Module 3 - Resource Manual & Participants Notes

MODULE 3 - RESOURCE MANUAL & PARTICIPANTS NOTES
ASCA Level 1 S&C Coach Accreditation Module 3 – Resource Manual & Participants Notes
Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning
















Additional Reading Module 3

2000
How to Teach Strength Training Exercises – Part 1.
Strength and Conditioning Coach, 8(1):11-12. 2000 © ASCA
Strength
And
Conditioning HOW TO TEACH STRENGTH TRAINING EXERCISES – PART 1
Coach
Ian King
The Official Magazine of the Strength and Conditioning Association
ISSN 1324-8006
You are about to teach an athlete or client a new strength training exercise. You go through the steps in your head - you
are going to tell them all about the new exercise, then give them a demonstration, then allow them to try it After all, that
is the way to teach. How do you know that this is the way to teach? Because that is what you were told in your educational
course, and that is the way everyone else is doing it.
But is it the best way to teach? Is it the only way to teach? This article series shares with you my conclusions of effective
ways to teach. In a non-dogmatic way, I share with you the methods that I have refined from intense teaching practice
over many years.
These articles are about the practical act of TEACHING STRENGTH EXERCISES, an activity that many people do on
a daily basis and that forms a component of their professional services. In brief they were written from practical
experience for people who wanted to know practical guidelines of HOW TO WRITE Strength Training Programs. There
are relatively few texts available on the subject of teaching strength training exercises - what makes these articles even
more unique is they provide guidance in the practical of teaching these exercises, not just the theory.
This is how the article series is presented. It is broken into four parts. Part 1 (Establishing the Foundations) discusses
the fundamentals of teaching including expediency, progression, safety and enjoyment Prior to this the issue of knowing
vs doing is discussed. That is, the critical difference between knowing what to do and doing what you know. The key
is not simply learning more - but rather ensuring you are implementing everything you know! Our progress in knowledge
acquisition is usually monitored and assessed in a planned educational environment. But what about our ability to
apply? Once we are into the "real world" of coaching, there is very little in the way of structured assessment of our
teaching skills, and we may not be aware of how little of what we know we are actually applying.
Part 2 (The Traditional Approach of Teaching Strength Training Exercises) takes you, step by step, through an analysis
of dominant and historical influences of training, highlighting the limitations of these methods. This is probably the
method you first learnt! There is nothing wrong with this "traditional approach”. It may be an effective way to teach
"beginner coaches". But as you advance in your coaching experience you may benefit from knowing it is alright to do it
differently, and to find out the limitations of the method you may have been taught initially.
Part 3 (Identifying Dominant Learning Modalities and Strategies for Improved Teaching) teaches you methods of
identifying which modalities a person may be dominating in during whilst you are coaching them, and provides
strategies for improving how you teach.
Part 4 (An Alternative Approach to Teaching Strength Training Exercises) presents the rationale for an alternative
method of teaching strength training. This model takes aspects of the traditional method and joins them with teaching
concepts developed or at least popularized in more recent times. It also provides a step-by-step guide on how to
implement this model of teaching. These steps may appear cumbersome and time consuming, but in the pursuit "of
increased performance and decreased risk (on injury and liability), you may benefit from taking note.
Part 5 (A Checklist for the Assessment of Teaching Strength Training Exercises) provides a sample checklist that you
can use to assess yourself or someone else in your methods of teaching. This is an invaluable tool if you wish to improve
via self-analysis.
Compared to say writing a strength training program, most perceive that there is relatively little to the practice of teaching
strength training exercises. I often hear, in relation to how to teach "I already know all that stuff". But do they? That
depends on your definition of "know". In the real world in general, and specifically in the world of coaching athletes, I
am more interested in what people do than what they know.
I have seen a lot of coaches teach strength training. My conclusion -1 feel strongly that teaching of strength training is
very poorly mastered by the majority.

Before we get into it I want to give you an opportunity to look at your own abilities objectively. Get a video camera and
two to six athletes. Teach them something new and video it. Give the video cassette to an objective person (preferably
someone who has also read these articles!) - not someone who is going to agree with you simply to appease you, but
rather someone that you know who has the courage and integrity to objectively assess you, even if the feedback is not
exactly what you wanted to hear. Also give them the relevant checklist from the back of this text Get them to assess
you.
Then, after finishing this article series, and having had time to rehearse the application of the methods you have been
exposed to, repeat this process. Now compare the before and after performance - and appreciate how much you have
improved!
If we are to look for an alternative to the traditional method of teaching strength training exercise, it is important to clarify
the foundations for our methodology of teaching. There are a number of clear and simple goals that I aim for when
selecting a teaching method. These include:
1 Expediency
2 Progression
3 Safety
4 Enjoyment
EXPEDIENCY
There is often a perception that is will take "x" period of time to teach an exercise. Take for example the power clean.
There are some who believe it may takes months or even years to teach the power clean. You can teach the power
clean in as little as thirty seconds. This conflicting perception is also challenging to those who hold the former view! The
quicker we can teach, the quicker we can progress. I am not aiming to teach quickly for the sake of quickness - I still
want certain technical criteria met before moving on. Some will therefore take longer than others to learn. But I am
always challenging by asking myself - is this the most expedient way to teach this exercise in each situation.
PROGRESSION
I also look for a teaching method that will allow me to teach in a progressive manner, and at the rate of progression that
is appropriate to the student giving the student all the cues, do's and don'ts all at once is not one of these methods!
SAFETY
I place injury prevention as a higher priority in training than performance enhancement it should surprise you therefore
when I say that you should avoid injuries during teaching at all costs. Whilst this may sound common sense, it doesn't
always happen like this. You should be consciously asking - is this method of teaching minimising the risk of injury? Or
are there inherent risks? Take the issue of loading for example. I discourage the use of load during teaching e.g. I start
with the bar and progress slowly from there.
ENJOYMENT
Again, my philosophy of training is as an extension of play. The athlete should enjoy training, look forward to coming to
training. This should also apply to the teaching process. One of the most common and detrimental emotions that may
surface during a strength training teaching session with athletes is frustration. Frustration that the technique is not being
mastered faster. Avoid this frustration by ensuring progression that is appropriate for that athlete's learning rate, and
provide verbal expectations of progression in learning that match the particular athlete. Frustration usually only hinder
progress.

2000
Strength
And
Coach
Ian King
ISSN 1324-8006
In Part 1 of this article series on “How to Teach Strength Training Exercises” (Establishing the Foundations) we
discussed the fundamentals of teaching including expediency* progression, safety and enjoyment and the issue of
"knowing Vs doing". That is, the critical difference between knowing what to do and doing what you know. This is not
simply learning more - but father ensuring you are implementing everything you know. In Part 2 (The Traditional
Approach to Teaching Strength Training Exercises) we will go step by step through an analysis of dominant and historical
influences of training, highlighting the limitations of these methods. The "traditional approach" as described in this article
is probably the method you first learnt There is nothing wrong with this "traditional approach". It may be an effective way
to teach "beginner coaches" how to teach. But as you advance in your coaching experienced you may benefit from
knowing it is alright to knowing it is alright to do it differently, and to find out the limitations of the method you may have
been taught initially.
The Traditional Approach to Teaching Strength Training Exercises
Does this model of teaching sound familiar?
Tell the student how to do the exercise via a demonstration.

Allow the student to do the exercise.
Most of us know about the basic tools of teaching that form the universal approach to teach - visual, auditory, and
kinesthetic. Some people use the term "neuro-linguistic program" or NLP to describe these tools. This term is credited
to originating in the early 1970's when John Grinder, a linguist, and Richard Brandler, a mathematician, set out to model
the common factors found in excellent communications.
In the context of teaching strength training exercises, these terms are traditionally interpreted as:
Visual - showing the student/s how to do it.

Auditory - telling the student/s how to do it
Kinesthetic - allowing the student to feel what it is like to do it.
When I am teaching prospective strength and conditioning coaches or similar, I usually ask them what is the most
effective way to teach. I invariably receive a determined and unified response that is consistent with the model
outline above. When I ask why they think this, I see less certainty. They begin to realise (after initial attempts to
rationalise and justify their response) that this may be based more on how they were taught to teach than anything else!
Who taught them? Without intending to criticise any individual or institution, how can someone teach you a skill that they
themselves do not possess?
Less experienced coaches and/ or students (those participating in sport science and coach education courses) are more
likely to rigidly apply this method of teaching. It has a strong and long history, including being a traditional method of
teaching in armed forces. The armed forces, with their physical training component, have had a significant effect on
sport and general population physical training. After all, up to a few decades ago, that is before the advent of the
professional athlete, they were amongst the few in the workforce whose livelihood (and often lives) were sup-ported by
and dependent upon their physical condition.
I have participated in courses where this method of teaching was dogmatically taught.
To pass the assessment, this method of teaching had to be used. More experienced coaches are less likely to use this
method, or at least more likely to be flexible on their methods of teaching. Reasons for this include:
a) They have developed more effective methods.

b) They recognise the physical impact and drain of having to demonstrate everything you teach, all day, every day.
c) With the progression of age, the incidence of arthritis, old sporting injuries, etc. forces a different approach.

