pISSN 2384-1095 iMRI 2020;24:95-122

[Link]
eISSN 2384-1109

A Review on the RF Coil Designs and

Trends for Ultra High Field Magnetic
Resonance Imaging
Daniel Hernandez, Kyoung-Nam Kim
Department of Biomedical Engineering, Gachon University, Incheon, Korea

In this article, we evaluated the performance of radiofrequency (RF) coils in terms of

the signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) and homogeneity of magnetic resonance images when
used for ultrahigh-frequency (UHF) 7T magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). High-
quality MRI can be obtained when these two basic requirements are met. However,
Review Article because of the dielectric effect, 7T magnetic resonance imaging still produces
essentially a non-uniform magnetic flux (|B 1|) density distribution. In general,
heterogeneous and homogeneous RF coils may be designed using electromagnetic
(EM) modeling. Heterogeneous coils, which are surface coils, are used in consideration
Received: April 7, 2020
Revised: April 7, 2020 of scalability in the |B1| region with a high S/N as multichannel loop coils rather than
Accepted: May 11, 2020 selecting a single loop. Loop coils are considered state of the art for their simplicity
yet effective |B1|-field distribution and intensity. In addition, combining multiple
Correspondence to: loop coils allows phase arrays (PA). PA coils have gained great interest for use in
Kyoung-Nam Kim, Ph.D. receiving signals because of parallel imaging (PI) techniques, such as sensitivity
Department of Biomedical
encoding (SENSE) and generalized autocalibrating partial parallel acquisition
Engineering, Gachon University,
191, Hambakmoe-ro, yeonsu-gu, (GRAPPA), which drastically reduce the acquisition time. With the introduction of a
Incheon 21936, Korea. parallel transmit coil (pTx) system, a form of transceiver loop arrays has also been
Tel. +82-32-820-4263 proposed. In this article, we discussed the applications and proposed designs of loop
Fax. +82-32-460-8230 coils. RF homogeneous coils for volume imaging include Alderman-Grant resonators,
E-mail: [Link]@
birdcage coils, saddle coils, traveling wave coils, transmission line arrays, composite
[Link]
right-/left-handed arrays, and fusion coils. In this article, we also discussed the basic
operation, design, and applications of these coils.

Keywords: Radiofrequency coil; Magnetic resonance imaging; Magnetic flux density;

Homogeneity
This is an Open Access article distributed
under the terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution Non-Commercial License
([Link]
by-nc/4.0/) which permits unrestricted
non-commercial use, distribution, and INTRODUCTION
reproduction in any medium, provided
the original work is properly cited.
Radiofrequency (RF) coils are a vital part of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). It is
through RF coils that a magnetic flux (|B1|)-field is transmitted to the imaging object
to excite protons, which, in turn, emit RF signals, which are then captured by the RF
Copyright © 2020 Korean Society
coils (1). The main function of the RF coils is to transmit (Tx) and receive (Rx) signals.
of Magnetic Resonance in When the imaging object is exposed to a strong magnetic (|B0|)-field of the MRI
Medicine (KSMRM) scanner, its spins are magnetized, aligning them with the |B0|-field. Consequently, a
perpendicular magnetic field is excited using an RF Tx coil, and the RF magnetic pulse
deviates the spins vector from the aligned direction of |B0|-field. The stronger the RF

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 RF Coils for UHF MRI | Daniel Hernandez, et al.

pulse, the farther the magnetization tilts or flips, which is than images acquired at lower field strengths (13-15).
called the flip angle (θ ) (2). After an RF pulse is applied, One of the challenges in using a stronger |B0|-field is that
the spins return to their initial condition, or precessing of the operational frequency also increases, as shown by the
magnetization, which produces an induced current on the Larmor frequency. For instance, Figure 2 shows the |B1|-
RF Rx coil. The signal acquired using the Rx coil is called field excited by a loop coil at different |B0|-field strengths
the MR signal that carries information about the imaging and, consequently, the frequency. The field distribution is
object in the magnetization form. The operating frequency uniform at 1.5T and 3T, with corresponding frequencies of
of the Tx and Rx coils that is equal to the Larmor frequency 64 and 128 MHz, respectively. Starting from 4.7T to 11.0T
(ωr) denotes the relation between the strength of the |B0|- (200 to 500 MHz), the field distribution begins to lose its
field and the type of nucleus (3). For example, the Larmor uniformity, given the interaction between the sample’s
frequency for a 7T MRI magnet and 1H nucleus is ~297 electrical properties and the reduced wavelength of the
MHz. The RF coils are designed to operate as Tx, Rx, or Tx/Rx enhanced magnetic field (16). In this article, we introduce
coils. Generally, for low-frequency systems (< 3 T), a volume and discuss the recent developments and designs of RF
coil of body size was used for Tx with a separate local Rx- coils used for high-frequency (> 3T) MRI, from traditional
only coil, and this was the preferred setup. However, a Tx/ surface loop coils and birdcage (BC) coils to more advanced
Rx coil is preferred for high frequencies, such as 7T, because methods, such as coils that use the traveling waves and
the |B1|-field uniformity of the large coils deteriorates at metamaterial theory. We also discuss the different proposed
high frequencies (4). approaches to obtain a uniformly distributed |B1|-field for
RF coils are evaluated by their signal-to-noise ratio (S/ high-frequency applications.
N) and the ability to produce a uniform |B1|-field (5, 6). In
general, Rx coils are required to have a high S/N, while Tx
coils are expected to produce a uniform |B1|-field over the ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY AND MODELING
field of view (FOV). These two parameters are the aim of the
design and development of a new type of RF coil for MRI. Electromagnetic Theory
Every MRI scan includes either random or systematic The design and development of RF coils are based on
noise, which can produce artifacts in the reconstructed the physics of MR signal generation and acquisition. As
image. The noise in MRI is a random signal that is added stated previously, the current in the RF coil transmits the
to the real MR signal; therefore, it has a mean value of 0 electromagnetic (EM) field into the imaging object (17, 18).
(7-9). The noise level is often calculated as the standard The general representation of the transmitted |B1|-field can
deviation (SD) of the noise. Therefore, the S/N of an MRI be represented as
scan can be increased by repeating the same scan several
times, which is called signal averaging; every factor of √2 B1 = xB1x + yB1y + zB1z .
improvement in the S/N costs a factor of 2 in scan time (10).
The disadvantage of signal averaging, however, is that the Since |B0| is in the positive z-direction, the z-component
scan time also increases by the averaging number. does not contribute to flipping the spins from the starting
The normal operation of a single RF coil can detect MR position. In addition, the x- and y-components excite
signals from a linear-polarized (LP) |B1|-field. However, to the spins during MRI, creating a CP component of the
increase the strength of the received MR signal, RF coils are transverse magnetic field, as follows:
designed to operate in circular-polarized (CP) mode. Such
B1 1
coils require a quadrature hybrid interface that combines B1 = (x-jy) · = (B -jB ) .
2 2 1x 1y
signals from both channels with a 90° phase difference
between them. Using CP mode, the S/N can be increased by For the reception, the acquired signal is assumed
√2 compared to LP mode (11, 12). proportional to the excited (19, 20) and receiver fields.
Using a stronger |B0|-field also helps increase the S/N This assumption holds only at low flip angles and can be
and image quality. Figure 1a shows different S/N values represented as
obtained with a 3T MR image of the brain and a 7T MR
image. Figure 1b shows cardiac MR images obtained using MR signal ∝ B1 × Receiver field.
1.5T, 3T, and 7T MRI. A 7T MR image shows better details

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Fig. 1. (a) Brain MR images

comparing the S/N between 3T
(left) and 7T (middle) MRI and
the percentage change in the S/N
(right). (b) Cardiac MR images taken
with a 1.5T (left), 3T (middle), and
7T (right) MRI system.
b

Ibrahim and Hoult suggested a similar concept of a The |B1|-field represents the excited field, and the receiver
receiver magnetic field. The Hoult’s receiver 'was considered |B1-|-component can be defined as the CP component of
as the excited field. Therefore, the relationship between |B1+|
and |B1-| will have opposite rotation directions.
1 * Reciprocity theory (20) says that receiver and excited
B1= (x+jy)·B1 ,
2 fields are mutually dependent. The voltage induced in
antenna χ by another antenna ψ is identical to that induced
which exhibits a negatively rotating frame field. For the in ψ by χ. Assume that χ is the receiver coil (one antenna)
Ibrahim’s receiver, the reception sensitivity (|B1-|) represents and ψ is a magnetic current source resulting from the
the CP field in opposite rotation in relation to the |B1+|- typically defined MRI transverse magnetization, that is, the
field and is defined as follows: already excited spin(s) (another antenna). Hypothetically,
(x+jy)×B1 B +jB the voltage induced on ψ by χ is proportional to a vector
B1 = = 1x 1y . representing the polarization of the field that χ transmits
2 2

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 RF Coils for UHF MRI | Daniel Hernandez, et al.

