 Memo-writing and sorting

Memos are notes the researchers make to themselves about hypotheses they have
concerning a category or property and particularly about relationships between
categories. These hypotheses are not to be tested but are reflective of the researcher’s
ideas, thoughts and reflections about the data. Glaser (1992) defined memos as
“the theorizing write-up of ideas as they emerge, while coding for categories, their
properties and their theoretical codes” (p.108). While coding makes visible some of the
theory’s components, formulating memos adds to the relationships which link the
categories to each other (Dick, 2000).
Table 2 shows what a memo looks like and what memoing achieves in terms of
analyses and theory emergence. In this example, the memo shows how concepts
 Using GT in sport management research 139

identified from a particular case, the 2000 Rugby Union annual report (Australian Rugby
Union, 2000), lead to further exploration of relationships and concept development.
More specifically, the memo from a rugby union annual report led to further comparisons
and exploration of various emerging concepts such as the importance of stakeholder
teamwork to successful sport development.

Table 2 Example of Memo

The 2000 Rugby Union annual report (Australian Rugby Union, 2000) states that
“Participation, income, attendances, media profile: all these litmus tests for the health of the
game are good. We can build on this with a continuing commitment from all levels of the
ARU’s operations and the continued harmony between the ARU and its member unions”.
There are three issues of importance here: (a) the continuation of commitment, (b) the recurring
emphasis on the teamwork (harmony) between different parties involved as an important
ingredient for successful sport development and (c) that the health of the sport is a result of a
number of components rather than success at one level. These issues are regularly appearing in
annual reports so far. However, it seems that these concepts are not fully elucidated. I need to
explore these issues further by selecting more cases and make comparisons between them. It
would be interesting to see whether a smaller sport such as squash experiences similar
relationships.

As the analyst compares codes with codes and their properties, he or she starts grouping,
regrouping, fracturing and refracturing data. This stage of analysis becomes highly
complicated. The writing of memos helps the researcher to record their thoughts, ideas
and observations in an informal way that allows a close reflection of the analyses and
assists with data integration around the main categories and the refinement of the
emerging theory. Collectively, the use of memos in GT is important since, based on
Strauss and Corbin (1998), memos force the analyst to work with concepts rather than
with raw data, act as reflections of analytic thought, and give conceptual density and
integration.
Finally, it is the sorting of memos that enables clear patterns to emerge from data.
Even though the sorting process can be used at the very early stages (this includes sorting
of substantive and theoretical codes), it is the sorting of memos, at later stages of
analyses, that assist in deriving categories. Essentially, the sorting of all memos puts the
fractured data and memos back together. The emergent product of this sorting is the
outline for writing. Hence, as the analyst sorts the memos, the outline for writing
emerges and the researcher follows it to inform and formulate the theory.

5.4 Theoretical saturation, storyline and analytic story

An additional function of using theoretical sampling in GT studies is to reach theoretical
saturation. Theoretical saturation (or saturation of themes) is the point at which new
categories or variations on existing categories cease to emerge from new data (Soulliere
et al., 2001). When information gets repetitive and adds little if anything to the existing
categories or codes, the researcher knows it is time to cease collecting data or analysing
the category that has reached saturation.
In the sport development study, after the GT coding processes and the sorting of
memos were completed, the analysts attempted to establish a storyline. The storyline is a
brief descriptive account that summarises the essence of what the research is about.
The aim of this step is “to elaborate the core category around which the other developed
140 K. Sotiriadou and D. Shilbury

categories can be grouped and by which they are integrated” (Flick, 1998, pp.184–185).
In this way, descriptive overviews elaborated the story of sport development in Australia,
which was a goal of that research. However, the analysis went beyond this descriptive
level when the storyline was elaborated through an analytical story (Creswell, 1998;
Fielding and Lee, 1998). In essence, the generation of a GT depends on the
transformation of the codes’ and subcodes’ descriptive account into a storyline.
This stage of analysis transformed the categories and subcategories into precise
themes that formed the section headings for the sport development research results,
discussion and interpretation. The interaction between data and concepts culminated
when enough categories and associated concepts had been defined to explain the
phenomena under investigation, any additional data collected provided no information to
the set of concepts and categories developed, and thus theoretical saturation was
achieved.