In summary, the traditional approach to teach strength training exercise is:
Show
Tell
Do
How effective is this teaching method? One way to analyse this is to consider the way we as individuals communicate
and learn. Essentially, we are all capable of using each of the modalities (i.e. visual, auditory or kinesthetic) to learn.
However, it is believed that most if not all will dominate in their learning through one of these modes. The following table
reflects a universal assessment of the dominant modes of learning used by people:
Visual 40%
Auditory 20%
Kinesthetic 40%
Is there a right or wrong way to teach strength training exercises? No, I don't believe there is, I have always steered
away from teaching a set method of teaching for all people in all situations. However some methods may be more
effective. Realistically, to be objective, unless one can replicate that exact teaching environment and manipulate (or
vary) the method of teaching, one may never know which methods are more effective. However I do believe that some
methods may be more effective. I believe that there is a number of limitations to the traditional method of teaching
strength training exercises. Later, I will discuss these, and provide alternative methods of teaching.
LIMITATIONS OF THE TRADITIONAL APPROACH
The following summaries factors that I find can be limiting in the use of the traditional "tell, see, do" approach. This is
not to be seen as blanket criticism of this method. It will be applicable in some cases, and a beginner may need a
simple guide like this in their early teaching days.
1. It makes no attempt to determine/use the dominant learning mode of the athlete (most athletes are probably
kinesthetic dominant - they just want to get into it!)
It is assumed that everyone will learn optimally by being rigidly taught in the same way. Think about it - teaching
everyone the same. Ignoring the individual. You can really see the military influence here!
2. It placed excessive time in the auditory teaching mode, a mode considered to be the least dominant. Not only
does the traditional approach treat everyone in the same way, it places a priority on telling the athlete all about
the exercise. As you can see from the figures provided earlier, auditory learning is one of the least dominant
modes of learning!
3. It is too rigid - doesn't recognise that different situations may warrant different methods.
The traditional teaching model lacks the flexibility to adapt to different teaching situations. There is significant
difference between teaching a large group of adolescents and a one-on-one supervision of an elite athlete.
4. It relies on the coach demonstrating - there are many reasons where this is not wise including the physical
demands, injury limitations, etc.
If you rely on you as the coach to demonstrate, you are probably going to experience a number of 'challenges'.
Firstly, you can expect to get very tired! Secondly you are likely to risk injuries you may be carrying for the sake
of adhering to your teaching model and thirdly as you age you are in less of a position to rely on this mode of
teaching! I could think of a lot more reasons but I trust you have got the picture!
5. There is an assumption that teaching is a one-off activity. What method do you use on the second teaching
session with the same athlete and same new exercise? The same one? Is this optimal? I doubt it. Little guidance
is provided or not flexible to adapt to situations such as this.
6. It perceives VAK from the student's perspective only. This one of my greatest criticisms of the traditional teaching
model it considers the learning challenge from the athlete's perspective only, i.e. how do they learn? What about
the coaches! I will be very blunt— I do not know how or what to teach until I have spoken to and watched the
athlete per-form the exercise in question. Yes, even a new exercise — they can give it a go on limited information.
Once I have spoken to them, by listening to them (auditory) I have learnt valuable information e.g. have they done
this exercise before? After watching them, I have learnt specifically what their movement pattern is; and therefore
what to teach them, in what order, and by what cues.
By touching (kinesthetic) them during the lift. I learn even more about how their muscles are functioning and
interacting. This further enhances my plan of what to teach them, in what order, and via what cues. I then also
ask them "how did it feel" or similar after the exercise, and by listening to their response my teaching plan is
further enhanced. This I believe to be one of the most significant elements of the model of teaching that I can tell
you.
7. It ignores non-verbal communication.
There is no provision in traditional teaching (VAK for non-verbal communication - of both the athlete and the
coach). How you both are standing tells a lot, how you both move during your interaction tells a lot. Where the
athlete touches himself or herself tells a lot. I could go on. Some suggest that non-verbal communication is more
powerful than verbal communication! I have to agree.

8. It fails to emphasis tone of voice as a teaching tool.

When you talk (and when the athlete talks) there is so much more than just the words used (although analysis of
word selection will tell you a lot about a person). There is also the tone of the voice. Effective use of tone can not
only optimise the teaching experience, when used effectively it can reduce the time and effort it takes to teach!
It ignores touch in teaching.
There is no provision in traditional teaching for touch. Interestingly enough, as the value of touch in teaching of
strength training exercises is being recognised in mainstream writing (e.g., Rothenberg, B, and Rothenberg, (X,
1995, Touch Training for Strength - an excellent text), the issues of sexual harassment and political correctness
are on the rise. The result? More people know about the value of touching the athlete when teaching them
strength training exercises but less are included to because of these issues! I will stop short of telling you how to
resolve these social phenomenon -suffice to say, find out how you can use touch as an effective tool in your
strength training teaching!

2000
Strength
And
Coach
Ian King
ISSN 1324-8006
In Part 1 of this article series on How to Teach Strength Training exercises (establishing the Foundations) we discussed
the fundamentals of teaching including expediency, progression, safety and enjoyment and the issue of 'knowing V's
doing'. In Part 2 (The Traditional Approach to Teaching Strength Training Exercises) we discussed an analysis of
dominant and historical influences of training, highlighting the limitations of these methods. In Part 3 (Identifying
Dominant Learning Modalities and Strategies for Improved Teaching) the aim is to teach you methods of identifying
which modalities a person may be domination in whist you are coaching' them, provides strategies for improving how
you teach.
IDENTIFYING DOMINANT LEARNING MODALITIES
Now that you appreciate that different people rely to varying extents on each of the modes of communication, you may
want to learn how to identify which method any given person dominated in.
There are a number of ways determining this, and they include:
1. Overall response – focused and switched off or frustrated

This is the easiest option. If you haven't picked up on more subtle cues, or can't remember how to, you can always
use-this. Ask the question - is the athlete focused and switched on the way you are teaching them? Or are they
showing signs of frustration? If the former applies, keep going. If the latter applies, look to changed direction in
your teaching method.
2. Word Selection
If you listen attentively to the athlete, you may pick up on words that hint at their dominant means of learning. The
following are examples of this:
Visual
'I see what you mean'
'It looks to me '
'Can we focus in on?
'Can you show me how to do it?
Auditory
‘I am starting to tune in to what you are saying'
‘I am listening'
'I hear you on that'
'Can you describe it to me again?'
Kinesthetic
‘I feel I am coming to grips with the situation'
'I am getting a handle on it'
‘Can I give it a go?
I have bolded the last response in each category, as a typical response you may hear whilst teaching strength
training exercises.
Picking up on these clues can give you direction in how to teach that athlete.
3. Eye Movement
This is perhaps the harder one to learn, and requires greater skills to implement. It is argued that people process
information internally, their eye movement, al-though perhaps only slight, reflects their mode of processing.
Therefore by being observant during your interaction with the athlete, you may pick up on characteristics of their
eye movement and determine which modality they are using at that time - visual, auditory or kines¬thetic
To make it easier to remember, I use these simple cues:

Visual = up
Auditory = Straight ahead
(Except auditory digital)
Kinesthetic = down
Past (remembering) = left
Future (constructing) = right
STRATEGIES FOR IMPROVED TEACHING
So what will be strategy for out 'new' way of teaching strength training exercises? The following outline a number of
guidelines for how you can improve your teaching methods. You may note that that many of these strategies are
solutions to the limitations I have highlighted within the traditional teaching model.
The following is a generalisation that may apply to the majority of people:
1. Determine and use the dominant method of learning used by the student/s. In a one-on-one or even a small group
session, the opportunity exists to determine the dominant mode of learning of each individual athlete, and to use
teaching methods that suit this. The bottom line is that if the athlete is not relating to your teaching method, their
word selection and/or body language will tell you this very quickly (provided or course you are looking for these
cues).
2. If in doubt, use less auditory. If in doubt, or in situation where is difficult to tell e.g. in a larger group, assume that
the majority are dominantly visual or kinesthetic - so talk less, get into the practical quicker.
3. Be flexible and multi-skilled. Don't be dogmatic. If you sense that a different method is warranted - use it. This
means that you will need to be skilled in a variety of teaching modes, and be able to switch from one to another
immediately and with ease.
4. Don't build a style that always relies on you demonstrating. This is one that the older or more experienced coaches
will smile knowingly at. If you are teaching all day, every day, you will soon appreciate the demands that con-
tinual demonstrations place. If you want to work that way -_ fine. Just remember there are other ways, and they
are effective. I rarely demonstrate.
5. Don’t feel the need to teach everything in one session- teaching/learning is an on-going process. Don't fall in the
trap of trying to teach too much in any one session. It is a trap that we can all fall into from time to time, irrespective
of our experience. If you learn one new thing, or improve one aspect, you have made progress. Go home and
come back again another day. There is an old saying that goes something like this "those who learn to fight and
run away live to fight another day" - don't try to conquer the world in one day.. Remember this saying also "Rome
wasn’t built in a day".
6. VAK is a two way street. The traditional approach is to view VAK from the student’s perspective. What the student
will hear, see and do. I will teach you that VAK is a two-way street. Think about this in a learning environment:
Visual —Watch what the athlete does prior to, during and immediately after the exercise; learn from this. Auditory-
Listen to what the athlete says prior to, during and immediately after the exercise Kinesthetic- By touching the
athlete in specific places during the strength exercise you can gain feedback that is not always available from the
above two methods. This feedback to you should guide the way you continue teaching.
7. Use non-verbal communication. Whilst VAK doesn't rule out the use on non-verbal communication, it usually
ignores it. Non-verbal communication is extremely powerful. Take a look at the following-analysis of the relative
power of various forms of communication:
Physical/body language 55%
Voice 38%
Words 7%
8. Exploit voice tone.