Fig. 2. |B1|-field distribution inside

a cylindrical phantom excited
with a loop coil at different B 0-
field strengths, showing |B1|-field
uniformity dependency on the
Larmor frequency.

and the conjugate of a polarization vector that represents where the magnetic field is measured. The so-called
a field perfectly received by ψ. This latter field is |B1+|, and phantom models consist of different boundary conditions
its conjugate is |B1-|. Note that although the transmission and geometric and material properties. Therefore, using
is from χ (receiver coil) to ψ (magnetic current source/MRI EM simulation is an important part of RF coil engineering.
transverse magnetization/excited spin(s)) in this situation Computational electromagnetics (CEM) includes an array
(reaction theory), it is completely unrelated to the process of techniques used to efficiently compute approximations
of exciting spins, as defined in MRI (21). to Maxwell’s equations (23-25). In doing so, CEM enables
RF coils are preferred to have an optimized performance, modeling of these complex electrodynamic systems.
either by transmitting or receiving EM field in the more Two more common types of CEM methods to perform RF
efficient way possible, for this reason the quality factor coil design simulations are integral-equation solvers and
is consider for the design of RF coils. The quality factor differential-equation solvers (26). The preferred algorithm
(22) which is defined as the relationship between circuit used for integral-equation solvers is the method of moments
parameters; inductance L, resistance R, and capacitance C: and the multilevel fast multipole method. The numerical
methods that use differential-equation solvers include
2πf0L 1 L . the finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) method and the
Q= =
R R C finite-element method (FEM) (27). The most common EM
simulation software applications used in RF coil design
The ratio r defines the coil quality factor when it is loaded and applications are high-frequency structure simulator
(Qsample) or unloaded (Qunloaded) with a sample, as (HFSS) (28), Sim4Life (29), Comsol Multiphysics (30), and
FEldberechnung für Körper mit beliebiger Oberfläche (FEKO)
r = Qunloaded/Qsample = 1 + Rsample / (Rcoil + Rextra). (31). All these software applications use either of the two
types of solvers.
The aim is to maximize r to achieve an optimal S/N. FEM involves solving for differential equations using
finite differences and other standard techniques that are
Electromagnetic Modeling Methods numerically stable approximations of the problem space’s
Using the mathematical models of EM theory in the partial-differential and integral equations.
development of RF coils is complicated without the use of With FDTD (a full-wave solving technique), partial-
computer software. Most RF coil designs comprise perfect differential versions of Maxwell’s equations are adjusted
electrical conductor (PEC) geometries and complex samples to central-difference equations and then discretized. FDTD

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solves the electric field before the magnetic field in two EM simulations for each excitation port and combined
offset rectilinear grids at a specific time, and the calculation together (35, 36), and an optimization routine was also
progresses across the problem space. used. Following the concept of |B1| shimming with a two-
We use Fourier techniques with these computational port BC coil, the use of multiple Tx coils that can transmit
results to approximate the frequency-domain behavior. with independent amplitude and phase was proposed
Note that time is the varying factor. As long as the time (37-39). One consisted of a 12-element phase array
resolution is narrow enough to fulfill the Nyquist-Shannon (PA) transmission electron microscopy coil for 3T using
sampling theorem, it can model the response of a large abdominal and pelvis models (40). Magnetic and electric
range of frequencies with little computational difficulty. fields were measured for each coil, and the SD of the
FDTD depends on a large number of simple mathematical combined |B1|-field was minimized by adjusting the phase
operations that make graphical processing unit computation and amplitude of each coil.
is possible, which dramatically accelerates computation For Rx coils, the S/N is the most important parameter, and
time. When combined with volume-meshing techniques, EM simulations can help in designing new types of RF coils
which use voxels along a non-uniform rectilinear mesh, (41), especially PA coils used for parallel imaging (PI). To use
these factors enable FDTD to effectively simulate the a PA coil for PI, it is necessary that each of the elements be
behavior of complex systems, such as those comprising completely decoupled and independent from one another.
nonhomogeneous materials or covering wide frequencies S/N maps and correlation matrices are computed from the
of operation (e.g., biomedical applications and applications electric field obtained with EM simulations (42). Combining
using wideband antennas). EM simulations and 3D modeling techniques also facilitates
When designing Tx coils, a homogeneous |B1|-field is the development of tailored RF coils (43, 44), such as for
desired so that the entire sample inside the FOV is uniformly 3D scanning of the coil or the target imaging object (45).
excited. However, in practice, it is necessary to optimize and As mentioned before, the SAR is an important parameter
design new geometries and properties for RF coils. Here, EM for safety regulation of power transmission for RF coils (46-
simulations play a key role, since they can be easily repeated 48). The SAR is defined as the energy stored in the tissue
and are flexible to modify and control coil parameters. EM and is related to tissue conductivity σ, density ρ, and the
simulations allow us to visualize RF coil performance and magnitude of the electric field E :
obtain different measurements, such as electric field E ,
σ
magnetic field H , magnetic field density B , and the CP |B1|- SAR(r) = |E |2 .
2ρ
field. All EM simulation software applications allow the
use of human models with updated electrical properties of The average SAR (SAR avg) is calculated as RF power
tissues at different frequencies (32). Tx coils have one more deposition P averaged over tissue mass M:
condition to fulfill: that is the amount of energy absorbed
P
by the human tissue when exposed to radio frequency SARavg = .
M
electromagnetic fields also referred as the specific
absorption rate (SAR). The amount of transmission power Most simulation software can compute SAR maps inside
during scan have to be within the limits with is between 2 a phantom, and these maps are useful for evaluating RF coil
and 20 W/kg depending on the body part to be scanned. performance. Overall, EM simulations are an important part
EM simulations have been used to obtain new insights of MR engineering, and they are often required as evidence
into MRI signal acquisition and processing. One example that the proposed coil design holds to EM theory equations (49).
is the application of |B1| shimming, that is, optimizing the
excitation current at the transmit coil by changing the
amplitude and phase to have a uniformly distributed |B1|- RF HETEROGENEOUS COILS
field. As described by Weyers et al. (33), the elliptical drive,
which has a different weight compared to the traditional Surface Coils
CP mode, shows an improvement in the abdominal area. RF coils are designed to either transmit or receive MR
Nistler et al. (34) used a two-port BC coil to improve signals, with the aim of having a high S/N and a uniformly
field distribution uniformity by varying the amplitude of distributed |B1|-field. Surface coils have simple geometry
each port. In these cases, |B1| maps were computed with (either rectangular or circular) and are easy to implement,

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 RF Coils for UHF MRI | Daniel Hernandez, et al.

even in large numbers. In addition, their design parameters μ0I 2π (ab-aysinθ-bxcosθ) dθ