5.5 Review of literature and theory writing

When writing the analytic story, the researcher is required to continuously review the
relevant literature. At this stage, the analyst treats literature as secondary data that can
supplement primary data. Constant comparison of the results to the existing literature
supports the data (reinforces or contradicts it) and gives depth to the theory.
In the relationships between stakeholder subcategory 1a. (Governments) and stakeholder
subcategory 1b. (Sporting Organizations), the themes uncovered related to
‘inter-organisational dependence’, ‘financial viability’ and ‘organisation best practice’.
These themes connect the following quote (see Table 3) from the sport development
study exemplifying how existing literature on sport governance and organisational theory
may help interpret the emerged results.

Table 3 An example of use of literature review in GT studies

The Australian Gymnastic Federation (Gymnastics Australia, 1999), for example, recognise its
substantial dependence ‘upon Government funding to maintain its level of operations’ (p.1).
NSOs believe that this is due to their difficulties in attaining the number of staff necessary to
meet operational needs. Shilbury (2000) argued that immaturity on the part of some sporting
organisations in Australia limits their ability to be financially autonomous. He claimed that
“the readiness to manage increasingly complex structures, and their willingness to consider
alternative forms of organisation, structure and management procedures to ensure best
practice…has not yet fully reconciled” (p.200).

For the purposes of building a thorough analytic story, the literature is used for
supplemental validation (Creswell, 1998); that is, the analyst cites relevant literature to
validate the accuracy of the findings or to point out how the findings differ from
published literature. For the purposes of theory validation, CCM remained the
researcher’s core process. The aim was to compare existing literature to the emerging
theory in the same way that data were compared to the emerging theory. According to
Eisenhardt (1989), this involves asking “what is this similar to, what does it contradict,
and why” (p.544).
GT involves building bridges from the emergent theory to the existing literature by
comparing the two in terms of similarities and differences. In this way, the relevant
literature becomes integrated into the evolving theory. The key to this process is to
consider a broad range of literature. This includes the examination of literature that
 Using GT in sport management research 141

conflicts with the emergent theory and literature that discusses similar findings. In the
sport development research, for instance, theories and studies from diverse areas such as
sport marketing, sport management, event management, sport sociology, organisational
theory, strategic management, project management, stakeholder and policy analysis and
human resource management were compared for similarities and differences.
Comparisons with conflicting frameworks improve construct definitions and
therefore internal validity (Pandit, 1996). Eisenhardt (1989) explained that if the
researcher ignores conflicting findings, then confidence in the findings is reduced.
In turn, the study’s internal validity and generalisability is challenged. The importance of
integrating literature that discusses similar findings is “it ties together underlying
similarities in phenomena normally not associated with each other. The result is often a
theory with stronger internal validity, wider generalizability, and higher conceptual
level” (Eisenhardt, 1989, p.544). Pandit (1996) added that the comparison with similar
frameworks improves external validity by establishing the domain to which the study’s
findings can be generalised. Even so, grounded theorists consider the explanatory power
of the emergent theory and its ability to predict and explain situations rather than its
generalisability.

5.6 The resulting theory

Open and theoretical coding processes, making the connections/relationships between
emerging categories and their properties, constant comparisons of data with the aim to
saturate codes and the establishment of a core category that facilitates the writing up of
the analytic story enabled the researchers to gain an enhanced understanding of the
phenomena at hand, the sport development processes. The unique contribution of GT to
that study was that it allowed for a framework on sport development processes to emerge
rather trying to fit the categories within the existing sport pyramid framework. Hence,
what distinguishes GT from other qualitative research methods is its emphasis on theory
development and emergence rather fit of preexisting variables within the phenomena
being studied.
Apart from the role of GT to allow the researcher to study phenomena without having
to fit them into a predetermined research design such as the sport development pyramid,
a combination of other practical and theoretical contributions may result from using GT
in sport management research. For instance, the theory that emerged has the following
characteristics:
1 Is traceable and true to the data that gave rise to it (e.g. the NSO annual reports)
since that data indicated the theory.
2 The theory gives a detailed account of the area under investigation. It has an
inherent explanatory power and is conceptually dense in terms of richness of
concept development and relationships, which rest on great familiarity with
associated data.
3 Is readily understandable to practitioners such as sport managers, sport
development officers, sport policy developers, academics and other researchers
of any viewpoint. As a practical implication, it offers a means of communicating
the researchers’ understanding to those in the area studied, either as a basis for
discussion or as a vehicle for implementing change.
142 K. Sotiriadou and D. Shilbury

