PREVALENCE OF

BIOETHICAL ISSUES
BEGINNING OF HUMAN LIFE

When does human life, or personhood begin? Does

it begin at conception? Or fertilization? Or
implantation? Or at viability? Or at birth?
► Our very on Civil Code itself, that is if we wish to take a glimpse of a
legal answer to the question, is ambiguous in indicating when
personhood begins. In Article 41, it says: “For civil purposes, the fetus
is considered born if it is alive at the time it is completely delivered
from the mother’s womb. However, if the fetus had an intra-uterine
life of less than seven months, it is not deemed born if it dies within
twenty-four hours after its complete delivery from the maternal
womb.”
► However, in Article 42, postulates that the birth of the fetus marks
the beginning of personhood. This article provides: “Civil personality
is extinguished by death.” The effect of death upon the rights and
obligations of the deceased is determined by law, by contract, and by
will. It is in P.D. 603, however, where the issue of human
personhood is determined at fertilization or conception.
Despite the difficulty to determine the exact beginning of the existence of
human life, there have been interests and dedications to theorize and
conceptualize about life’s origin. The following theories are used:
► (1) Neurological;
► (2) Biological Dependence;
► (3) Metabolic;
► (4) Embryological;
► (5) Consciousness of the Self; and
► (6) Genetic.
Neurological Theory

► This theory is based on the notion of the capabilities and function of a gadget
called electroencephalogram, or EEG. The electroencephalogram is a medical
test used to determine the brain waves of a human being.
► Consequently, under the neurological theory, human life begins from four to
six months after gestation. This means that, to the proponents of neurological
theory, the substance inside the womb is not yet a human person but just a
mere mass of flesh. And this theory is one of those that is vehemently
rejected by the Catholic Church.
Biological Independence Theory

► This theory is founded on the notion of viability. If the weight of neurological

theory banks on the development of the neural connections of the fetus,
biological independence theory depends on the maturations of the lungs of
the growing fetus from among the circles of physicians and physiologists, the
viability of the human fetus increases significantly beyond 24 weeks or 6.25
months after gestation of the lungs of the fetus develop progressively.
► This is another theory which the Catholic Church strongly rejects as it stands
as a blatant assault to the dignity of human life that must have began, as the
Catholic Church maintains, right at the moment of conception.
Metabolic Theory

► This theory advocates the idea that, strictly speaking, there is no such thing
as fertilization, or the moment of fusion of the ovum and the sperm cell that
leads to the formation of the so-called new reality or being termed zygote. To
adherents of metabolic theory, fertilization, cannot be exactly determined in
as much as it is, to them, a process that requires 20 to 22 hours between the
duration when the sperm cell has successfully penetrated the outmost layers
of the egg cell.
► The proponents of metabolic theory strongly argue that development of the
fetus is a continuous process whose beginning cannot be determined. This
theory is very hard to accept from among the folds of the Catholics since it
just brushes aside the very important period that must have manifested the
very beginning of human life which the Catholics call conception or
fertilization.
Embryological Theory

► This theory maintains that the beginning of human life happens at

gastrulation, not at fertilization. The term gastrulation is derived from the
Greek word gaster which means “stomach” or “gut”. Gastrulation is the
process in which a gastrula “a set of morphogenic processes that transform
the relatively unstructured early embryo into a gastrula with three-germ
layers- endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm” starts at the onset of the third
week (21 days) of pregnancy. It is also this time when the zygote, which
around this time has developed into an embryo, has implanted, into the
uterus.
► The crusaders of this theory maintain that the embryo is credited of being a
human being; however, it is not yet a person since it is bereft of individuality
– arguing from the classic understanding of person as introduced by Boethius.
This theory of the beginning of life is likewise abandoned by the Catholic
Church.
Self-Consciousness Theory