Bzx,y,z = .
are quite simple to optimize. A loop coil has been used for 4π
3
[(x-a cosθ)2 + (y-b sinθ)2+z2] 2
all |B0|-field strengths, and it is considered a reference 0

coil (50-52). A loop coil can be characterized as an RLC

circuit, with the equivalent resistance R, inductance L, and It is essential that the coil is accurately tuned and
capacitance C. The resonance frequency, f 0, for a typical matched to 50 Ω. Matching the coil to the amplifier
loop coil is given by the following relationship between L impedance is important for optimizing power transfer and
and C: minimizing the reflected power from the coil.
1 .
f0 = Receiver Loop Array
2π LC
Surface coils often act as receiver elements because of
The equivalent resistance is the sum of the resistance their high signal intensity and S/N, in addition to being
due to conductor losses, Rcoil, resistance given by RF current easier to place near the imaging object. Rx-only loop coils
losses, Rsample, and resistances found in attached capacitors, are useful because when combined with other surface coils,
soldering and radiated losses, Rextras (53-55): they form the PA coil (57). Using a PA coil, the maximum S/
N is achieved when the signal from each individual surface
R = Rcoil + Rsample + Rextra. coil has a different weighting distribution at each giving
point. If the S/N for each loop is high enough, it is possible
The actual magnetic field produced by the surface coil to perform image reconstruction and combination using the
can be easily computed using the Biot-Savart equation root sum of a square.
(56), which uses the flow of electric current, I , around the The combination of a small-surface RF coil with a PA coil
geometry enclosed in area C . is used to enhance the overall signal sensitivity and extend
μ0I dl×W . the FOV (58). When the PA coil comprises n well-decoupled
B (r) = receiver coils, the overall S/N can be increased by √n times
4π W3
the S/N of a single-coil element. The performance of the PA
It is computed around the area C , where μ 0 is the coil for PI can be evaluated by using the geometry factor,
permeability in free space, r is the radius, dl is the G-factor, which indicate the number of aliased replicates
infinitesimal vector tangential to C , and W is the distance for each point and their associated differences in coil
between the conductor path and the observation point. For sensitivities. Normally it is displayed as a map since the
an elliptical loop coil, the infinitesimal segment components G-factor depends on the location, and its value is desired
are to be as close to 1 as possible. One of the most important
applications of a PA coil is PI, which is used to increase
dl≡(dx, dy, dz)≡(-a sinθ, b cosθ, 0)dθ, acquisition speed.
The characteristics of PA coils, namely enabling the
and the coordinates of the W vector are acquisition of unique images with different coil elements,
have been used in PI reconstruction techniques, such as
W≡(x-a cosθ, y-b sinθ, z). SENSE (59), simultaneous acquisition of spatial harmonics
(SMASH) (60), and GRAPPA (61). The performance of PI
With the previous definitions, the three components of techniques depends on the |B0|-field strength (62); as
the magnetic field can be described as reported in the literature, a high field strength can provide
reduction (R)-factors ranging from 4 to 6. In practice, the
μ0I 2π bzcosθ dθ R-factor depends on the capability of PA coils to have
Bxx,y,z = ,
4π 2 2
3
2 2 signals independent from one another. Multiple-array
[(x-a cosθ) + (y-b sinθ) +z ]
0 coils with up to 32 channels have been designed for 7T
MRI systems. PI is important when the scan time is long,
requiring patients to hold their breath and avoid motion.
μ0I 2π azsinθ dθ
Byx,y,z = 3 , and A PA coil comprises n coil elements, so the mutual
4π
[(x-a cosθ)2 + (y-b sinθ)2+z2] 2 inductance or coupling between each element must
0

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be carefully optimized. Methods of reducing mutual the S/N and spatial noise variation (SNV).
inductance or coupling include geometrical decoupling (e.g., The four PA coils were modeled around a cylindrical
overlapping (63), non-overlapping, or shared coil geometry) geometry, measuring 220 mm in height and 135 mm in
and capacitive, inductive, and transformer decoupling. In diameter, as shown in Figure 3b-d. Each coil element had a
(64) a method to evaluate the performance of phase array height of 135 mm for all coils and a width of 202.5, 111.3,
coils was designed, this method consisted on create a 3D 72.5, and 58.1 mm for the 4-, 8-, 12-, and 16-channel PA
model of the coil elements, importing FDTD simulation coils, respectively. The PA coils were designed to produce
results and visualize the coil sensitivity both for FDTD geometric decoupling to minimize the mutual inductance
simulations and MR images. This is a retrospective work that between channels by overlapping with neighboring
allows obtaining realistic models of the PA coil to compare coil elements. The overlapping distance between coil
field patterns and sensitivity of each coil between FDTD elements was 25, 20, 10, and 8 mm for the 4-, 8-, 12-, and
simulations and MR images. Kim et al. (65) determined the 16-channel PA coils, respectively.
optimum number of channels in a PA coil that would yield |B1|-, |B1+|-, and |B1-|-field distributions with an oil-
a better S/N at different R-factors when used for PI. The based phantom were obtained using simulation software for
authors proposed four configurations of PA coils comprising the band-pass filter (BPF) BC coil (Fig. 3a) and PA coils (Fig.
4, 8, 12, and 16 receiver channels under the additional local 3b-e). Higher |B1|-field sensitivity and homogeneity were
Tx-only BC coil. The PA coils were designed to operate at a associated with more number of channels.
frequency of 300 MHz, which corresponds to a frequency Concerning the homogeneity of the combined |B1|-field
of 7T MRI systems, and to minimize the coupling between map, the PA coil with 4 receiver channels showed lower
coils using geometry overlapping. field variation at the center of the imaging area, while
The |B1|-field distributions were obtained from each PA maintaining high field intensity at the periphery of the coil.
coil using EM field simulations. Bench measurements were In particular, the 16-channel PA coil showed lower field
performed to determine the decoupling level between coil intensity at the periphery compared to the other PA coils but
elements. Finally, the PA coils were tested by performing in- showed a more homogeneous |B1|-field. This was expected
vivo brain experiments with different R-factors in terms of since |B1|-field homogeneity is proportional to the coil area.

Fig. 3. Electromagnetic model and

|B1|-field distribution for (a) band-
pass birdcage coil. A (b) 4-, (c), 8-,
(d) 12-, and (e) 16-channel loop
array.
a b c d e

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 RF Coils for UHF MRI | Daniel Hernandez, et al.

MR images were acquired under R2, R3, and R4 a lower SNV at a higher R-factor compared to the other
conditions and reconstructed using GRAPPA with 70 coils. Reference images were set for reconstruction without
acquisition lines as reference. The acquisition time for a an R-factor. Under R2 and R3 conditions, the 4-channel
fully sampled image was 12 min 48 s, which decreased to 6 PA coil showed a decreased S/N compared to the other PA
min 51 s, 4 min 53 s, and 3 min 53 s under R2, R3, and R4 coils; the 16-channel PA coil showed the best S/N under
conditions, respectively. Figure 4 shows SNV distributions R2 and R3 conditions. Finally, under R4 conditions, the
with the corresponding acceleration factor for each PA coil 16-channel PA coil had conductivity, σ, of 27.02, indicating
of the reconstructed images. The 16-channel PA coil showed an improvement compared to the other coils.
Schmitt et al. (58) developed cardiac PA coils using 24,
32 and 128 channels at 3T. Figure 5 shows the 128-channel
coil and its corresponding circuitry. The coil comprised a
fiberglass mold adapted to a male (weight ≈ 85 kg) thorax,
mounted on a scanner table and designed to go into the
scanner with the subject in the standard head-first supine
position. The authors mounted 60 circular loop coils on the
anterior section and 68 on the posterior section. All coils
had an inner diameter of 71 mm, with a trace width of 4
mm milled from 0.031-in-thick FR4 circuit board material,
and were arranged in a continuous array of hexagonal
symmetry, overlapped to minimize nearest-neighbor
coupling.
All MRI experiments were performed on a Trio, a Tim
System 3T whole-body scanner (Siemens Medical Solutions,
Erlangen, Germany) extended to accommodate 128 receiver
channels. This way, the signal of each coil element could be
detected with a single RF receiver channel. Two different
phantoms with a torso shape complementary to the coil
a b c d were constructed to evaluate the coil. One phantom
Fig. 4. Spatial noise variation (SNV) of the (a) 4, (b), 8, (c) was filled with an agar solution at physiological saline
12 and (d) 16 channel loop array for the corresponding concentration, while the other was filled with vegetable oil
reduction factor (R1 to R4). to avoid transmission of inhomogeneities associated with

a b c
Fig. 5. Implementation of a 128-channel (a) anterior and (b) posterior phased array coil for torso imaging with the
corresponding (c) RF circuitry.