4 Allows for further investigation/verification studies that test the framework

nationally or even internationally under different circumstances (adapted from
Lye et al. (1997)).
The need for further research lies on the distinguishing factor between GT and other
qualitative research methods, that is, its emphasis on theory development. Grounded
theories can be either substantive (localised knowledge) or formal (abstract knowledge)
(Strauss and Corbin, 1994). A substantive theory is grounded in research on a specific
content area (e.g. sport development) and evolves from the study of a phenomenon
situated in a particular context (e.g. the Australian sport industry). In contrast, formal
theory pertains to a conceptual area (e.g. development) and therefore emerges from the
study of a phenomenon examined under several different types of situations.
The research on sport development offered a substantive theory on the sport
development processes as it pertained to a specific rather than general context and
situation and examined a specific area of inquiry. Subsequently, it should not try to
explain situations for which there was no data. The theory on sport development is the
stepping stone for a formal theory with a wider scope to emerge from subsequent studies.
Substantive theories are readily available for further research to test their applicability
and to develop a formal theory with wider scope.
Glaser and Strauss (1967) first presented the notion of developing higher order
grounded theories by moving from substantive to formal theory. Expansion of the
research focus and application of elements of a GT developed in one area to other topics
or populations, thereby extending the original theory, achieve the shift from substantive
to formal theory. More important, GT research is viewed as “the foundation
for subsequent deductive studies that test out the resulting theory or interventions based
on it” (Oshansky, 1996, p.394). In summary, Glaser (1992) asserted that GT offers the
“bridge to seeing the same problem and processes in other areas so the researcher can
further inform his theory and develop comparative substantive theory and formal theory”
(p.15).

6 Conclusion

This paper contributes to the extended literature of GT by clarifying the use of an

existing research method using sport as its context. More specifically, this paper
promotes an understanding and argues for a wider application of GT in a field that is
relatively new and has largely neglected the use of GT. The use of GT in the sport
development research proved suitable for and provided empirical sport policy analysis in
relation to sport development as it allowed open and theoretical codes and their
relationships to emerge as they are understood by the NSOs. As a consequence, this
paper is indicative of the merits of GT to the general discipline of sport management,
when the research objective is to examine and explain sports related phenomena and their
embedded processes.
This suggests it is equally important that sport management phenomena, such as sport
development, are researched in their natural setting to understand their social
constructions. Hence, this paper proposes and prompts the consideration of the use of a
naturalistic approach, as a viable option as opposed to automatically employing the more
structured theory driven scientific approach to sport management research. In recognition
of the need for research that studies sport management phenomena within every-day life,
 Using GT in sport management research 143

GT is suggested as a viable naturalistic approach to research that can enrich our

understanding of the social constructions of sport.
The aim of this paper was to foster an integration of alternative viewpoints in doing
research hence prevent dominant managerial ideas continually being circulated making it
harder for other views to become accepted in sport management. The significance of this
paper lies in its illustration of how powerful an approach to doing sport management
research GT can be in allowing sport phenomena to emerge. Amis and Silk (2005)
urge us to “understand sport management in its wider political, economic, and
ideological context” (p.358). They embrace the value of multiple approaches to
doing research in order to ‘provide a more holistic understanding of sport
management-related issues’ (p.363). To push sport management research boundaries,
Costa suggests (2005) the field should strive for stronger research, stronger links
between theory and practice, and improved doctoral training that embraces innovative
ways of doing research.
As GT evolves it becomes clear it can be used in various disciplines including sport
management research. This can influence the development of sport management through
multiple ways. For instance, this paper presents guidelines to decide when to use GT and
offers the know-how for immediate GT application. This can advance sport management
researchers’ conceptual and methodological skills through shaping their understanding of
GT, and may influence their decision to use GT. Consequently, this paper aims to trigger
further scholarly research and recommends GT as an important qualitative method to be
integrated in research and teaching. Through GT the discipline of sport management can
be enriched and advanced.