Again, traditional VAK methods don't rule out voice manipulation, but certainly don't state it enough. Look at the
above statistics: 38% of potential communication is allocated to voice - much more than words (7%) Tone is more
than just changing the pitch of the voice. It involves more * voice gymnastics' than this, and also involves timing.
For example, during the eccentric phase of a maximal strength lift, where maximal effort to accelerate is desired,
using words like 'driver or 'speed’ with a voice of determination and urgency is effective tool. I sometimes even
use a growl to get across a message that the action was not what I wanted!
9. Use touch in your teaching

Touching the athlete is not emphasised in traditional VAK teaching. In addition to that, it appears to be
politically/socially incorrect to touch the athlete, especially if the coach is male and the athlete is female. I will let

you sort out the political implication and strategies to overcome. Suffice to say, have permission from the athlete,
and in the case of opposite sexes, always have an adult witness.
Touching is extremely powerful tool for teaching strength training exercises, one that will contribute to faster
learning. The Rothenberg's (Beth and Oscar) devoted a whole book to this topic (Touching Training/or Strength,
1995, Human Kinetics). In this book excellent book the author's summarise the benefits of touching during
strength exercises as follows:
I. It redirects the focus of the exerciser's attention toward the target muscle (s)
II. It provides a form of biofeedback to the brain
III. It facilitates a muscle contraction
IV. It enable the trainer to evaluate for muscle tension and muscle imbalance during exercise
V. It eliminated tension in those muscles that are inappropriate for given exercise.
10. Brief and de-brief.

Immediately prior to the athlete commencing each set, brief the athlete. The briefing will consist of the following,
and should be very short e.g. 30 seconds or so.
A. Give key points to focus on
B. Ask if any questions, confirm that they understand what you want immediately following the completion of each
set, de-brief the athlete. The debriefing will consist of the following, and can be a little longer than the briefing.
C. Ask the athlete how they felt or thought about the lift
D. then give them your feedback
E. Then tell them what you will be looking for in the next set.
Visual remembering :seeing images of things seen before - Up and to the right
Visual constructed :seeing images of things never seen before - Up and to the left
Auditory remembered :remembering sounds heard before - Straight / to the left
Auditory constructed :hearing words never heard quite that way - Straight / to the right
Auditory digital :talking to oneself - Down / to the left
Kinesthetic :feeling (emotions, sensations, etc.) - Down / to the right

2000
Strength and Conditioning Coach, 8(4)11-12. 2000 © ASCA
Strength
And
Coach
Ian King
ISSN 1324-8006
I have critically analysed the traditional teaching model, provided foundations from which to base your new model upon,
and provided strategies for enhanced teaching. Now I outline my model of teaching strength training exercises. It is
based upon the foundations I outlined earlier, uses the strategies I discussed in a recent chapter, and provides you, the
coach, with an alternative to the traditional teaching model. The following summarise the model of teaching strength
training exercises that I have developed. Each step with this model is allocated to a time frame as follows:
Before the first training session. One each training day, prior to the commencement of the session. During each teaching
session. At the end of each teaching session.
1. PRIOR TO THE FIRST TRAINING SESSION
1.1 Establish a commitment to each exercise in a meeting with the athlete prior to the training session:
The training session is no time to start sharing philosophies - what you think, what the athlete thinks. Amongst
other things, there is the risk of disagreement, and at the commencement of training is not comfortable with
doing the lift, in this case the squat. The coach, being new to the position and wishing to assert his authority,
demands compliance. Then the athlete asks to use a heel block (piece of wood to elevate the heels). This
request is not supported by the strength coach. Then the athlete asks to avoid heavy loading due to certain
concerns. This again is denied - this is no time for this negotiation. End results -athlete sustains serious injury,
with potential litigation.
This is an example of the deficiencies of not having an individual consultation with each athlete, and then
individualising their programs. The above is a true story, and occurred as I understand in a group/positional
program, small group’s supervision situation.
Establish any contraindications for each exercise (injury history) in this pre-training meeting:
This pre-training meeting or consultation will allow to collect information that may contraindicate the use of
certain methods or exercises. Injury history, recovery ability, training history, previous results etc. Again, this
may be missed if there is no individual consultation to design the program.
2. ON EACH TRAINING DAY, PRIOR TO THE COMMENCE¬MENT OF THE SESSION
2.1 Verbally refresh your memory of the athlete's prior exposure to the exercise:
Don't feel the need to remember everything. Ask again by saying something like "Refresh my memory - how
much of exercise x have you done before?"
2.2 Assess the athletes’ injury status prior to each training session, especially in reference to any exercises
for that day:
Ask something like "How is the body today? ". Listen to the response. Modify the work out as needed based on
any day to day changes in the athlete injury or muscle tension/soreness/ flexibility levels.
2.3 Ascertain the athletes’ physical response to any prior session:
Learn how they responded to the last work out or other types of training performed since last training them (e.g.
DOM's, fatigue, etc.).

3. DURING EACH TRAINING SESSION
3.1 do an assessment of technique set using an extremely light load:
Use a very light first warm-up weight load. This will allow assessment of the technique in a low risk situation. It
doesn't matter how little they know about the lift in the first work out you do - if the load is minimal it will be safe,
all things being equal.
3.2 Assess the technique - from all relevant planes; and using all modes of communication:
This demonstration with a light load should be assessed from all relevant planes.
From the side - this is an excellent position to assess from, especially those movements that dominate in the
sagittal plane e.g. Squat. This allows observation of trunk flexion, hip extension etc.
From the back - This is an excellent position also, especially with bi-lateral movements. Again using the squat
as an example, you can watch for muscle imbalances right to left - if the bar dips to one side, this side is taking
more than 50% of the load.
From the front - this is also an excellent position for assessing bilateral movements. Extending the squat
example, it allow assessment of the knee alignment relative to each other, and relative to the feet.
From the top - this is practical for supine movements such as the bench press. It allows the bench press path
to be monitored in the horizontal plane. Uneven movement usually shows flexibility imbalances' between the
right and left upper extremities.
You should also use modes of communication:

Visual - watch their performance for information
Auditory - listen for any cues e.g. creaking joints, comments made kinesthetic - use touch techniques to gain
feedback re. Movement patterns
3.3 Construct a mental check¬ list of all point you wish to share with them or aspects of their technique you
are considering altering:
This is a crucial step in the way I prefer to teach - it is my preference to tell them what they need to know based
on an analysis, not everything you know. This list can be made in writing, or the exercise could be recorded on
video for mutual assessment (although for the latter to be effective in this context, you would need the AV
equipment in place ready for immediate viewing).
3.3 After this analysis set, obtain their feedback as to how they felt or thought they went:
Add this information to your list of their technical need.
3.4 Prioritise the feedback in order of importance:
I advise against telling them everything you know – I already said this. I also advise against telling everything
you believe they need to do or change based on your analysis technique set. Order by priority what you feel
they need to do/change/know -give it to them one by one in this order, progressing the information when each
set is mastered. This prioritisation should be based on their individual needs, not a predetermined set of values.
3.5 First set - first point of information (briefing):
Now training begins - brief the athlete prior to the set. Tell them the first thing you want them to do, or use cues
that will results in the desired effect. There is a difference between telling them what you want them to do and
giving them a cue to get the same result. The end result should be the same -you will decide at that time which
to use.
Keep the briefing simple and concise, and confirm their comprehension verbally.
3.6 Give feedback during the set:
For example, at the end of each rep. don’t feel obliged to cover all aspects in this feedback --you may feel it
more effective to wait until the end of the set. Keep the feedback after any or all reps concise, ideally referring
to only one or two points. The feedback may be praise only (e.g. good), or maybe constructive criticism (e.g.
“keep the hips down!'). Stay positive.

3.8 De-brief: Immediately upon completion of that set:
1. Ask the athlete how they felt/ thought about the set. Listen to this feedback - it may change what you were going
to tell them, or the way you were going to tell them.
2. Then give them your feedback
3. Then tell them what you will be focusing on in the next set, so that they can think about it during their rest period.
3.9 Repeat this process for each subsequent set - brief, debrief, preview the upcoming set:
Continue with this process each subsequent set, building progressively on their technical ability with one point
at a time, moving on once it is mastered.
3.10 Give projections about rate of learning:
Once you have seen a set or two you should be able to, with experience, make a projection on what technical
levels you can expect to reach in that session, and how many sessions it will take to master the exercise. Let
the athlete know this. Do not let them get frustrated if their rate of learning is less than what they had hoped for.
Everyone learns at a different rate. As long as they improve from session to session, this should be positively
reinforced.
3.11 Be mindful of volume - don't overdo it:
Do not blindly exceed predetermined volume guidelines in the teaching process. This is a very easy trap to fall
into - watch out for it.
3.12 Don't increase load at the expense of technique:
This is one of my most valued rules - do not compromise technique for load. Unless you are training competitive
strength athlete (e.g. weightlifters, power lifters), loading is not the primary goal. Functional strength is.
Therefore the function / recruitment patterns are more important than the load. Displacement of load is not highly
correlated with function and transfer to specific sporting movements.
3.13 Reinforce habits each session:
Use each session that you supervise to stress and reinforce desired habits e.g. Stick to rest periods, use a towel
over the shoulders in longer rest periods, fluids during training, recording work-outs, noting total work out time,
sitting down between longer rest periods, stay focused to appropriate levels, use arousal techniques - don't
expect the athlete to know or do all these all the time. These habits may need constant encouragement.
4. AT THE TEND OF EACH TRAINING SESSION
4.1 Debrief the session:
This is similar to the end set debrief but covers the whole session
Ask them how they found the work out, then tell them what you thought. Stay positive, confident. Give thoughts
about what you will be focusing on in the next session, so they can at least mentally rehearse in the interim,
4.2 Arrange the next session if needed or available:
Continuity in teaching is important. Don't expect or assume that the teaching process is complete after one
session. Discuss the athlete's teaching needs with them, and make arrangements or confirm the next sessions.