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wavelength shortening in high-dielectric material at 3T. prospectively triggered, segmented proton density (PD)-
Two commercial coils of 24 and 32 receiver channels weighted gradient recalled echo (GRE) images, which were
were used for comparison, and the same images were used acquired in the four-chamber view with the following
to compute G -factor maps on a pixel-by-pixel basis. The parameters: FOV = 360 mm, slice thickness = 7 mm, matrix
G -factor maps were calculated for 1D acceleration factors size: 256 × 256, nine segments per RR interval, transverse
ranging from 2 to 8 in both the head-foot (H-F) and left- electric (TE) = 4.03 ms, and bandwidth (BW) = 300 Hz/pixel.
right (L-R) directions. In-vivo measurements were performed PI reconstruction was performed using GRAPPA with 24
in four healthy subjects (3 men and 1 woman). reference lines for R < 7 and 28 reference lines for R = 7.
Cardiac imaging S/N comparisons were made from Figure 6a-c shows optimal S/N maps of the oil phantom

a-i b-i c-i

a-ii b-ii c-ii

Fig. 6. Simulated B1-field distributions for torso

with (a-i) 24, (b-i) 32, and (c-i) 128 channels and
in the heart FOV (a-ii) 24, (b-ii) 32, and (c-ii) 128
channels. (d) Corresponding cardiac MR image
using the 128-channel array coil for different
acceleration factors (R1 to R4).
d

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 RF Coils for UHF MRI | Daniel Hernandez, et al.

in the axial plane for each array. Both 32- and 128-channel a 26-year-old female from the virtual family 2.0 (IT'IS) was
coils showed a significant gain in the S/N closest to the taken from SEMCAD X.
surface of the phantom compared to the 24-channel array. Two types of coils were modeled, i.e., an 8- and a
Figure 6a-i-6c-i shows optimal S/N maps in the four- 12-channel Rx-only bended PA coil with overlapping coil
chamber view from two normal volunteers. elements and eight distributed current sources per coil
For all four normal volunteers, the 128-channel array element. The two PA coils measured 230 mm in diameter
facilitated highly accelerated cardiac imaging with high- and 150 mm in length. Their geometries were almost
quality images. Whole-heart imaging (ten 10-mm-thick identical, except the number of channels and coil shape.
sequential 2D slices) could be performed in a single 30 s The |B 1|-field distributions of the BC coil (Fig. 8a),
breath-hold with R = 6 or 7 (Fig. 6d). Only minor differences 4-channel DH coil (Fig. 8b), 8-channel PA coil (Fig. 8c), and
in image quality were observed between the images with 12-channel bended PA coil (Fig. 8d) were compared in the
acceleration rates of 1, 4, and 6. The S/N and contrast-to- axial (xy), coronal (xz), and sagittal (yz) planes under the
noise ratio were still enough in the rate 7 images to support loading conditions of the sphere phantom and Ella human
diagnostic-quality imaging. model, respectively. The |B1|-field distributions of the sphere
The S/N and G -factor results of the 128-channel coil were phantom for all RF coils were centrally focused. For the
compared with the results from commercially available 24- BC coil, the field distribution was particularly symmetrical
and 32-channel coils. It was found that the 128-channel from the central to the peripheral region, while for the DH
coil can produce significantly more favorable G -factors coil, it was relatively homogeneously distributed. Because
compared to a 24-channel thoracoabdominal coil or a of the two PA coils’ relatively small dimensions, their |B1|-
dedicated 32-channel cardiac coil. The 128-channel coil field distributions showed higher sensitivity compared to
also provides a secondary benefit of boosting the image S/ the BC and DH coils. In addition, the |B1|-field sensitivity of
N for unaccelerated imaging in subjects that fit well in the the two PA coils under the Ella model condition decreased
rigid coil. As shown in Figure 6, significant portions of the with increasing depth into the brain, while the 12-channel
heart lie close enough to the chest wall surface to derive a bended PA coil maintained its superior sensitivity over the
major gain in the S/N from the use of high-element arrays, entire brain (“Brain Area” in Fig. 8a-i-8d-i).
such as 32- and 128-channel coils, both of which are A combination of an 8-channel Rx-only bended PA coil
significantly more sensitive than the 24-channel coil, which with a DH coil and a combination of a 12-channel Rx-only
contains only 12 elements overlying the heart. bended PA coil and a DH coil were fabricated in-house for
7T human brain MRI. Figure 9 shows the perspective views
Transceiver Loop Array of the coils. RF circuitries, including the preamplifiers,
As mentioned before, high-frequency MRI systems require were detached from the back of the respective coils and
local Tx and Rx coils; therefore, it is desirable to have one electrically linked to the elements.
structure to transmit and receive signals. A combination of Measurements of the decoupling performances were
a dual-Helmholtz (DH) Tx-only coil (66) and a 12-channel performed for all the coil elements of the two PA coils, with
Rx-only bended PA coil was developed to improve |B1|- coupling of at least -17 dB between neighboring coils and
field sensitivity and homogeneity. The DH Tx-only coil was -30 dB between non-adjacent coil elements under loaded
compared with the standard 16-leg BC coil. To compare conditions with the human brain. The isolation (S 12/S 21)
the performance of the new combination of Tx- and Rx- between the quadrature ports of the DH coils was measured
only coils, the simulation software Sim4Life ver. 2.0 (Zürich, under loaded conditions and found to be > -20 dB, while
Switzerland) was used to assess the |B1|-field distribution. the reflection coefficient (S 11/S 22) was > -25 dB.
The 16-leg BC coil (Fig. 7a), DH coil (Fig. 7b), 8-channel The S/N distribution of the 12-channel bended PA coil
PA coil (Fig. 7c), and 12-channel bended PA coil (Fig. 7d) in the sagittal slice is shown in Figure 9b-i and that of the
were compared at 7T using sphere phantom (Fig. 7a-d) 8-channel PA coil is shown in Figure 9a-i. The S/N maps of
and Ella (Fig. 7a-i-7d-i) model. Each coil was modeled the two PA coils are shown in color-scaling from blue to
as a PEC measuring 300 mm in diameter and 190 mm red. In addition, a high-resolution extended-FOV in-vivo
in length. The physical properties of the sphere phantom image was obtained by the 12-channel bended PA coil. The
were adapted using relative permittivity, εr, of 76.7 and extended high-S/N area afforded higher image quality for the
electrical conductivity, σ, of 5 × 10-5 S·m-1. The Ella model of upper and lower brain areas. As shown in Figure 9, the image

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obtained was clearer, especially in the higher cortical areas, which increases the S/N by a factor of √2 (68-70). BC coils
frontal/superior parietal region, brain stem, and cerebellum. can produce uniformly distributed RF magnetic fields with
a high S/N if the current in the N legs is distributed as
follows:
RF HOMOGENEOUS COILS
In = I0 cos(θn +ø)n = 1,2…N,
BC Resonator
BC coils are one of the most popular RF coils used in MRI. with θn being the relative angle position of the leg n around
BC coils produce a highly homogeneous magnetic field in the coil; θn=2πn/N. The legs are equally distributed around
a wide FOV. They are volume coils, capable to fit the head, the cylinder. The spatial phase factor, ø, takes into account
extremities, and even the entire body. They comprise two the coil-driving mode by determining the magnetic field
parallel rings connected to each other by copper strips, direction:
called legs. The number of legs, N , is a crucial factor in
the design and performance of the BC coil. It defines the ø=π/N.
number of resonance modes that the BC coil can operate,
given by (N /2) + 1 (67). The magnetic field produced by The total current flowing in the coil is given as
the BC coil is intrinsic LP; however, it is possible to produce N
circular polarization by means of quadrature excitation, ∑ |In|=2 I.
n=1

a-i b-i c-i d-i

a-ii b-ii c-ii d-ii

Fig. 7. A 3D model of a (a) 16-leg birdcage coil, (b) 4-channel dual Helmholtz coil, (c) 8-channel, and (d) 12-channel bended
phased array coil using a (i) sphere phantom and a (ii) human model.