► According to this theory, human life begins when the child earns
consciousness of his/her very self, only when the child attains
self-consciousness, or to the least, gains consciousness, can he/she be
ascribed of personhood, or have begun to live a human life.
► Self-consciousness is, beyond doubt, an act that is very hard to determine. If
you ask adults to recall the acts they did when they were infants or even
below seven years old, almost all of them will yield to utter difficulty in going
back to what they did at that time. Only when can provide the minute details
of what he/she did inside the womb of his/her mother prior to birth can the
zygote or an embryo, or a fetus be secured from this cruel theory concocted
by Tooley. This is not supported by Catholic Church as well.
Genetic Theory

► This is the only theory that passes what this book desires to accept and support
consonance with the teachings of the Catholic Church. According to Genetic Theory,
fertilization or conception occurs the moment the sperm cell fuses with the egg
cell. This glorious event marks the beginning of humanness and personhood. During
fertilization, a union of genetic substances happens. Hence, for the adherents of
this theory, the conceptus, or the zygote is a person because it is an individual
substance per se.
► Health care providers must be cautious enough not to support the other theories
that defile and disgrace the holiness of human life that is marked at conception.
Hence, the health care provider must always be vigilant to safeguard the sanctity of
life by not supporting anybody who wishes to resort to abortion, specifically from
the grounding of the genetic theory. With his/her background of these theories, the
healthcare provider must uphold what the genetic theory advocates, i.e.,
humanness and personhood commence at conception.
Current Reproductive Technology

► Sex Selection
► Artificial Insemination
► In vitro Fertilization
► Contraception
► Abortion
► Maternal-Fetal Relationship
► Euthanasia
► Suicide
► Stem Cell Technology
► Organ Transplant
Sex Selection

► In Christianity, specifically among Catholics, children are considered as God’s

gift to the couple. The reason why sex selection is introduced in society for
the spouses to establish a sense of equilibrium in the family. This leads
experts to call euphemistically sex selection as family balancing wherein the
sex of the offspring is controlled in order to achieve their desired sex of the
child pursuant to the preference of the parents.
► Sex selection can be done in generally, three ways, to wit: (1)
pre-implantation method; (2) post-implantation method; and (3) post-birth
method. Under pre-implantation method, sex selection is accomplished
through the use of Sperm Sorting and Pre-implantation Genetic Diagnosis
(PGD).
► Post-implantation method use prenatal diagnosis which is done by the use of
amniocentesis and/or ultrasound machines (currently, 4D ultrasound machines
are available to offer more efficient and accurate performance) for purposes
of determining the sex of the off spring. In many instances, couples would
resort to abortion in case the sex of the fetus is not the one that they want.
Post-birth method uses sex-selective infanticide (killing of the infant whose
sex does not match that which the couple wants).
► Both the post-implantation and post-birth methods are truly deadly or fatal to
the fetus and to the new born baby, or to an infant. They are both serious
offenses against the dignity of human life.
Artificial Insemination (AI)

► This kind of Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART) is grossly used for

infertility (inability to conceive after a year of regular unprotected
intercourse) treatment. AI is defined as the act through which the sperm is
placed into a female’s uterus, or the intrauterine method, or into the cervix,
or the intracervical method, by the use of artificial means rather than
conjugal act or sexual intercourse.
► In general, there are two processes that AI employs, namely: (1)Homologous,
or Artificial Insemination from the Husband (AIH); and (2)Heterologous, or
Artificial Insemination from a Donor (AID).
► It must be clear that in AIH or AID, it is the wife who is incapable of
reproduction, not the husband.
► Some Catholic theologians, believe that AIH is accepted and the act is
justifiable even the sperm was made available through masturbation because
that still allows the wife to conceive from her husband.
► However, in the case of AID, the same theologians have assumed a different
stand. For them it is equivalent to “permitted” adultery, contrary to morals
of the church. Therefore, the healthcare provider must not support and
accept couple’s resort to AID.
In vitro Fertilization (IVF)