Volume 6 (1) 1998

Designing, Implementing and Coaching Strength Training Programs for Beginner and
Intermediate Level Athletes – Part 3.
Strength
And Strength and Conditioning Coach, 6(1):2-6. 1998 © ASCA
Conditioning
Coach DESIGNING, IMPLEMENTING AND COACHING STRENGTH TRAINING PROGRAMS
FOR BEGINNER AND INTERMEDIATE LEVEL ATHLETES – PART 3
Dan Baker
ISSN 1324-8006
INTRODUCTION
The first two sections of this paper have addressed designing and implementing strength training programs. However,
what constitutes the vast majority of a strength coaches time is the ongoing coaching process. This paper will address
aspects of the coaching process, including motivation, goal setting, reinforcement, technical analysis and the interaction
between these concepts.
COACHING
Coaching in strength training is concerned with the methods employed by the coach to ensure that certain behaviours
are persistently and consistently exhibited. These certain behaviours can be defined as exhibiting "good" technique,
based upon the appropriate biomechanics for an athlete and lifting with strength and/or power. Aside from designing
the appropriate program, the coach must teach and then rein force good technique in every repe-tition of every exercise
which is impossible but it should be the goal of the strength coach to aspire to develop this behaviour. Consequently
the strength coach of beginner and intermediate level athletes must be concerned with motivation, goal setting,
reinforcement, technique teaching and modification in an effort to ensure perfect technique and strong lifting are
behaviours which are consistently exhibited by the athlete.
MOTIVATION AND GOAL SETTING
Motivation depends heavily upon goal setting and goal attainment (Wilks, 1994). Goals may be defined as short, medium
and long term. Goals may also be defined as specific (e.g. a 3RM of 100kg) and more subjective ("good technique” in
the squat). A strength coach must address both forms of goal setting as developing higher levels of strength and power
and developing "good" technique are inextricably woven.
The first step in developing motivation and the concept of goal in the athlete is the provision of a written program by the
coach. A program, with all eight variables of strength training accounted for, documents and codifies the athletes training
goals for the next cycle (e.g. eight weeks). Thus there are workout, weekly, mesocycle and macroccle goals prescribed,
principally in the form of the weight to be lifted for a designated amount of repetitions.
Wilks (1994) has identified a number of features of goal setting specific to the strength coaching process. Goals should
be realistic, specific and publically affirmed. Furthermore there should be multiple goals, which need to be re-evaluated
and modified so they remain realistic. Consequently the practice of testing for a 3RM in the front squat, chin-up and
bench press and the prescribing retest goals is a sound method for developing motivation. The practices of prescribing
the weight for every set of every exercise for every workout also aids motivation as it ensures a goal setting / attainment
ethos. If these training loads that are prescribed become too difficult or easy (re-evaluated), then they are modified to
ensure the goals remains realistic.
REINFORCEMENT
A reinforcer is “any event that increases the rate of occurrence of a particular behaviour.” (Wilks, 1994). Positive
reinforcers are the most effective methods of reinforcing behaviours and may be classified as achievement, verbal and
sensation reinforcers (Wilks, 1994).
Grading of strength performances with a body weight normalising equation (e.g. the Wilks or Classical formulas) can
help to reinforce goal setting / attainment and therefore the whole coaching process, through instilling a sense of
achievement. With four different strength measurers (bench press, chin-up, front squat, and the total make the top half
in one measure, when strength is normalised according to body weight. Grading can also be done against the norms
of the top athletes in a sport. Thus achievement reinforcers help cultivate motivation as athletes strive to achieve goals
that have been set for them.
The quest for perfect for technique with heavy loads should be of a paramount importance. The coach and athlete
should strive to achieve perfect technique and constantly reinforce this behaviour to the neuromuscular system as the

appropriate behaviour. Perhaps the single most important method for reinforcing good technique in strength training is
the use of the verbal reinforcement during or immediately after the completion of a set. This verbal reinforcer should
contain, in order, (1) simple positive praise, (2) specific positive information concerning performance (technique), and
(3) corrective information if warranted (Wilks, 1994). Thus an example that may be used coaching the squat could be:
“Good. Your back is nice and flat. Just drive the hips through more on the next rep”.
After the completion of the entire set, a more detailed analysis can be given to the athlete, whilst the sensation of the lift
is still clear in the athletes mind. The sensation of lifting is important for learning with low level athletes.
The above example of verbal reinforcers is most appropriate to a low level athlete or when intermediates are lifting only
medium heavy weights as it contains many bits of information. Many bits of information cannot be effectively processed
when the higher cortical centres are in high state of arousal to lift very heavy weights (when the athlete is “psyched up”
to lift heavy). Therefore the verbal reinforcers for intermediates, or when lifting heavy weights that require high levels
of arousal. Must be concise (less bits of information). The coach uses cues or key words that equate to certain
behaviours. That is, one key word means the athlete should invoke a certain behaviour or technical reinforcement
during lifting.
For example, coaching the squat with an intermediate who has a habit of letting the chest drop, which will also result in
hops not being pushed through during the concentric portion of the lift, could be “Good. Chest Up. Hips through” or even
“Good. Chest. Hips:. A certain understanding between the athlete and the coach must exist which underlies the success
of the use of cues or key words. The coach must explain that if the word, for example, “Chest” is said, it means that the
athlete has made a slight mistake in technique which will be corrected by the focus upon the corrective behaviours
invoked by focusing upon “Chest”.
The corrective behaviour exhibited by the athlete in response to this cue will be to automatically lift the chest higher and
take a deeper breath before commencing the ensuing repetition. Consequently the incorrect behaviour (technical flaw)
will be corrected by invoking this response.
Table 1 contains a number of key words and technique cues that are useful for coaching in the early to low intermediate
stages of technical development. These cues have been developed based upon the author’s experience that relate to
common technique problems encountered by beginner and intermediate level athletes. Some cues are most appropriate
during the set up phase of a repetition, some during the eccentric phase and some during the concentric phase. Thus
between and during every stage of a repetition the coach can provide a verbal reinforcer of what the athlete is to do
regarding technique.
Tables 2 and 3 contain examples of the verbal reinforcers that can be used for an entire set of squats for respectively,
a beginner and an intermediate level athlete who is in a high state of arousal (lifting a very heavy weight). Note that the
coach provides less bits of information both during the set and after the set for the intermediate athlete to process. This
is because the intermediate is better able to modify the behaviour of the rep with just one or two key words or cues
(modifying the motor schema). Because of the greater control of the intermediate over the motor skill, these technical
changes occur at low level controller (spinal cord) of the neural system leaving the higher cortical level merely to think
of invoking them (changes become reflective). The cognitive centres of the higher centre are reserved for generating
the high levels of arousal necessary to lift heavy loads.
COACHING THE SKILLS OF STRENGTH TRAINING EXERCISES
Beginner athletes should perform very basic exercises that are easy to learn and easy to coach. The basis exercises
are the most appropriate for developing strength, hypertrophy and neutral control in beginners. Complex skill exercises
are unwarranted for beginners. Thus there is no need, for example, for an athlete to perform the power clean from the
hand until they have completed at least one (preferably 2) cycles of strength training (e.g. 2 x 6-8 week cycles). Thus
the complex skills are reserved until a future point when the athlete will already have related motor skills ingrained into
the neural system (e.g. power shrug, upright rows, front squats have motor skills related to an adaptable to that of the
power clean from the hang). The power clean from the hang is far easier to teach if a number of training cycles
containing upright rows, power shrugs and front squats have already been completed.
Therefore the transition from the basic skills to the complex skills need not be that difficult if the basic tenements of skill
acquisition are followed (e.g. building upon the basic skills and shaping and chaining aspects of a complex exercise.
BEGINNING STAGE OF LEARNING
The coaching of most sport skills is similar. For teaching a new exercise there should be five distinct parts to coaching
the process (ACC 1990). First name the exercise and secondly demonstrate it two or three times. Thirdly, identify two
or three key aspects of performance for the athlete to focus on. Follow this by demonstrating the exercise again,
illustrate the key points that were previously mentioned. The athlete will be attempting to imprint the coaches
performance of these key points to their own neural network. Finally allow the athlete to practice the skill by performing