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a-i b-i c-i d-i

a-i b-i

a-ii b-ii
Fig. 9. (a-i) 8-channel and (b-i) 12-channel phased array
coil and (a-ii and b-ii) corresponding brain MR images.

a-i b-i c-i d-i

Fig. 8. Simulated |B 1|-field for (a) birdcage coil, (b) the BC coil operates in band-pass mode.
4-channel dual Helmholtz coil, (c) 8-channel, and (d) The equivalent capacitance of the BC (72) coil depends on
12-channel bended phased array coil using a (i) sphere the type of coil (low-pass or high-pass) and is given by
phantom and a (ii) human model.
(2αβ2C) ,
Ceq =
N
This equation indicates that the current, I , flows in
opposite directions in each half part of the cylinder. The where C is the tuning capacitor included on the legs or
current distribution can be written as rings, and the factor α is given by α = 1 if it’s a low-pass
BC and α = 2 sin2(πN) if it is a high-pass BC. The equivalent
I0β=I, inductance of the BC coil is defined as Leq = Zin/jw, with Zin
being the input impedance calculated as

1 π Zc sinh Nλ/2
β=
2
∑ | cos
N
(2n+1) | . Zin = ,
λ
2 sinh sinh[(N-1)(λ/2)]
The BC coil can operate as low-pass or high-pass (71), 2
depending on the position of the capacitors. A low-pass BC
coil has capacitors included along the legs; while a high- where
pass BC coil has capacitors evenly distributed along the Z1 2
Z1
rings. When capacitors are included in the legs and rings, Zc = ( 2
+Z1Z2 ) ; λ=arcosh ( 1+ 2Z2 )
.

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The term Z1/2 corresponds to the end-ring inductance, coil legs. In addition, the |B1|-field homogeneity at each
and to compute Z1/2, it is necessary to solve the quadruple frequency increases with the increasing number of legs.
integral: Different designs of BC coils have been proposed with the
aim to increase magnetic field distribution uniformity and
μ0 cos(θ'-θ)a2 signal intensity, for example, spiral coils (74) and DH coils.
Lend-ring = dzdz' dθdθ' Figure 10 shows various designs and performances of these
4πw2 R
coils (75). EM simulations were done using the BC coil
R = [a cosθ-a cosθ']2+[a sinθ-a sinθ']2+[z-z']2 . designs (Fig. 10a-i-10d-i).
A study was performed to understand the effect when
The integral in z and z’ is to include the strip width of an endcap shield was added to the endring of a BC coil
the conductor, and the integrals dθ and dθ’ are taken along (76). The study consisted on performing EM simulations
the length of the ring. The legs’ inductance is computed for a highpass BC coil with and without endcap shield.
as following the inductance of a strip line conductor, with The corresponding |B1| fields for each of the coils were
width w and length l, and the corresponding equation is compared in terms of field uniformity at the center of the
given as BC coil. For which it was concluded that the use of endcap
shield improved the field uniformity of the highpass BC coil.
μ0l 2l 1
Llegs =
2π ( ln w
+ ).
2
Saddle-Shaped Resonator
A saddle coil comprises four conductors aligned
The resonance frequency for a BC coil is estimated by perpendicular to a cylinder in the xy plane, and its rungs are
combining the equivalent capacitance, Ceq, and equivalent connected with an arc (or part of the circle), with diameter
inductance, Leq, as follows: D , length L , angular aperture α, and width of conductors (wd)
(77). A saddle coil was popular for low-magnetic-strength
1 .
f0 = MRI; however, it has some application in strong MRI
2π LeqCeq
systems like 7T, too. The use of saddle coils in combination
As mentioned before, a BC coil can generate (N/2) + 1 with loop coils has been reported for small-animal MRI
resonance modes; however, the main resonance mode is (78). A half-saddle coil is combined with a loop coil to
considered the second-highest resonance frequency for the improve the S/N and |B1|-field distribution uniformity.
high-pass BC coil, while the constructive mode is considered This combination suggests an increase in the B-fields, as
the second-lowest frequency for the low-pass BC coil. The computed using the Biot-Savart equation:
quality factor of the BC coil Q is calculated as indicated in
μ0 Idl sinθ
the electromagnetic theory section. dB ≈ ,
4π r2
BC coils can produce uniformly distributed magnetic
fields; for lower fields, they are the RF coils of choice μ0I Pdl dl
dBD = dBs + dBc≈ 4π 2 3 +
,
since the field distribution uniformity is sufficient for
2
(y +p ) 2 r2
transmission of RF energy into any area of the body. where dBD is the differential of the B-field combining the
However, at higher field intensity (>= 7T), the BC coil has single planar loop coil (dBs) and the half-saddle coil (dBc), P
some limitations with field distribution uniformity, since is the sample point, I the current flowing through the coils,
the wavelength inside the human body is short (23). Seo dl the differential wire length, µ0 the permeability of free
et al. (73) analyzed the |B1|-field distribution uniformity space (4π × 10-7 H/m), and r the distance from the coil to
with regard to the number of legs of the BC coil for 4.7T, the sample point.
7.0T, and 11.7T. The BC coils had 8, 16, 32, 64, and 128 legs. To verify that the proposed equations can improve the
The authors concluded that the 128-leg BC coil exhibits B-field, EM simulations were performed using commercial
optimal performance at resonance frequencies of 200, 300, software (Remcom, Inc., State Collage, PA, USA). The coils
and 500 MHz in terms of the obtained |B1+|-field intensity were set as a PEC. Figure 11a-c shows the model of the
and |B1|-field homogeneity. The |B1|-field distribution trend coils: the planar loop coil was 50 × 50 mm2, and the saddle
indicates that the operating frequency affects the |B1|- coil had a half-circle radius of 25 mm and length 50 mm.
field distribution more significantly than the number of BC The homogeneous phantom was designed as a cylinder

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 RF Coils for UHF MRI | Daniel Hernandez, et al.

30 mm in diameter and 100 mm in length, with relative Traveling Wave Coils

permittivity 51.95 and electrical conductivity 0.55 S·m-1. A The use of stronger MRI systems that operate at UHF
rat model was also used for FDTD simulations. or higher opens up the use of different approaches
Figure 12 shows the computed magnetic fields from the for RF excitation in MRI. One alternative is traveling
simulations, with the single coil (Fig. 12a), the half-saddle wave antennas (79-83), which use a guiding structure
coil (Fig. 12b), and a combination of both (Fig. 12c) for the to propagate EM fields. Traveling wave antennas are
xy plane and for the zy plane (a-i, b-i, c-i, respectively). The nonresonant-type antennas in which the traveling wave is
figure also displays a plot of the line profile at the center of propagated along its geometric axis (84). The advantages
the phantom, which shows at what point it is more efficient are that the transmitting B1-field is only restricted by the
to use the half-saddle coil and the combination of coils. radius of the circular waveguide, contrary to resonant RF
The B1-field distribution of the saddle coil shows higher coils where the B1-field depends on the coil’s geometry.
signal intensity at the central region compared to the other In addition, traveling wave coils can excite the B1-field to
two setups; however, the combination of both coils shows larger volumes compared to traditional RF coils.
higher field intensity near the coil and the phantom. The operation frequency of 7T MRI systems is 300 MHz,
MR images were also obtained from a sedated rat with a for which the wavelength in free space is ~1 m; these
7T MRI scanner; the S/N for the combination of coils was dimensions make it possible to design waveguides suitable
8.5% higher compared to the half-saddle coil and 68.1% for the MRI system’s dimension.
higher compared to the planar loop coil. The main idea of using traveling wave antennas for MRI
excitation is to use the RF shield covering the magnet
bore as the circular waveguide (85-88). The traveling wave

a-i b-i c-i d-i

a-ii b-ii c-ii d-ii

Fig. 10. (a-i) Band-pass birdcage coil, (b-i) spiral birdcage coil, (c-i) dual Helmholtz coil, and (d-i) slotted tube Alderman-
Grant coil, with corresponding S/N maps for (a-ii-d-ii) spherical phantom and human brain models. Electromagnetic
simulations with the corresponding type of coil.