► This is an artificial process through which the egg cells are fertilized by the sperm
outside of the woman’s reproductive tract. The term in vitro derived from the Latin
word which means “in glass” that historically refers to glass containers like beakers,
test tubes, and petri dishes which are used during experimentation conducted for
the purpose of fertilizing the egg and the sperm.
► Literally, therefore, the glass containers “acted” like the artificial wombs wherein
the egg and the sperm get fertilized. Hence, babies conceived through IVF are
called “test tube babies”.
► In vitro Fertilization entails lot of moral concerns. Must it be made available only to
legally married couples or to any couple who wishes to have a child through IVF?
How about surrogate mothers? Is it morally acceptable that their offspring will be
developed in a womb of a surrogate mother? How about the process of fertilization,
fetal life and development since does not occur in normal copulation but in the
petri dish? These questions loads IVF with a host of moral weaknesses and failures.
Contraception

► If couple, under the help of Assisted Reproductive Technology, specifically AI

and IVF, seek to remedy a spouse’s failure to conceive for them to come to
terms with having children, in the arena of contraception, however, the
notion of contraception is a blatant disregard of one of the reasons for
marriage.
► The arguments of these magisterial teachings must have been based on the
contention of Saint Augustine, as cited by Genovesi, who posited that
”..loving married couples committed a venial sin if they engaged in sexual
intercourse without the intention of procreation, but simply from the
pleasure derived from the act..” also, it was mentioned “…intercourse during
time of menstruation or during the time of pregnancy was morally prohibited
because the possibility of procreation was then precluded..” Such teachings,
however, have long been abandoned by the Catholic Church.
► What remains is the emphasis of the Catholic Church’s teaching that
whenever couples engage in sexual intercourse, they must have in mind the
holy intention and knowledge that the conjugal act is always directed towards
procreation.
► Pope Pius XII in his Address to Midwives, maintains that the following are the
primary ends of marriage: (1) Procreation; (2)Upbringing of offspring;
(3)Mutual Aid; and (4)Healing of concupiscence. The procreative act must be
made available, or supposedly done only , by responsible individuals since
part of the creative act is the mandate to be responsible parents.
Two Types of Contraceptive Methods
Natural Contraceptive Method
Artificial Contraceptive Methods

Oral Contraceptives:
► This is a series of pills that a woman takes once each day for a month. At the end of the month, she starts
a new package of pills. The pills have hormones much like those a woman's body makes to control her
menstrual cycle. They work by keeping the ovaries from releasing eggs or by changing the lining of the
uterus or the mucus of the cervix.
 
Depo-Provera:
► A method of birth control given in the form of a shot. The shot gives protection for up to 12 weeks. It does
not contain estrogen so there are no side effects from that hormone. It works by keeping the ovaries from
releasing eggs or by changing the lining of the uterus or the mucus of the cervix.

Contraceptive Patch:
► A method of birth control that is a small, thin and smooth patch and is put on a woman's skin. The woman
can choose where she wears the patch: the buttocks, the shoulder, the upper arm, front or back, but not
on the breasts. It releases hormones every day for three weeks so the woman's ovaries don't produce eggs.
It can stay on the body for one week. You change it once a week and on the fourth week, you don't wear a
patch but you will still be protected. You can swim, bathe, shower and wear it in warm humid weather.
Contraceptive Ring:
► A method of birth control in the form of a soft ring that fits deep inside the vagina. It releases low-dose
hormones everyday for three weeks so the woman's ovaries don't produce eggs. It can stay in the vagina
for up to three weeks and provides protection for one month; the exact position in the vagina is not
important.
 
Intrauterine Device (IUD):
► A small device made of plastic. Some contain copper, or a hormone. A clinician chooses the right type for a
woman, and inserts it into her uterus. Some can stay there for 4 years; copper IUDs may be left in place up
to 8 years. IUDs prevent a woman's egg from being fertilized by the man's sperm, and change the lining of
her uterus.