a set at a very slow speed with either no weight, an empty barbell or a dowel rod. Gradually increase the speed of the
performance to that which you feel is appropriate (still slow for beginners). At this stage the athlete merely needs to
know if they are actually completing the exercise anywhere near to acceptable in terms of technique (i.e. coach says
“Yes that is right”. Nice squat. Slow and controlled. Good”). Not too much information is provided so as not to overload
the athlete. The similar aspects of technique are of little concern at this stage as the coach focuses upon the big picture.
After the set, feedback concerning the outcome, which is of more importance than performance to athletes at this low
level, (KR>KP: knowledge of results is more important than knowledge of performance).
INTERMEDIATE STAGE OF LEARNING
As the athlete practices the exercises over a number of sessions or weeks the key words or cues concerning technical
performance are used for verbal reinforcement or corrective reinforcement. The coach can start to provide feedback
after a repetition, as the athlete will not be so overloaded with new verbal and kinaesthetic information, as compared to
the early stages of learning. Gradually more information is provided as to the reason why flaws in technique occur and
what is the consequence of these flaws. The athlete does not need to concentrate so much upon outcome, but more
on the aspects of technique that impact upon the outcome (i.e. the key aspect or cues). Over the duration of a training
cycle the cues become more concise, as described above.
In the final refinement stage of the intermediate level athlete, the athlete should be able to process the cues whilst
performing the skill. The lifting speed is also much faster, allowing less time for corrective refinements during a repetition
unless they have become reflexive based refinements. Feedback is based upon knowledge of performance.
Consequently the provision of cues is related to the stages of skill acquisition. Very little work is done with coaching
cues when coaching a strength exercise to a beginner in the first stage of learning as practising the basis outcome is
more important. The information about technique is mainly provided after the set. For intermediates in stage two of
learning, coaching cues can be provided after the repetition so that the corrective behaviour can be quickly thought
about and then invoked for the following repetition. Intermediates in the third stage of learning can be provided with cues
during a repetition as they have developed the motor schema to invoke changes in technique in a reflex based manner.
ANALYSING AND MODIFYING TECHNICAL BEHAVIOUR PAST THE BEGINNER STAGE
In the quest to ensure athletes become strong (and/or powerful) and lift with perfect technique, the strength coach is
always analysing, reinforcing or modifying technique. Perfect technique can be defined as the technique most suitable
to an athlete in which they can lift the heaviest or most powerful loads in the most biomechanically sound positions. An
athlete cannot attain their strength or power potential without good technique.
The coach should have a sound knowledge of the biomechanics of the exercise they coach. This will include how the
world’s best perform the exercise, how the beginners perform the exercise and the multiple variations in between. They
may also need to know some basic premises which influences decisions on how to perform strength training exercises.
Once these basic premises are known for a number of exercises, the coach can attempt to modify the technical
behaviour of the athlete to develop the most biomechanical sound lifting behaviour.
For example, experience dictates that novices and especially females take a narrower than perpendicular grip when
leaning the bench press as generally their shoulders perform less work than their arms at this stage. With increased
training experience a perpendicular grip becomes most suitable as it ensures the most equitable muscle involvement
and best develops strength across a number of grip variations. After this time, individuals can work to their strengths
and work upon their weaknesses. For example, those with long arms and strong chests tend to take a wider grip to lift
the heaviest weights and those with shorter arms take a narrower grip to lift the heaviest weights. However, neither grip
should be used exclusively (e.g. train one day with a wide grip, one day with a medium grip).
From a practical coaching viewpoint the coach should attempt to position themselves in a point which allows for the best
analysis of technique while the athlete performs the set. If possible they should not “spot” the lift, leaving this task to
another competent athlete(s), so that the coach’s entire focus can be upon technique analysis. For analysing the most
multi point exercises, the coach should position themselves side on to the lift. This allows the coach to recognise when
the joint alignments become less efficient during a lift. Recognising the correct alignment of various joints during the
various stages of the list is one of the most important skills of a strength coach. The correct alignments are positively
reinforced, as described above. Once an incorrect alignment is recognised (an error in technical behaviour), the coach
must put into practice the corrective procedures. This may be the use of a corrective cue(s).
Thus the ongoing coaching process is inextricably linked to technical analysis and modification. Technical analysis is
based upon a sound knowledge of lifting biomechanics. Modification of technical behaviour is based upon the positive
reinforcement of correct aspects of technical behaviour and the use of coaching cues to modify the motor schema in
situations where incorrect joint alignments have been detected.

CONCLUSION
The strength coach’s role is to ensure that athletes consistently and persistently display the behaviour of lifting with good
technique. They also need to ensure the behaviour of being strong and powerful. The strength coach attempts to
achieve persistence by the use of motivational methods such as goal setting and achievement. Good technique is
developed through the principles of skill teaching and learning. Reinforcement and correction are an integral and
ongoing aspect of strength coaching as they allow for maintenance or modification of good technique. The three part
positive reinforcement system provided during or after a set has proven to be a most effective means of reinforcing
correct, and/or modifying incorrect technical behaviour.
Table 1 - Verbal reinforcer cues appropriate for coaching or correcting technique in strength training exercises.
Exercise Starting Position Eccentric Concentric

“Butt in, chest up, deep
Squat “Butt back / onto heels” “hips through”
breath”
“Butt in, elbows up, deep
Front squat “Elbows up / onto heels” “hips through”
breath”
“Tight, chest up, shoulders
Bench Press “Control the wright” “blast, to eyes”
back”
“Chest up, elbows out,
Power shrug “Butt back” “Explode up / hip drive”
back flat”
“Butt in, torso tight’ elbows
Push press “Quick dip” “up and back” (i.e. push)
up”
Table 2 - An example of the use of verbal reinforcers by the coach whilst coaching a set of squats for a beginner level
athlete. Each of the coach’s statements contains simple praise, a positive reinforcer concerning a good aspect of
performance and a corrective reinforcer if an error in technique occurred.
Beginner
Rep # Athletes performance Coach says during or immediately after the rep.
1. Knees moved first “Good rep…Good hip drive…push hips back first”
2. Good technique “Excellent…hips & knees were perfect….do it again”
3. Good technique ‘That is it…keep it going”
4. Chest not high enough “That’s OK…nice hip drive…keep the chest up”
5. Knees move in slightly “Great stuff…good chest position…keep knees out”
6. Chest not high enough “Super…great strength…chest up…deep breath”
8. Butt not held in & tight “Ok…nice and strong…got to keep the butt in”
After the set. “That was a good set, nice and strong. Your hip drive was excellent. Near the end of the set your
chest wasn’t getting up high enough, probably as you were fatigued. Next set we will really concentrate on keeping
the chest up and the butt in tight during the set so that we can blast faster out of the bottom”

Table 3 - An example of the use of verbal reinforcers by the coach whilst coaching a set of squat for an intermediate
level athlete. Each of the coach’s statements contain simple praise, a positive reinforcer concerning a good aspect of
performance and a corrective reinforcer if an error in technique occurred.
Intermediate
Rep # Athletes performance Coach says during or immediately after the rep.
1. Setting up “C’mon…tight & strong…chest…hips”
2. Good technique “Great”

Good, but chest dropped
3. “Good…strong…chest up”
slightly
4. Wobbly at bottom “Ok…good recovery…tight…tight…tight”
5. Good technique “Excellent…tight and controlled”

After the set. “Great stuff. Very strong out of the bottom. Focus on staying tight and getting your chest up every
rep to make it perfect.
Table 4 - Some basic premises concerning the influence of body shape or type upon the biomechanics of bench
pressing.
Technical Aspect Most suited to Rationale

Narrower grip Female athletes Weaker shoulders, stronger arms
Beginner athletes Weaker shoulders, stronger arms
Short arm, barrel chest Less stretch across shoulders
Injured shoulders Less strain upon A-C joint. Etc.
Perpendicular grip Intermediates Optimal use of all muscles

Wide grip Long arms, strong chest Less tricep, decrease ROM
Elbows travelling in Narrower grips Optimal bar path, less joint rotation
Elbows travelling out Wider grips Optimal bar path, less joint rotation
Chest up, shoulders back All athletes Chest on stretch, less shoulder rotation at
bottom of ROM
Feet on floor All athletes Most stability, less joint rotation
Feet in the air Short arm, big chest Can increase ROM
Bar touches chest higher Wide grip Optimal bar path, less joint rotation
Bar touches nipple line Perpendicular grip Optimal bar path, less joint rotation
Bar touches below chest Narrower grips Optimal bar path, less joint rotation
Mainly vertical bar path Wide grips Optimal bar path, maintains reduced lifting
moment
Bar pushed slightly back Perpendicular grip Optimal bar path, reduced lifting moment
about the shoulder
Bar pushes back markedly Narrower grips Optimal bar path, quickly reduces lifting
moment about the shoulder
REFERENCES
1. Beginning Coaching Level 1 Coaching Manual, Australian 2. Wills. R. Level 1 Powerlifting Coaching Manual. Powerlifting
Coaching Council, Belconnen, ACT, 1990 Australia, South Yarra, VIC. 1994

VARK techniques to teaching the back squat – A learning styles approach.

J. Aust. Strength Cond. 21(3)82-90. 2013 © ASCA.
VARK TECHNIQUES TO TEACHING THE BACK SQUAT –

A LEARNING STYLES APPROACH.
Mark Atkinson
ABSTRACT
The article aims to identify some practical approaches and techniques to utilising Visual, Auditory, Read/Write and
Kinaesthetic (VARK) based cueing in teaching a Parallel Back Squat and thus accelerate effective learning of this
fundamental exercise. In doing so a further aim of the article is to guide innovation in terms of how practitioners can
utilise VARK within strength and conditioning settings. The article recommends that: 1) Identifying learning styles of both
individuals and groups as a whole can give the coach a more precise approach to implementing coaching cues. 2) Know
your biomechanics and exercise analysis as this allows for the foundation of cues with the greatest effect on technique.
3) Be sure that as the coach you have a large array of methods to adopt that can cater for the learning styles of your
athletes. 4) Given that majority of learners best conceptualise information through a variety of learning styles, combining
VARK based principles is encouraged.
BACKGROUND
The desire to provide an optimal training program that accelerates the effective learning of exercises for athletes with
differing learning styles will always be forefront in Strength and Conditioning coaches’ mind. The quicker athletes can
learn movement patterns the faster the coach can improve their strength. When considering how best to convey
information to individual athletes and groups it is important to consider their specific ‘learning styles’ (that is, the style in
which information is best conceptualised) (10).
Learning style’s relate to the wider concept of personality, and include utilising factors such as human nature,
dispositional traits and characteristic adaptations of individuals. Adapting the transfer of information in the individuals’
preferred learning styles, allows for more effective internalisation of concepts taught (12). Advocates of the learning
style’s approach (1,3,4) postulate that people learn in different ways and thus should be taught through a variety of
methods that best suit their learning style. This concept has resulted in numerous learning style based models (the Kolb
Learning Style Indicator, the Gregorc Style Delineator, the Felder-Silverman Index, the VAK/VARK Questionnaire, and
the Dun and Dunn Productivity Environmental Preference Survey). They sound oddly barbaric and present like mad
scientists’ inventions. Nonetheless, these models include similar approaches that systematically present information in
a manner that best addresses peoples’ different learning styles (10).
When teaching strength training exercises and athletic motor patterns the VAK/VARK Learning Styles Model is
particularly relevant as it specifically utilises the instructional preference of the learner (8) i.e. it adopts the preferred
perceptual modes in which information is best taken in and given out (8). The application of this model has been
embraced for some time by the best coaches through cueing athletes to elicit Visual, Auditory, Read/Write and
Kinaesthetic based learning responses. Hence the acronym VARK – previously VAK (5) but updated to include
Read/Write (8). This model has been used to great effect but has also been met with varying degrees of obfuscation,
resulting in many practitioners understanding its importance but lacking the range of strategies to guide innovation.
With this in mind it is pertinent to consider how the current landscape of views may impact on the application of learning
styles, especially the VARK model in accelerating the learning of strength training exercises and motor patterns.
Practitioners should 1) not assume that every participant learns in the same way and 2) be sure that their awareness
and understanding of different learning styles is comprehensive enough to accommodate the learning needs of the
athletes they are coaching. This article looks to provide context for these two points through an example of applying the
VARK learning model to teaching a back squat.
The process that this article will follow is first analysing the squat from a biomechanical viewpoint. Next it will break down
the important teaching cues to consider and potential inequities to efficient movement technique. It will then look at
examples of how to apply a range of visual, auditory, read/write and kinaesthetic based cues and learning outcomes
that can help accelerate the learning of this exercise.

BIOMECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF A SQUAT – IMPORTANT CUES AND SET UP
There is still significant conjecture surrounding the ‘perfect’ squatting technique and its many derivatives. However as
long as the body maintains postural integrity and there is no discomfort or pain through the movement chain acutely and
chronically (albeit for delayed onset muscle soreness) the movement should be considered sound (2,15).
Understanding the complexity of the squat in terms of its biomechanics and the many variables related to its performance
is integral in deriving the most concisely influential technique cues. This provides the foundation for the implementation
of the VARK based methodologies of cueing.
For the purposes of this article we will look to analyse a parallel back squat with a medium bar position (sitting just
superiorly to the spine of scapula) (Figure 1). There are plenty of technical variations to this squat (Powerlifting, Olympic
etc.) (2,6,15) however we will look at deriving our important cues from the most biomechanically sound position
according to current research. The initiation of the squat begins with the lifter in an upright athletic based position, knees
and hips fully extended and neutral spine. The lifter then initiates simultaneous flexion at the hips, knees and ankles
descending until the thighs become parallel as this maximises the development of the quadriceps and is seen to be the
most functional (think siting down on a chair or jumping for height) (15) (Figure 1). These actions are then reversed with
the initiation of the ascending phase (Figure 1).
Figure 1 - Set up, upright and bottom positions of the barbell squat.
When performing a biomechanical analysis it is necessary to assess the major joints and their kinetic and kinematic
constraints. The ankles, knees and hips make up the dynamic joints while the spine is an important static joint during
the parallel barbell back squat (15).
Ankle Joint
Given the ankle and foot are the contact with the ground they exert a great influence up the kinetic chain and thus must
have significant strength and mobility (11). The feet should be comfortably positioned so as to enable the knees to track
in line with the toes. This ensures correct patella tracking and is achieved through slight outward rotation of the feet as
is consistent with anatomical position (7,15). Load should be evenly spread across the foot and concentrated just in
front of the malleoli to maximise ground reaction forces and minimise the deleterious effects of distributing weight away
from the centre of gravity (11).
Knee Joint
As the knees pass the toes the tibia tends to anteriorly slide against the femur causing increasing shearing forces (6,15).
Consequently, attempts should be made to avoid significant forward translation of the knees past the toes however not
to the detriment of form at the hips and spine. Lifters with long femurs will find it increasingly difficult to reduce forward
knee translation with depth. There should be no varum (bow legs) or valgum (knock knees) motion present throughout
movement so as to optimally summate force and reduce lateral and medial shearing forces (15).
Hip Joint
Poor hip mobility and stability can adversely affect both the knees and the spine. Mobility issues due to poor gluteal
group and Transverse Abdominal activation and/or Hamstring and Adductor length (15) can lead to an increased forward
lean and/or an excessive posterior pelvic tilt thus impacting on lumbar spine mechanics and shearing forces (9).
Uncontrolled anterior tilt resulting from weak anterior stabilisers (Transverse Abdominus and Rectus Abdominus) at the
initiation of hip flexion during the descent is also to be considered given its impact on potentiating lordosis (excessive
curvature of the lumbar spine that results in a concentration of load through the region when compressive forces are
apparent) (14). Maintaining alignment is also significant as lateral translation directly impacts the path of the knees
(valgum and varum) and the body’s orientation in the sagittal plane in relation to the centre of gravity (15).
Vertebrae
The spine is the most vulnerable of the joints during squatting and is mostly considered a static joint (15). Given the
lumber spine is better suited to managing compressive forces than shear, some researchers (16) dictate normal lordosis
should be maintained. Other research (13) suggests the lumber will not maintain this normal lordosis with the addition
of load (50% of Bodyweight) thus attempts to maintain this should be questioned. With this in mind, efforts should be
made to maintain an upright position to minimise shear, and to assess flexion or extension of the lumber in relation to
anterior and posterior tilt of the pelvis. No lateral movement of the spine should occur (15).

Table 1 - Summary of biomechanical based cues – Movement inequities and VARK based mediums.
Biomechanical Based Cues Common Movement Inequities VARK Learning Mediums

Impacting on VARK Based Cues
1. Weight evenly distributed but • Non-linear bar path • Visual
concentrated more toward the • Video analysis
heel with a slightly outward foot • Demonstration
position. • Diagram /pictures
2. Knees track in line with toes with • Geno Valgum (knock knees) • Auditory
limited forward translation past • Hips not sitting back • Verbal cueing (using descriptive
toes. language)
• Emphasis words
• Tonality
3. Maintain alignment and minimise • Initiating hip flexion with anterior • Read/write
anterior or posterior tilting of the pelvic tilt • Drawing
hips • Excessive posterior tilt with • Rewriting cues in own language
increasing depth
4. Maintain rigid upright trunk • Poor trunk tension • Kinaesthetic

position and allow for natural • Poor trunk integrity • Specialised equipment
lumbar movement under load. • Exercise manipulation
• Touch feedback
Note: trunk Tension – Refers to the lock down of the trunk and upper body and maintenance of intra-abdominal
pressure. Trunk integrity – Refers to the positioning of the trunk throughout the movement and includes the chest,
shoulders, elbows and vertebrae.
With the information and direction derived from the biomechanical analysis the practitioner may now look to how best
teach and reinforce these cues using the VARK learning model. This is where approaches can become specific to the
individual and dependant on the creative nature of the coach. The next section of this article looks at practical examples
of how practitioners can utilise a VARK based approach to teaching the parallel barbell back squat.
THE APPLICATION OF VARK TO TEACHING A PARALLEL BACK SQUAT
To apply the VARK learning model the practitioner must first determine the learning style of their athletes. This is a
simple process that involves completing a short questionnaire that can be accessed free at www.vark-learn.com. The
questionnaire offers thirteen statements that describe a situation and asks the respondent to pick one or more of three
to four actions. From the answers of these questions a report is made detailing the learning preferences of your athletes.
Fleming (8) has reported that 41% of respondents exhibited single style preferences, meaning that a majority of
respondents learn best from what is known as a ‘multimodal’ approach. This is extremely pertinent to the following
practical applications, as it seems most learners’ respond best to an integrative approach. Thus a combination of the
following practical applications would best serve strength and conditioning coaches especially given the dynamic nature
of the setting.
VISUAL TEACHING TECHNIQUES
Visual learners derive the most meaning and greatest transfer from cues that display graphic accounts of information
(8). Within strength and conditioning settings, cues using predominantly demonstration, video feedback, diagrams and
pictures where colours, arrows and circles are employed deliver results. These forms of learning have been mainly used
in strength and conditioning settings for some time. However, effectiveness is minimalized when a visual learning
approach has been applied to athletes who respond better to different approach. Hence, it is important to determine the
preferred learning styles of athletes’ prior to commencing a training program.

Visual Teaching Techniques
• Photos – Take a still image at key points of the squat e.g. initiation of descent and bottom position. You can then
choose to show the athlete in real time or present with cues attached (beneficial for athletes doing their training
outside of supervised sessions). Attaching cues could be as easy as printing the picture and labelling it or using
computer generated icon, text boxes, arrows and circles.
• Video – Video allows you to look at the entire movement and more specifically detail technique faults. Video can be
taken from any device then uploaded to a computer where attaching cues as for photos can be achieved. Pausing
at critical phases of the movement can highlight the appropriate visual cues. Specific software and apps are now
available for videoing and analysing movement, providing rich information and a powerful teaching tool.
Tips for employing Visual based cueing
• Do not overwhelm learner to begin with – start simple and build in small steps/increments (tendency sometimes is
to do a complete slideshow of one technique fault).
• Use different colours or symbols to highlight areas rather than words.
• Use multimedia such as phones and smartpads (Ipads etc.). Specialised apps such as Coach’s Eye and Ubersense
are great for giving more in-depth analysis and transfer.
An example of using Ubersense iPhone/iPad App to display non-linear bar path can be seen below (Figure 2). The
greatest thing about this app is it’s free! You can easily display common technique inequities to your athletes through
using the arrows, angles and measuring options available on this app plus you have the ability to compare videos and
stills simultaneously.
1. These are your drawing options. Lines, circles and angles with degrees.
2. Press this to record audio feedback on video – you can then send to
2 3 athletes.
3. Press this to compare other videos you have taken.
4. Press to control speed of play back (slow motion).
1
The yellow line is used to represent linear bar path.
Steps for Use

1. Search ‘Ubersense’ in your App Store tab on your IPhone/Ipad/internet.
2. Follow free download steps.
3. Open Ubersense and for simple first time use press record icon (silver
button with red dot in middle.
4. This will open the recording function and you can record your video from
here by pressing on record icon to begin and end.
5. Once recorded you can open the video and you will see the screen in Fig 2
and the corresponding options.
Figure 2 - Ubersense app display screen.
AUDITORY TEACHING TECHNIQUES
Auditory-based cueing refers to using language and words to instil information regarding instructions and technique (8).
In strength and conditioning settings cues utilising descriptive language, emphasis or buzzwords and changing the tone
of your voice can derive benefits to the athlete. This is the old-school method of coaching and many practitioners will
have their specific ways of explaining exercises they have developed or had passed down from other coaches. It is
however important to have several different ways of using language to cue exercises as particular words or phrases
resonate with some more than others.