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a-i b-i c-i

a-i b-i c-i

a-ii b-ii c-ii

a-iii b-iii c-iii

Fig. 11. (a-i) Standard square loop coil, (b-i) saddle coil, and
(c-i) double-layer coupled coil by combination of loop and
saddle coil. (a-ii-c-ii) Cylindrical phantom and (a-iii-c-iii)
rat models for the respective coils.
a-ii b-ii c-ii

antenna can propagate the B1-field through the waveguide Fig. 12. Signal intensity in xy (top) and zy (bottom) slices
for a cylindrical phantom using a (a) rectangular coil, (b)
in TE and transverse magnetic modes, and the propagation
saddle coil, and (c) combination of saddle and loop coil.
modes depend on the waveguide’s dimensions, which also
establishes its cut-off frequency. Considering the TE mode,
the magnetic field is given by with p’mn defined as the nth zero of the first derivative of
the mth-order Bessel junction. For an unloaded bore, ε =
jβ μ = 1 and a is the radius of the waveguide. For a circular
Hρ(ρ,φ,z) = -H0 J' (k ρ)cos(mφ) ej(ωt-βz) ,
kc m c waveform of 32 cm, the TE11 mode has a cut-off frequency
2
jmβ of 275 MHz, which is the only mode that can support the
Hφ(ρ,φ,z) = H0 J (k ρ)sin(mφ) ej(ωt-βz) .
k m c operating frequency of 300 MHz of a 7T MRI system.
The amplitude of the magnetic field is given by H0; kc is One of the main disadvantages of traveling waveguide
the cut-off wave number; ρ, φ, and z are the cylindrical antennas is the multiple modes in which they operate,
coordinates; Jm represents the Bessel function; and β is the resulting in B1-field inhomogeneity along the imaging area.
imaginary part of the propagation constant γ = α+ jβ. The However, researchers are actively studying how to improve
cut-off frequency of the TE mode can be found when β = 0 field homogeneity using transverse dipole rings (89).
and k = kc = 2πfc/c: First, the usable excited Β1-field in a traditional RF coil
is restricted to the dimensions and geometry of the RF
p'mn , coil itself; in contrast, in the traveling wave antenna, the
fc =
2πa με usable Β1-field is restricted only to the radius of the circular

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 RF Coils for UHF MRI | Daniel Hernandez, et al.

a b

c
Fig. 13. (a) Hybrid BC coil, loop array coil, and patch antennas, (b) simulated |B1|-field using the BC coil and patch antenna,
and flip angle maps of the brain acquired with the patch antenna, (c) crab-eating macaque MR image using the traveling
wave Tx coil and thee-element phased array.

waveguide. Second, while standard transmitting coils at 7T was used for reception. Figure 13 shows the model of a
excite rather small volumes, the traveling wave MRI allows hybrid BC coil serving as a Tx/Rx coil as well as the loop
exciting large volumes, depending on the length of the RF array coil and the patch antenna. B1+-fields were computed
shield. for a phantom with relative permittivity 2.3 and electrical
The use of traveling wave antennas as RF coils for MRI conductivity 0.45 S·m-1, and the spherical phantom was
has been proposed along with patch antennas (90). One of 16.5 cm in diameter.
the first trials of to a travel wave system (TWS) used a CP RF simulations were performed with the described TWS;
patch antenna that comprised a of polymethylmethacrylate the computed B 1+-fields are shown in Figure 13b. The
(PMMA) substrate separating the copper plates (91); the |B1|-field computed using the BC coil is shown in Figure
substrate measured 20 mm in thickness and 44.0 cm in 13b-i for the unloaded condition and Figure 13b-iii for
diameter. The magnet bore was use as a circular waveguide; the phantom, while the |B1|-field computed using the
the bore measured 64 cm in inner diameter and 158 cm in patch antenna is shown in Figure 13b-ii for the unloaded
length. condition and Figure 13b-iv for the phantom.
The traveling wave magnetic field, a BC coil, and a loop Flip angle maps were also acquired using the described
array coil were compared. The BC coil comprised 16 rungs RF coils (Fig. 13c-i-iv). A flip angle of 45° was used. The
of 15 cm each arranged around an acryl cylinder of 30 cm mean, µ and SD, σ, on the three views (transversal, sagittal,
diameter, and an 8-channel receive-only loop array coil and coronal) for the hybrid BC coil were 41.4° and 2.4°,

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respectively, and for traveling wave antenna 43.6° and 1.8°, performed at 128, 298, and 400 MHz corresponding to a
respectively. According to the flip angle maps, the traveling magnetic field strength of 3T, 7T, and 9.4T. Figure 15 shows
wave antenna showed a more uniformly distributed field B1+-field distributions of the loop coils and dipole antennas
across the imaging phantom. excited at 298 MHz in the yz and xy planes. It is easy to
Several enhancements and applications have been notice a difference in the field distribution between both
designed since the publication of this report, for example, types of resonators; in the loop coil, the field is asymmetric
the use of traveling wave antennas for small-animal MRI and inhomogeneous, while the dipole antenna exhibits a
at 9.4T (92) and for whole-body MRI at 3T (87). However symmetric and homogeneous field.
the manufacture of such coils is complex and is jet not a The study concluded that dipole antennas have higher
common use in clinical use. field intensity and receiver sensitivity efficiency compared
to loop coils. Combining dipole antennas as an array
Dipole Antennas has a lower SAR compared to an overlapping loop coil
Another type of TWS is dipole antennas (93), which array. Studies have also proposed improvements to dipole
comprise two straight conductive copper plates with total antennas (95, 96) the use of transverse slot antennas shows
length L and the excitation port at its center. For such an improved central and average transmitter and receiver
antenna, the current is given by efficiency.

L Monopole Antennas
I0 sin k ( -z ) , 0≤z≤L/2
2 . A monopole antenna comprises a half-dipole antenna
I(z) =
L connected to a ground plane. The monopole antenna can be
I0 sin k ( +z ) , -L/2≤z≤0
2 described on the basis of image theory, in which the ground
The total amplitude of current I0 is only reached when plane serves as a reflective plane and makes the monopole
the antenna length is more than half the wavelength of antenna operate electrically equivalent to a dipole antenna.
the operating frequency. The characteristic impedance of The monopole antenna has a self-resonance frequency
the dipole antenna has zero imaginary components when at the half-length of the half-wavelength dipole antenna
the antenna length is half the wavelength, for which the (97); however, it has the disadvantage of being limited
antenna behaves as a resonator. Since UHF MRI systems to a focused RF signal near the ground plane. To improve
operate at larger frequencies, the wavelength is decreased, the performance of the monopole antenna, studies have
allowing the use of dipole antennas. proposed that its structure be modified by including a ring
Studies have compared a dipole antenna and loop coils element that works as the ground plane (98). Figure 16a
for MRI (94). The dipole antenna had a width of 10 mm and (top, left) shows a ring monopole comprising a ring ground
2 mm space between its legs, with lengths of 5, 10 15, 20, line connected to a monopole antenna. A comparison study
30, 40, and 45 cm, while the loop coil had diameters of 5, was conducted of the proposed ring monopole antenna, a
10, 15, 20, and 25 cm (Fig. 14). The B1+-field was computed dipole antenna, and a loop coil, as shown in Figure 16a (top,
for a 0.5 m3 cube phantom with relative permittivity 34 middle and right). In addition, volume coils were analyzed
and electrical conductivity 0.4 S·m-1. Simulations were with the bilateral monopole antenna (Fig. 16a [bottom,