Implanon:
► Implanon is a small, thin, implantable hormonal contraceptive that provides effective protection for up to
three years. Implanon must be removed by the end of the third year and can be replaced by a new
Implanon if contraceptive protection is still needed. This contraceptive method must be inserted and
removed by a trained healthcare provider.
Diaphragm/Cervical Cap:
► A soft rubber barrier in a woman's vagina, used with a contraceptive cream or jelly. The diaphragm or
cervical cap is put into a woman's vagina before intercourse. It covers the entrance to her uterus, and the
cream or jelly stops the man's sperm from moving. The diaphragm can be put in the vagina 6 hours ahead
of intercourse, and left in or 24 hours. The cervical cap can be left in her vagina for up to 48 hours.
 
Male Condom: 
► It is a sheath of latex that a man can wear over his penis during intercourse. The condom catches the
semen that comes out of a man's penis before, during and after he ejaculates. This keeps his sperm from
getting into the woman's vagina. Latex condoms also help protect against some infections, including HIV,
the virus that causes AIDS.

Female Condom:
► It is a loose-fitting sheath that fits inside the woman's vagina. It catches the semen that comes out of a
man's penis when he ejaculates. It covers the cervix, the opening to the uterus, so sperm can't get
through. It also protects against some infections including HIV, the virus that causes AIDS.
Tubal Ligation:
► This surgical procedure blocks the fallopian tubes of a woman and
prevents an egg from being fertilized by the man's sperm.
 
Vasectomy:
► This a surgical procedure for men. It cuts the vas deferens, the tube that
carries sperm from inside a man's body through the penis and out. It does
not affect sexual function.
Abortion

► “Human life must be respected absolutely from the first moment of his
existence, a human being must be recognized as having the rights of a person-
among which is the inviolable right of every innocent being to life.”
► Direct abortion, that is to say, abortion willed either as an end or as a means,
is gravely contrary to the moral law: You shall not kill the embryo by abortion
and shall not cause the newborn to perish.
► Abortion, or the delibrate ejection of a non-viable fetus from the mother’s
womb, is strictly prohibited by the 5th Commandment as the killing of an
innocent human being.
► Abortion is being sought for and eventually administered because of varied
reasons like the health problem of the mother, the mother’s age, incest,
rape, pressure from partner or from the parents, problem with relationship,
financial reasons, shame, unwanted baby, physiological worries related to
pregnancy, fetal health problem, unready for responsibility, and others.
► Inasmuch as abortion is a fact in human society, it is good to ponder upon the
following questions: does a woman truly have a right over her body? Does a
woman have a right to have a child of her own born from copulation? And
does a fetus have a right to be born, cared for and loved?
► Healthcare providers must be extra careful in relation to their moral
obligation not to endorse abortion to their clients or patients. The Catholic
Church is very strict in giving grave penalties to those who commit in
including those who consummated an act of cooperation for its commission.
Euthanasia

► Euthanasia is derived from two Greek words namely, eu which means “well”
or “good” and thanos which means “death”. Based on this, euthanasia is
understood as the practice of ending life in a painless way.
► There are two forms which euthanasia is performed. Voluntary – means that
the patient consents or decides for himself to be “killed” painlessly.
Involuntary- refers to a situation when the patient cannot decide for himself
to die painlessly so that another person will die for him. This is resorted to
patients who are terminally ill or those in comatose state, or those who are in
Persistent Vegetative State, including defective newborns who are unlucky
enough because they have malformations such as spina bifida and Down
syndrome, to name a few.
► Euthanasia can be administered in three ways, namely, (1)Passive;
(2)Non-active; and (3)Active. Passive euthanasia can be done by avoiding the
intake of common treatments like antibiotics and other medications and by
avoiding chemotherapy for cancer patients based on the patient’s knowledge
that the avoidance will lead to his death. In non-active euthanasia, the life
support systems shall be withdrawn from the patient. Active euthanasia
pertains to one where lethal substances shall be used to kill a person. It is per
se a gesture of suicide wherein one may decide to use a euthanasia machine
to kill himself.
► The World Medical Association condemns euthanasia since euthanasia, to its
members, is contrary to public policy, morals, public interest, as it is also
contrary to the mandates of the medical ethical principles along with man’s
inherent natural rights.
► As morality is clearly embedded in euthanasia, it must therefore be avoided.
It is, beyond doubt, a violation of the fundamental right of man to life. Since
life originates from God, therefore, He alone has a sovereign right over life..
Suicide