Table 2 - Auditory teaching techniques.
Technique Iniquity/Cue Descriptive Cues Emphasis/Buzzword

Non-linear bar path • Evenly distribute weight over foot • Split the floor
• Feel the weight spread across the foot • Heels
• Weight just in front of the heel • Hit the ceiling
• Push the bar straight up to the sky • Into the hole
• Launch the bar directly up • Out of the hole
• Drive through the shoulders • Shoulder drive
Geno Valgum • Get your knees to track in line with your second toe • Knees out
• Knees, hips and toes in alignment • Train tracks
• Push your knees out (correct valgum) • Split the floor
• Think about standing with both feet on either side of the train
tracks / in line with the tracks
Hips not sitting back in • Sit your hips back like sitting in a chair • Hips to wall
descent • Hips should go back towards the wall • Hips hinge
• Move the hips on a downward diagonal line • Hit the wall
• Push your hips into the bottom of the back wall
Initiating hip flexion with • Break at the hips not with a tilt • Glutes on
anterior tilt • Keep the core and breathing strong as you break • Activate core
• Squeeze the glutes as you hinge • Stabilise the hips
• Pretend like you’re holding on to the toilet as you hinge • Hold the hips
Excessive posterior tilt • Reach out backwards with the bottom of your glutes • Reach
with increasing depth • Don’t drop too far • Range
• Work within your range • Dropping
Poor trunk tension • Activate the Latissimus Dorsi by pulling the bar into your • Tension
back • Bar tight
• Brace your abdominals and pull elbows down and into your • Squeeze lats
sides
Tips for employing Auditory based cues
• Be descriptive before attempt but concise whilst learner is in set up or initiating movement – good to choose no more
than 3 major cues to use as buzzwords during or just preceding movement.
• Use different tones to emphasise and describe important aspects, as this will resonate even better with auditory
learners.
• Pick cues specific to problem areas – the most important cue is the one that has the greatest impact on the learners
technique and the one they are most likely to forget!
READ/WRITE TEACHING TECHNIQUES
Read/write based cueing is a relatively new technique and has origins in cues that were previously considered visual or
kinaesthetic e.g. listing and drawing. Cues involve creating lists or written processes, rewriting cues in preferred
language, readings and drawing (8). It is a slightly unconventional approach in strength and conditioning settings but
effective for those with this preferred learning style. Its specific benefit for many learners lies in the way it consolidates
concepts through the athlete processing them in their own unique way e.g. rewriting cues to fit their understanding of
the correct execution.
Read/Write Teaching Techniques
• Drawing/Analysing their own technique – Demonstrate and/or show visuals of proper technique or technique
faults you may want to fix and have the learner draw/sketch this out and write notes.
• Rewriting Cues – Learner is provided with demonstrations and details as to proper technique or faults and then
describes and rewrites cues, using terminology and symbols that fit their understanding (with supervision/feedback
from the coach). If done well can act as a very powerful teaching mechanism as learners can more easily relate to a
representation they have created.
• Handouts/Readings – These learners may also benefits from a brief handout detailing cues, technique faults and
concepts related to proper technique for them to relate to in their own time.

Tips for employing Read/Write based cues
• Combined Read/Write techniques with other techniques and then let the learner write up or draw out their own
outcomes in a systematic way.
• Try and provide information in a systematic process driven way e.g. lists
KINAESTHETIC TEACHING TECHNIQUES
Kinaesthetic based cues are cues involving ‘feeling’ and ‘performing’ concepts to help consolidate understanding (8). It
is for this reason kinaesthetic based cues are very well suited to strength and conditioning settings. Learners derive
meaning and understanding through physically experiencing concepts and cues. Thus practicing and manipulating the
desired movement patterns in as many different ways will allow for the greatest transfer. Combining proprioception
and/or everyday actions as cues with external feeling/touch based feedback has been a staple of the best strength and
conditioning coaches. In Table 3 below, the exercises listed, create the kinaesthetic awareness to highlight the correct
execution e.g. doing box squats to individual range and telling the learner to imagine sitting back onto a chair.
Table 3 - Kinaesthetic teaching techniques.
Movement Inequity Kinaesthetic Teaching Equipment

Exercise
• Hips not sitting back Box squats (figure 3) Box, bench step chair
• Non-linear bar path
• Excessive anterior knee translation
• Non-linear bar path Wall squats (figure 4) Wall or any flat vertical object
• Hips not sitting back
• Trunk integrity
• Excessive anterior knee translation
• Trunk integrity Plate squats (Figure 5) Weight plate
• Non-linear bar path
• Trunk tension Rev power band squat (figure 6) Power band, squat rack/cage or chin
up bar and barbell
• Geno Valgum Mini band squat (figure 7) Mini bands

• Trunk integrity
• Excessive posterior/anterior pelvic tilt Taping (figure 8) Masking/electrical/strapping tape
• Trunk tension
• Trunk integrity
• Trunk tension String (figure 9) Any type of thin string/rope
• Trunk integrity
• Excessive anterior pelvic tilt
Figure 3 - Box squats.
Instructions: Place a box the desired distance from heels and instruct athlete to complete squat their gluteals must
touch bench – change the height of box for desired dept.
Figure 4 - Wall squats.

Instructions: Stand with toes 10-15cm away from a wall/upright structure.

Figure 5 - Plate squats.

Instructions: Sit plate half on head with weight held in thumbs underneath. Keep plate level – can test balance by
balancing a ball on the plate.
Figure 6 - Rev power band squat.

Instructions: Pull elbows into ribs and activate latissimus dorsi. Maintain bar tension with squat depth.
Figure 7 - Mini band squats.

Instructions: Place a band 5-10cm from knee that provides tension pulling the knees into valgum – in forcing the
knees out this helps to activate Ext rotators and abductors.
Figure 8 - Vertical taping of lumber spine.

Instructions: Set up barbell squat in neutral spine and place tape vertically down lumbar – if tape bunches or pulls on
skin with movement, neutral spine is compromised e.g. bunching tape will refer to anterior pelvic tilt/lordosis.
Figure 9 - Rope around lumber spine.

Instructions: Tie rope around midsection with neutral spine and core activated – if rope falls or tightens against trunk
coach/athlete can gauge feedback e.g. poor core activation/strength or trunk integrity. Can be tied around thorax as
well to assess bar tension.
CONCLUSION
This article looks to give context to the application of teaching and coaching in varying ways to elicit the greatest
crossover of information to learners. No matter how scientifically and practically based, systematic and organised a
strength and conditioning program is, if you as the coach cannot ‘transfer’ the information in reference to the exercises
you want your athletes to perform, your program will fail. The article recommends that:
• Identifying learning styles of both individuals and groups as a whole can give the coach a more precise approach to
implementing coaching cues.
• Know your biomechanics and exercise analysis as this allows for the foundation of cues with the greatest effect on
technique.
• Be sure that as the coach you have a large array of methods to adopt that can cater for the learning styles of your
athletes.

• Given that majority of learners best conceptualise information through a variety of learning styles, combining VARK
based principles is encouraged.
Coaching has long been considered both a science and an art. The science is no doubt the basis of the program that
we then creatively manipulate and implement, giving us the art. The article’s aim is to bring awareness to the valuable
multimodal approach to training programs. It is by no means meant to be prescriptive but to provide a framework,
examples and thus illustrate ways and means that can guide coaches’ innovation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank and acknowledge all the coaches that have provided me with some of these great cues and coaching
techniques. I hope they can recognise a little bit of themselves in this article and realise I did listen, and respect their
understanding and skills enough to want others to benefit from them as well.
REFERENCES
1. Claxton, CS, & Murrell, PH. Learning styles. Washington, DC: 9. Fry, AC, Smith, JC, & Schilling, BK. Effect of knee position on hip
George Washington University (ERIC), 1987. and knee torques during the barbell squat. Journal of Strength and
2. Chui, L. & Burkhardt, E. A Teaching Progression for Squatting Conditioning Research 17: 629–633, 2003.
Exercises. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 10. Hawk, TF. & Shah, AJ. Using Learning Style Instruments to Enhance
(NSCA) (accessed at Student Learning. Decision Sciences Journal of Innovative
http://ditillo2.blogspot.com.au/2011/07/teaching-progression-for- Education, Vol 5; 1, 2007.
squatting.html), 2011. 11. Hung, YJ & Gross, MT. Effect of foot position on electromyographic
3. Coffield, FJ., Moseley, DV., Hall, E., & Ecclestone, K. Learning activity of the vastus medialis oblique and vastus lateralis during
styles: What research has to say to practice. London: Learning and lower-extremity weight-bearing activities. Journal of Orthopaedic
Skills Research Centre. 2004b. Sports and Physical Therapy 29: 93–102, 1999.
4. Coffield, FJ, Moseley, DV, Hall, E, & Ecclestone, K. Learning styles 12. McAdams, DP, & Pals, JL. A new big five: Fundamental principles
and pedagogy in post-16 learning: A systematic and critical review. for an integrative science of personality. American Psychologist,
London: Learning and Skills Research Centre, 2004a. 61(3), 204–217, 2006.
5. Eicher, J. Making the message clear. Santa Cruz, CA: Grinder, 13. McKean, MR, Dunn, PK, & Burkett, BJ. The lumbar and sacrum
DeLozier, and Associates, 1987. movement pattern during the back squat exercise. Journal of
6. Escamilla, RF, Lander, JE, and Garhammer, J. Biomechanics of Strength Conditioning Research 24(10): 2731–2741, 2010.
powerlifting and weightflifting exercises. In: Exercise and Sport 14. Orloff, H, Veil, G, & Askins. R. Forces on the lumbar spine during the
Science. Garrett, WE and Kirkendall, DT, eds. Philadelphia, PA: parallel squat. Conference Proceedings Archive, 15 International
Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 2000. pp. 585–615. Symposium on Biomechanics in Sports, 1997.
7. Escamilla, RF. Knee biomechanics of the dynamic squat exercise. 15. Schoenfeld, BJ. Squatting kinematics and kinetics and their
Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 33: 127– application to exercise performance. Journal of Strength
141, 2001. Conditioning Research. 24(12): 3497–3506, 2010.
8. Fleming, ND. Teaching and learning styles: VARK strategies. 16. Toutoungi, DE, Lu, TW, Leardini, A, Catani, F, and O’Connor, JJ.
Christchurch, New Zealand: N.D. Fleming, 2001. Cruciate ligament forces in the human knee during rehabilitation
exercises. Journal of Clinical Biomechanics 15: 176–187, 2000














ASCA Position Stand – Resistance Training for Children and Youth.