References
Amis, J. and Silk, M. (2005) ‘Rupture: promoting critical and innovative approaches to the study of
sport management’, Journal of Sport Management, Vol. 19, pp.355–366.
Annells, M. (1996) ‘Grounded theory method: philosophical perspectives, paradigm of inquiry, and
postmodernism’, Qualitative Health Research, Vol. 6, pp.379–393.
Australian Rugby Union (2000) Annual Report 2000, North Sydney, NSW: Author.
Australian Swimming (2000) Australian Swimming 91st Annual Report, Belconnen, ACT: Author.
Babchuk, W. (1997) ‘Glaser or Strauss? Grounded theory and adult education’, Paper presented at
the Midwest Research-To-Practice Conference in Adult, Continuity and Community
Education, Michigan.
Bramham, P., Hylton, K., Jackson, D. and Nesti, M. (2001) ‘Introduction’, in K. Hylton,
P. Bramham, D. Jackson and M. Nesti (Eds). Sport Development: Policy, Process and
Practice, pp.1–6, London: Routeldge.
Brink, P.J. (1989) ‘Issues in reliability and validity’, in J.M. Morse (Ed). Qualitative Nursing
Research: A Contemporary Dialogue, pp.151–167, Rockville, MD: Aspen.
Broadhead, R. (1983) Private Lives and Professional Identity of Medical Students,
New Brunswisk, NJ: Transaction Books.
Carlson, N.M. and McCaslin, M. (2003) ‘Meta-Inquiry: an approach to interview success’,
The Qualitative Report, Vol. 8, pp.549–569.
Charmaz, K. (1987) ‘Struggling for a self: identity levels of the chronically ill’, in P. Conrad and
I. Roth (Eds). The Experience and Management of Chronic Illness, pp.293–321, Greenwich,
CT: JAI Press.
Charmaz, K. (2003) ‘Grounded theory: objectivist and constructivist methods’, in N.K. Denzin and
Y.S. Lincoln (Eds). Strategies of Qualitative Inquiry, 2nd edition, Thousand Oaks: Sage.
144 K. Sotiriadou and D. Shilbury