Fig. 14. (a) Different sizes of a

loop coil and (b) a dipole antenna
with different lengths.
a b

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 RF Coils for UHF MRI | Daniel Hernandez, et al.

left]), a dipole array (Fig. 16a [bottom, middle]), and a loop Figure 16b (right) shows the B 1-field computed on
array (Fig. 16a [bottom, right]). the human brain phantom with the bilateral monopole
The bilateral antenna is a combination of two ring antenna, dipole array, and loop array. In which the bilateral
monopole antennas in opposite directions, one on top of monopole antenna shows lower values for non-uniformity.
the other. The optimized ring monopole antenna structure Results for the single-channel monopole antenna indicated
has a ground ring of 300 mm diameter and 200 mm length. that the reduction rate of the signal as per the distance
Dipole antennas have the same length arranged in the is significantly lower compared to other conventional
same diameter. B1-fields were computed using a spherical coils. The study also suggested having a second monopole
phantom for single-element analysis. The spherical phantom antenna in the positive direction to produce a more
had a diameter of 20 cm with relative permittivity 59.7 and uniform field distribution. The proposed bilateral monopole
electrical conductivity 0.97 S·m-1. For volume multichannel antenna offers an alternative for existing RF coils, such as
arrays, the magnetic fields were computed using the 3D a multichannel dipole antenna array and a loop coil array
human model phantom Duke (IT IS, Zürich, Switzerland). offering improved |B1+|-field distribution uniformity.
All tissues had electric properties adjusted to the excited
frequency of 297.2 MHz. Figure 16b (left) show the results Microstrips
of the computed B1-field on the spherical phantom in the The use of traveling wave antennas for RF excitation has
axial, coronal, and sagittal views for the ring monopole the limitation of high dependence on the coil geometry and
antenna, dipole antenna, and loop coil. Results suggested dimension. Even for 7T MRI at 300 MHz, the wavelength is
that the field produced by the ring monopole antenna has ~1 m, which, in some cases, is impractical for small-volume
more uniform distribution compared to the dipole antenna imaging, such as brain imaging. Therefore, transmission
and loop coil alone. Compared to the dipole antenna and line (TL) resonators in the form of microstrips have been
loop coil, the field produced by the ring monopole antenna proposed (99, 100). Microstrips comprise two conductive
covers the total of the spherical phantom, as the dipole planes separated by a dielectric material. The upper plane
antenna and loop coil can only excite the field in close is a narrow conductive strip, and the bottom plane is the
vicinity and short field penetration. ground plane. The effective dielectric constant of the

Fig. 15. The corresponding |B1|-

field distributions for the (a) loop
coils and (b) dipole antennas with
different size.
a b

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substrate is the ratio between the width, W, and height, H, The advantages of microstrips include higher performance
of the microstrip line (W/H). with regard to quality factors, high-frequency capability,
and decoupling performance. Different types of microstrip
εr+1 ε -1 1
coil arrays comprising two microstrip elements were
εeff = + r H
2 2 1+12 ( ) compared (95). The length of the elements was 200 mm,
W
and the width was 63 mm for the conductive strip and
The characteristic impedance, Z, is also related to the W/ 25.4 mm for the ground plane, as shown in Figure 17. The
H ratio: separation between the elements was 50 mm, with each
element matched to 50 Ω and tuned to 298.1 MHz. The
z0 H W W Teflon dielectric substrate between the copper planes was
2π εeff
ln ( 8 W + 4H ) ,
H
≤1
200-mm long, 30-mm wide, and 7-mm thick. The arrays
Z=
W W W were tested by acquiring MR images of a spherical phantom
εeff [ +1.393+0.667ln ( +1.444) ] , ≥1 170 mm in diameter (GE Healthcare, Milwaukee, WI, USA).
H H H
To acquire MR images, the phase difference between the
microstrip elements was set as 90°. Images were acquired
using a GRE sequence with TR/TE = 100/6.9 ms and a 20°
flip angle. Figure 17 (bottom) shows the phantom image
with S/N measurements. In addition, the microscrip array
was used to acquire images with acceleration factor
R ranging from 1 to 16. Images were acquired from a
volunteer. Image reconstruction was done using GRAPPA;
ACS lines for R = 1-5 were 10; for R = 6-12, 20; and for R
= 13-16, 40. Figure 18 shows MR images obtained using
microstrips for PI; because of the high reduction factors, the
images were of high quality.

b
Fig. 16. (a, top) Model of a ring monopole antenna (left),
dipole antenna (middle), and loop coil (right). (a, bottom)
b
Model of a bilateral monopole antenna (left), dipole array
(middle), and loop array (right). (b) Corresponding |B1|-fields Fig. 17. (a) Microstrip array with different separation
from the ring monopole antenna, dipole antenna, and loop distances and RF shields and (b) MR images with S/N
coil. measurements using the microstrip array.

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 RF Coils for UHF MRI | Daniel Hernandez, et al.

As seen from the equation, the propagation constant and

characteristic impedance depend only on the TL geometry.
At some frequencies, the electrical length results in
impractical distances. However, one of the advantages of
a CRLH TL is that the electrical length can be changed to
fulfill the desired geometry. Figure 19b shows a diagram of
a CRLH TL, with series capacitance and parallel inductance
added to the traditional TL. The resulting propagation
constant is now given by

γ = α + jβ = Z' Y',

with

1
Z'(ω) = j ( ωL'R - ωC'L ),
1 ,
Y'(ω) = j ( ωC'R -
ωL'L )
and the characteristic impedance as

L'RC'Lω2-1 balanced
Z0 = ZL = = ZL = ZR,
L'LC'Rω2-1

L'L ,
Fig. 18. MR images acquired with different acceleration ZL =
C'L
factors (R = 1-16) using a microstrip array.
L'R
ZR = .
C'R
Composite Right/Left Hand Materials
As shown, the propagation constant and characteristic
New methods have been proposed for UHF RF coils at
impedance can be controlled with lumped elements and
7T or more, such as metamaterials, especially in the form
depend on the frequency. The reduced CRLH size is useful
of composite right-/left-handed (CRLH) TLs. Studies have
for MRI applications, especially for reception elements,
investigated the use of CRLH for MRI (101-103) and have
given the advantage that TLs are decoupled compared to
shown a great opportunity to design traveling wave RF
loop coil elements (104). The proposed CRLH TL comprises
elements that are independent of the electrical length. A
a ground plane and an active line separated by a dielectric
traditional TL is represented by series inductance varying
material that functions as parallel capacitance. Series
on space and parallel capacitance. Figure 19a shows a
capacitance is added to the TL by making small gaps on
graphical representation of a traditional TL, with inductance
the top TL; this capacitance can be a chip element, or
L varying on distance Δz, as well as the capacitance CΔz. For
an interdigital capacitor in the case of high frequencies.
a typical TL, the electrical length is given by the equation
Parallel inductance can be included by chip inductance
for the propagation constant as
connected to the ground plane by vias or extra copper lines.
Figure 19c shows a combination of two CRLH TLs in a
γ = (R+jωL)(G+jωC),
linear array with a detailed description of each lumped
element.
and the characteristic impedance is
The corresponding magnetic field |B1| was acquired using
FDTD simulations (Sim4Life) and showed a constant and
R+jωL uniform distribution across the longitudinal axis. Network
Z0 = .
G+jωC analysis for the leftmost CRLH TL showed an S 11 value of

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a b

c d
Fig. 19. (a) Circuit diagram of a traditional TL, (b) a CRLH TL, (c) a CRLH TL array, and (d) simulated |B1|-field in the xy and
yz planes using a CRLH TL .