► The term suicide is derived from the Latin word suicidium which means “to
kill oneself.” It is also defined as “the direct killing of oneself on one’s own
authority” or “ the intentional killing of one’s own life” or “the destruction of
one’s interests and prospects”. It is truly a morbid means of taking one’s life
as it results in a total resignation from the human race.
► Suicide bluntly shows that one has determined to kill himself. This means that
the agent of death is nobody else but the person himself. Thus, starving
oneself to death is suicide, throwing oneself from atop a building is suicide;
drinking willfully some considerable dosage of a poisonous drug is suicide and
other acts that result to death caused by oneself is suicide.
► What causes people to commit suicide?
► Experts ask this questions to clear intrigues because normal people hate or
avoid, to the best of their ability, when it comes to death.
► The data provided by the World Health Organization shows that over one
million people die in suicide every year. Accordingly, the rate of deaths
caused by suicide surpass deaths caused by liver and Parkinson’s disease.
► Usually, suicide is caused by the following: physical pain, illness, anxiety,
emotional pressure, financial difficulties, shame, guilt, depression,
desperation, psychological disturbance, mental disorder, including culture
and religion.
► Is suicide immoral? Yes. It is nothing else but tantamount to cowardice. It is a
total reversion of the sanctity of the God-given life. Suicide is a negation to
accept the facts of life in the name of courage, obligation, respect, love, and
gratitude to God and the members of the human society. If life is God-given,
then it is God alone who has the absolute right to curtail it, is He so wishes it
to be.
► It is therefore the paramount duty of healthcare providers to keep track with
the emotional status and mental directions of their patients, especially those
who are suffering from malignant diseases, to hold on to their life no matter
what.
► Hospitals are admirably venues for melancholy, boredom, helplessness on the
part of the patients. Given this condition, the healthcare providers must be
ready to assist patients in their spiritual, physical, emotional, psychological,
and mental turmoil. Otherwise, they might be tempted to end their life.
Organ Transplantation/ Organ Donation

► An organ transplant is the moving of a whole or partial organ from one body
to another for the purpose of replacing the recipient’s damaged or failing
organ with a working one from the donor.
► Pope John Paul II qualifies organ and tissue donation as a heroic, charitable,
and a praiseworthy act, as long as performed in ethically acceptable manner.
► In general, there are two kinds of organ transplant: (1) inter vivos and (2)
postmortem. Inter vivos transplant is one which is done among the living. This
means that the donor is alive. On the other hand, postmortem transplantation
refers to donations given after the death of the donor.
► The following organs that can be donated, specifically in postmortem
donation: pancreas, liver, lungs, kidneys, heart, intestines, and even penis.
► The following are the tissues that can be donated on an inter vivos donation:
corneas, middle ear, skin, veins, arms, bones, heart valves, ligaments,
tendons and cartilage.
The general principles of organ donation
(inter vivos and postmortem donations)
► the importance of informed consent that must be legitimately given by rthe
donor or by the one who speaks before him/her
► The physical and psychological risks incurred by the donor must be equal to
the good sought for the recipient
► The destruction of the healthy functioning or the inherent beauty of one’s
body is deemed morally wrong even if this delays the death of another

If the transplantation conducted fails to conform to these principles, such

transplant is construed as immoral.