Coakley, J. (2004) Sports in Society: Issues and Controversies, 8th edition, Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Costa, C. (2005) ‘The status and future of sport management: a Delphi study’, Journal of Sport
Management, Vol. 19, pp.117–142.
Creswell, J.W. (1998) Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing among Five Traditions,
Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Dick, B. (2000) ‘Grounded theory: a thumbnail sketch’, Resource Papers in Action Research,
A Publication of the Graduate College of Management, Southern Cross University, Retrieved
on 28 February 2005, Available at: http://www.scu.edu.au/schools/gcm/ar/arp/grounded.html.
Donnelly, P. (1991) ‘Sport and the state in socialist countries’, in F. Landry, M. Landry and
M. Yerles (Eds). Sport: The Third Millennium, pp.303–310, Quebec, Canada: Les Presses De
l'Universite Laval.
Eady, J. (1993) Practical Sports Development, London: Pitman.
Eccles, D.W., Walsh, S.E. and Ingledew, D.K. (2002) ‘A grounded theory of expert cognition in
orienteering’, Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, Vol. 24, pp.68–89.
Edwards, I., Jones, M., Carr, J., Braunack-Mayer, A. and Jensen, G.M. (2004) ‘Clinical reasoning
strategies in physical therapy report’, Physical Therapy, Vol. 84, pp.312–331.
Eisenhardt, K.M. (1989) ‘Building theories from case studies’, Academy of Management Review,
Vol. 14, pp.532–551.
Fielding, N. and Lee, R. (1998) Computer Analysis and Qualitative Research, London: Sage.
Flick, U. (1998) An Introduction to Qualitative Research, London: Sage.
Fortunato, V. and Marchant, D. (1999) ‘Forced retirement from elite football in Australia’,
Journal of Personal and Interpersonal Loss, Vol. 4, pp.269–281.
Frisby, W. (2005) ‘The good, the bad, and the ugly: critical sport management research’,
Journal of Sport Management, Vol. 19, pp.1–12.
Giacobbi Jr., P.R., Hausenblas, H.A., Fallon, E.A. and Hall, C. (2003) ‘Even more about exercise
imagery: a grounded theory of exercise imagery’, Journal of Applied Sport Psychology,
Vol. 15, pp.160–176.
Glaser, B. (1978) Theoretical Sensitivity: Advances in the Methodology of Grounded Theory,
Mill Valley: Sociology Press.
Glaser, B. (1992) Emergence vs Forcing: Basics of Grounded Theory Analysis, Mill Valley:
Sociology Press.
Glaser, B. and Strauss, A. (1965) Awareness of Dying, Hawthorne, NY: Aldine.
Glaser, B. and Strauss, A. (1967) The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative
Research, Chicago: Aldine.
Gymnastics Australia (1999) Annual Report 1999, Hawthorn East, VIC: Author.
Gymnastics Australia (2000) Annual Report 2000, Surrey Hills, VIC: Author.
Gymnastics Australia (2001) Annual Report 2001, Surrey Hills, VIC: Author.
Haig, B.D. (1996) ‘Grounded theory as scientific method’, Philosophy of Education, a Publication
of the Philosophy of Education Society, Retrieved on 28 February 2005, Available at:
http://www.ed.uiuc.edu/EPS/PES-yearbook/95_docs/haig.html.
Hall, W.A. and Callery, P. (2001) ‘Enhancing the rigor of grounded theory: incorporating
reflexivity and relationality’, Qualitative Health Research, Vol. 11, pp.257–272.
Hassard, J. (1990) ‘Multiple paradigms and organisational analysis: a case study’, Organisational
Studies, Vol. 12, pp.275–299.
Hogan, K. and Norton, K. (2000) ‘The ‘price’ of Olympic gold’, Journal of Science and Medicine
in Sport, Vol. 3, pp.203–218.
Lye, J., Perera, H. and Rahman, A. (1997) Grounded Theory: A Theory Discovery Method for
Accounting Research, Research Paper Series: 97-07, The University of Melbourne, Australia,
Department of Accounting and Finance.
 Using GT in sport management research 145