-32 dB and S 21 and S 31 for the decoupling that could be nuclei, such as 23Na, 31P, and 13C. x-nuclei have a different
obtained with the next-neighbor CRLH TLs of -10 and Larmor frequency compared to 1H, so it is necessary to
-14 dB, respectively, while the coupling with the farthest develop RF coils that can receive and transmit signals at the
element had a value of -21 dB. Figure 19d shows the |B1|- appropriate frequency.
field in the xy and zy planes. In the xy plane, the |B1|-field Several designs have been proposed for different x-nuclei.
propagated deep inside the phantom, while the zy plane For example, a double-tuned RF coil with frequency
had uniform field distribution. A comparison between the selection via PIN diode control was implemented for a 7T
microstrips and CRLH TLs was also made, showing the MRI system for 1H and 23Na (110). The coil comprised a
advantages in relation to the electrical length and |B1|- pair of double-tuned loop coils, as shown in Figure 20a.
field distribution and intensity (105). CRLH TLs are also The outer loop of the double-layer (DL) coil was set to 8
used for multifrequency excitation (106, 107). Although, the × 14 cm2 and was tuned to operate at the 1H resonance
advantages of the CRLH TL, it comes with the cost of extra frequency of 297.20 MHz. The inner loop of the DL coil
design and lumped elements, which becomes complex to was set to 7 × 13 cm2 and was tuned to operate at the
23
manufacture, even at array arrangement. Na resonance frequency of 78.61 MHz. The RF coils were
fed through a single RF port carrying the two resonance
Multifrequency Coils frequencies. The corresponding RF coils were selected using
MR images are primarily obtained from 1H protons, which a switch diode; when both diodes were on, the loop coil
are highly abundant in the human body; however, MRI operating for 23Na was available, while when both diodes
also allows us to scan other types of nuclei, such as 23Na, were off, the loop coil operating for 1H was available.
31
P, and 13C (108, 109). However, these other nuclei are in Figure 20a also shows the schematics and position of the
low concentration in the body, so it is difficult to obtain tuning and matching capacitors for each RF coil. The tuning
MR signals and images with enough S/N s. Nevertheless, capacitors (CT1 and CT2 for 1H; CT3 for 23Na) were carefully
the use of MRI of x-nuclei is gaining increasing interest selected and specially positioned to achieve double-
because stronger magnets allow the reception of other frequency resonance, minimize reactance, and minimize

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 RF Coils for UHF MRI | Daniel Hernandez, et al.

a b
Fig. 20. (a) Circuit diagram and (b) implementation of the double-tuned loop coil.

radiated losses through impedance matching. For practical The figure also shows the performance of each coil and a
use of the proposed double-tuned RF coil, a volume array of combination of all the images.
8 Tx/Rx channels was developed; the geometry comprised
a cylindrical acrylic of diameter 28 cm and length 20 cm, Combination Coils
as shown in Figure 20b. Capacitive decoupling was used to RF engineering constantly searches for ways to enhance
reduce the coupling between neighboring channels. the transmission and reception of RF magnetic fields in MRI.
The performance of the double-tuned RF coil was tested Therefore, a combination of more than one type of coils (111),
using a vector network analyzer (VNA) and measured the for example, BC coils and loop arrays, dipole antennas (112),
reflection (S 11) and transmission (S 21) coefficients. Figure microstrip coils (113), or even travel wave antennas (114),
21a shows the S 11 and S 22 parameters for the double- has been commonly proposed. The purpose of combination
tuned RF coil when the diodes were on and off. When the coils is to improve the performance compared to that of a
diodes were off, the S 11 parameters were -44.08 and -1.45 single type of coil. The combination coils are of great use for
dB for 1H and 23Na, respectively. The coupling S 21 between X-nuclei MRI imaging, for which the coil should operate at
neighboring coils was -12.08 dB, indicating low coupling. different frequencies. For example combining loop coils at
When the diodes were on, the S 11 parameters were -1.85 low frequencies is optimal and using microstips or dipoles
and -25.55 dB for 1H and 23Na, respectively. The coupling S 21 antennas for higher frequencies is a common application.
between neighboring coils was -14.34 dB, again indicating BC coils also have shown the increased performance
low coupling. for low frequencies, while travel wave coils have better
Using the same volume array of 8 channels, MR images performance at higher frequencies as well.
were acquired using a cylindrical phantom of diameter
160 mm and length 250 mm containing 1000 g of distilled
water, 1.25 g of NiSO 4·6H 2O, and 5g of NaCl. Images DISCUSSION
were taken using a 7T MRI scanner (Magnetom, Siemens,
Germany). A GRE sequence was used for both 1H and 23Na In this report, we described the basic EM theory behind RF
imaging. The sequence parameters were flip angle = 30°, excitation and reception for MR signal formation. Electric
TR/TE = 21/11 ms, FOV = 300 mm; matrix size = 128 × 128, currents running through RF coils generate a magnetic field
average = 5, and slice thickness = 5 mm. Figure 21b shows that excites protons to generate MR signals. In reception
the images acquired with both 1H and 23Na array coils. mode, the magnetic field changes are picked up by the RF

116 [Link]
[Link]

b
Fig. 21. Transmission parameters S 11 and S 21 for double-tuned RF coils (a) and MR images of the phantom obtained with the
coils (b) for 1H and 23Na.

coils and an electric current is induced (111). corresponding electrical properties of different materials and
We also discussed the importance of using EM simulation tissues are available for a large range of frequencies, which
software to design RF coils to analyze the transmitted makes them a useful tool for accurate EM simulations,
and received B1-field, the electric field, SAR, and the S/ especially for SAR evaluation. The computational power of
N. EM simulation tools (115) are important for optimizing computers in combination with graphic card acceleration
the performance of RF coils and test them in the presence enables EM simulations in a fast and efficient way.
of any type of material, such as uniform phantoms, Integrated optimization algorithms are useful for finding a
human models, and even animal models. Datasets with solution to the desired field distribution goal.

[Link] 117
 RF Coils for UHF MRI | Daniel Hernandez, et al.

In this report, we looked at a few designs of PA coils, Acknowledgments

such as Rx, Tx, and even TRx coils. We also studied volume This work was supported by a grant (HO16C0004) from
coils, such as the well-known BC coil and some of its the Osong Innovation Center funded by the Ministry
modifications for special applications. Alternative RF coils of Health & Welfare, the Republic of Korea, and by the
have been proposed to enhance the B1-field distribution National Research Foundation of Korea under Grant NRF-
uniformity at 7T, such as travel wave antennas. We hope 2017M3C7A104722821.
that this report can be used as a reference to understand
the current state of RF coil designs and applications, with
their respective advantages and challenges. A summary of
the presented coils is shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Summary of the Advantages and Disadvantages of the RF Coils Used in MRI
Coil type Advantage Disadvantage
• Simple to build • Lack of field penetration
• High localize sensitivity • Local use only
Surface coil • High S/N near object
• Small size
• Can be place anywhere
• Can be used for parallel imaging • Electromagnetic coupling
Loop array • Can cover a volume • Difficult to build with increased number of elements
• High S/N • Complex circuitry
• Allows transmit and receive RF signal • Requires decoupling
Transceiver loop array • Can cover a volume
• Possible to use for B1 shimming
• Can cover a volume • Multiple resonance mode
Birdcage coil • Uniform field for MR < 7T • Difficult to tune and match
• Linear and circular polarized
• Uniform field along z axis • Electrical length dependence
Dipole antennas • Easy to implement
• Can be place anywhere
• Reduced length compared to dipole antennas • Needs a ground plane
Monopole antennas
• Poor field uniformity
• Can produce uniform fields • Geometry dependence (width, length)
• Reduced dependence on electrical length • Requires dielectric material
Microstrips • Can be used as transmission and reception • Works better for higher frequencies
• In array configuration allows B1 shimming
• Low coupling
• No dependence on electrical length • Requires extra lumped elements
Composite right/left hand materials • Can operate at any frequency • Complex design
• Multi-frequency resonance
RF = radiofrequency; S/N = signal-to-noise ratio

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