Mahoney, D.F. and Pitts, B.G. (1998) ‘Research outlets in sport marketing: the need for increased
specialization’, Journal of Sport Management, Vol. 12, pp.355–366.
Markula, P. and Friend, L.A. (2005) ‘Remember when…Memory-work as an interpretive
methodology for sport management’, Journal of Sport Management, Vol. 19, pp.442–463.
Minichiello, V., Aroni, R., Timewell, E. and Alexander, L. (1995) In-depth Interviewing:
Principles, Techniques, Analysis, 2nd edition, Sydney: Longman.
Olafson, G.A. (1990) ‘Research design in sport management: What’s missing, what’s needed?’
Journal of Sport Management, Vol. 4, pp.103–120.
Oshansky, E.F. (1996) ‘Theoretical issues in building a grounded theory: application of an example
of a program of research on infertility’, Qualitative Health Research, Vol. 6,
pp.394–404.
Pandit, N.R. (1996) ‘The creation of theory: a recent application of the grounded theory method’,
The Qualitative Report, Vol. 2, Retrieved on 28 February 2005, Available at:
http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR2-4/pandit.html.
Parks, J.B., Shewokis, P.A. and Costa, C. (1999) ‘Using statistical power analysis in sport
management research’, Journal of Sport Management, Vol. 13, pp.139–147.
Pauleen, D.J. and Yoong, P. (2004) ‘Studying human-centered IT innovation using a grounded
theory action learning approach’, The Qualitative Report, Vol. 9, pp.137–160.
Reed, S. and Giacobbi Jr., P.R. (2004) ‘The stress and coping responses of certified graduate
athletic training students’, Journal of Athletic Training, Vol. 39, pp.193–201.
Resnik, M.L. and Moran, T.M. (2002) ‘Grounded theory: a qualitative research methodology for
physical therapy’, Physiotherapy Theory and Practice, Vol. 18, pp.109–121.
Rinehart, R.E. (2005) ‘“Experiencing” sport management: the use of personal narrative in sport
management studies’, Journal of Sport Management, Vol. 19, pp.497–522.
Schultz, M. and Hatch, M.J. (1996) ‘Living with multiple paradigms: the case of paradigm
interplay in organizational culture studies’, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 21,
pp.529–557.
Shilbury, D. (2000) ‘Considering future sport delivery systems’, Sport Management Review,
Vol. 3, pp.199–221.
Shilbury, D., Deane, J. and Kellett, P. (2006) Sport Management in Australia: An Organisational
Overview, 3rd edition, Melbourne: Strategic Sport Management.
Silverman, D. (2000) ‘Analyzing talk and text’, in N.K. Denzil and Y.S. Lincoln (Eds). Handbook
of Qualitative Research, Thousand Oaks: CA, Sage, pp.821–834.
Sirin, S.R., Diemer, M.A., Jackson, L.R., Gonsalves, L. and Howell, A. (2004) ‘Future aspirations
of urban adolescents: a person-in-context model’, International Journal of Qualitative Studies
in Education (QSE), Vol. 17, pp.437–460.
Smith, C.T.A. and Shilbury, D. (2004) ‘Mapping cultural dimensions in Australian sporting
organisations’, Sport Management Review, Vol. 7, pp.133–166.
Soulliere, D., Britt, D.W. and Maines, D.R. (2001) ‘Conceptual modeling as a toolbox for grounded
theorists’, Sociological Quarterly, Vol. 42, pp.253–270.
Strauss, A. and Corbin, J. (1990) Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory Procedures
and Techniques, Newbury Park: Sage.
Strauss, A. and Corbin, J. (1994) ‘Grounded theory methodology: an overview’, in N.K. Denzil and
Y.S. Lincoln (Eds). Handbook of Qualitative Research, pp.273–285, Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Strauss, A. and Corbin, J. (1998) Basics of Qualitative Research: Techniques and Procedures for
developing Grounded Theory, 2nd edition, Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Torregrosa, M., Boixados, M., Valiente, L. and Cruz, J. (2004) ‘Elite athletes’ images of
retirement: the way to relocation in sport’, Psychology of Sport and Exercise, Vol. 5,
pp.35–44.
 146 K. Sotiriadou and D. Shilbury

Turner, B.A. (1981) ‘Some practical aspects of qualitative data analysis: one way of organising the
cognitive processes associated with the generation of grounded theory’, Quality and Quantity,
Vol. 15, pp.225–247.
Veal, A.J. (1994) Leisure Policy and Planning, Essex: Longman.
Wells, K. (1995) ‘The strategy of grounded theory: possibilities and problems’, Social Work
Research, Vol. 19, pp.33–37.
Wimpenny, P. and Gass, I. (2000) ‘Interviewing in phenomenology and grounded theory: Is there a
difference?’ Journal of Advanced Nursing, Vol. 31, pp.1485–1492.

Notes
1
Basic ontological questions are concerned with what is reality and what can be know about it,
whereas epistemological questions ask what the relationship between the researcher and the
research object(s) may be. Ontological and epistemological variations create methodological
implications (Annells, 1996).
2
The constructivist paradigm of inquiry perceives the nature of reality as a “local and specific
mental construction formed by a person and multiple mental constructions collectively exist
regarding reality (relativism)” (Annells, 1996, p.385).
3
Phenomenology aims to reveal the objects or phenomena to which we attach meanings to.

View publication stats