Journal of Australian Strength and Conditioning. Supplement 1. 2009 © ASCA
ASCA POSITION STAND – RESISTANCE TRAINING FOR CHILDREN AND YOUTH
Available via the ASCA website

Strength Training Wheelchair Athletes.

Volume 12 (4) 2003
Strength Strength and Conditioning Coach. 12(4)25-28. 2004 (a) ASCA

And
Conditioning STRENGTH TRAINING WHEELCHAIR ATHLETES
Coach
Paul Turk
ISSN 1324-8006
Paul Turk has been a level one strength and conditioning coach for the past 5 years, and is just completing his level
two. In this time he has trained many state and national athletes and body builders. Strength and conditioning coach at
VFL football club Port Melbourne, aligned with North Melbourne Kangaroo’s .State coach of wheel chair power lifting
team for past 4 years. Winner of Victoria government award ‘Inclusion Awards’ 2003. Strength/ weights room adviser
1996 Atlanta Olympics. Under Georgia Tech’s Head strength and conditioning coach Geoff Mathis. Work experience
University of Florida, strength & conditioning head coach. Rob Glass
ABSTRACT
The main purpose of this article was to share some of my experiences and knowledge with other coaches. Giving
coaches some basic guidelines on training wheel chair athletes for power lifting. As well as general weight training
responses for all sport games for wheel chair athletes.
In my role as the coach of the Victorian Wheel chair Power Lifting team, and many years’ experience in training
wheelchair athletes I have gained valuable experience which will benefit future coaches in this area.
BACK GROUND
The main disability with the wheel chair team is ‘Spina Bifidea’. Spina Bifidea comes from the word ‘split spine’ in Latin.
It is one of a class of serious birth defects, called neural tube defects (NTDs), which involve damage to the bony spine
and the nervous tissue of the spinal cord. Some Vertebrae of the spine don’t close properly during development and the
spinal cord’s nerves don’t develop normally. They are exposed and can be subjected to further damage. At birth, they
protrude through the gap instead of growing normally down the bony spinal column.
Nerve signals to most parts of the body located below the level of the ‘split spine’ are damaged and a wide range of
muscles, organs and bodily functions are affected With almost 70% of Spina Bifidea cases, they also suffer a condition
called ‘Hydrocephalus’ which is a build-up of cerebrospinal fluid in the brain. Also another condition common with Spina
Bifidea is the Arnold Chiari malformation, in which the brain stem physically jams into the spinal cord, both of these
abnormalities may cause many brain function disabilities. These conditions are normally controlled by inserting a shunt,
(a valve to drain the fluids)
A Summary of the conditions to be aware and taken into account are;
• Reduced sensation & movement in the lower body, legs & feet.
• A degree of paralysis of the lower body and legs
• Reduced coordination, and body control
• Learning difficulties
• Abnormal joints
• Deformities of the spine – commonly scoliosis, where the spine bends in a ‘S’ shape.
With this in mind, a dedicated coach should research the history of each athlete they work with and their individual
condition should also be assessed. As well as their personal general assessment, contact other professionals who have
worked with that athlete, specialist’s Physio’s etc, to get a good understanding of their personal position and how well
they can adapt to weight training.
WHEEL CHAIR POWER LIFTING
In Wheelchair sports Power Lifting; is primarily a one (1) maximum bench press with a free barbell. Each Competitor
has three attempts to press the maximum lift they can complete. The Barbell must visibly touch the chest, and then be
pushed through full extension at the elbows, locked out and held still, until cleared by all the judges, to be passed.

If the competitor presses the barbell fully, but is lifted unevenly and the bar not held still for long enough, the judges can
assess it as a non-lift, therefore for the wheel chair athlete control is of vital importance as much as the actual lift. As
they may have the strength to press the weight, but they need to be able to control the weight as well.
PLANNING
With these in mind, as in training all athletes, a periodised plan needs to be put in place, to enable peaking for
competition and trials such as state, nationals and international events. We cycle different types of training throughout
the year to keep the performance of the athlete improving and to avoid burn out and over training.
When planning for these events and cycling certain types of training, towards peaking for an event, it is important with
a disabled athlete to lengthen each training cycle. With these types of athletes they have learning difficulties and their
learning curve is a lot slower, taking them longer to learn the movements. (Anatomical Adaptation) Only after they have
mastered the movement then real strength gains can be made.
We tend to work on 3-week cycles with most athletes; with these athletes I have found 6-week cycles is a better scale
to work to. Enabling them to learn and re-enforce the movement technique of each exercise, then increasing the intensity
to make strength gains from the exercise programming. Make sure the athlete has fully mastered the movement and
has full control on the full range of movement before increasing the intensity (weight) of the exercise.
Also when planning remembers to enable enough time to teach and develop exercises for Balance, co –ordination and
abdominal strength. As these athletes have lost some control of their lower body and legs, they have to learn how and
what muscles are working that will enable them to stabilize. Even lying flat on a bench press can be challenging at an
early stage. This needs to be developed early then continually re-enforced, as with these athletes they will lose the
control if it isn’t being focused on.
TRAINING SESSION
Each session we initially work on technique, re-enforcing the correct movement pattern before strength training is under
taken. The primary exercise to be focused on is bench press, but as with all athletes a full range of exercises must be
included in every training session.
Supporting muscles groups are important. Shoulders, back and arms all need to be trained as well. Also dependant of
their personal situation, leg training is beneficial, having them learning that they do have some level of leg strength and
coordination is important. For when they are performing the bench press they are able to control their legs and lower
body themselves. Basic exercises like Leg press, and leg extension can generally be performed. If they develop the leg
strength and balance it will enable them a stronger lift on their bench press, as they are less worried about controlling
their legs and having them falling off the bench and losing control. All focus is on the chest and pressing the barbell.
I believe this was one of the areas that improved the overall performance of the Victorian team, at the last National
Championships, in April 2003, where every single member of the Victorian team won gold medals.
EXAMPLE OF A WEIGHT-TRAINING PROGRAM
Rep and set range are dependant of what phase the athlete is in of their training, and how far away the next competition
is away.
Refer to Page 28 for example program.
WARM UP
An extended warm up is extremely important, with these athletes, as it takes a little longer for the muscles to coordinate
and get the movement right. We tend to start with an aerobic activity, boxing, speedball or hand cycle. Then starting
with most important exercises first, Barbell bench press should be performed first. Have a minimum of five (5) warm up
sets, starting at 20% 1RM, slowly increasing to 75% 1RM
TRAINING SESSIONS/ PROGRAMMING
As per all athletes the principle of FITT will be covered. Frequency, Intensity, Type, and Time.
Frequency
With these types of athletes the frequency, should vary depending on the phase of training and how far they are from
competition. Initially, training on every 3rd day has provided optimum results, then as we approach closer to competition,
training with weights every second day. With Heavy more intense workouts done early in the training week, and
technique and lighter workouts later in the training week.

As a final preparation we found lifting 4 – 5 days in the final week prior to competition beneficial, keeping the technique
spot on. Also lifting the day before a competition is very important, in regards to the “Performance Arousal curve”, so
we don’t lose any of the intensity we’ve gained through training.
Intensity
Early in the training week the sessions should be of high intensity and be performing at heavy end of the lifting scale.
Then throughout the week, intensity reduced and weights lighten, reps range increasing. Focusing more on technique.
In the individual training sessions, these athletes get tired fast and lose intensity, energy and strength. At this point they
will just go quiet, and seem to ‘doze’ off, and become less responsive.
That is why each session should not last any longer than 40 minutes. With all quality lifting and training done in the first
20 minutes. The rest period should be a minute to a minute and a half between sets. After the first 20 minutes, reduce
the intensity and enable longer recovery between sets and exercises, with two to two and half minutes rest. The last 20
minutes, you can focus on technique, core/abdominal strength, stretching and flexibility.
TYPE
As the event of wheel chair power lifting is purely, strength based, the training should mainly be weight-training sessions.
Although it is beneficial for these athletes to engage in an aerobic session once or twice a week, for their own health
and well-being. Aerobic sessions consist of, fast rolling outside on athletics’ track. Endurance and aerobic fitness, time
and distance are the key components in developing fitness. Otherwise swimming and boxing sessions can be
conducted. Again, with warm up and cool down the sessions should last around 40 minutes. Intensities are dependant
on the athletes starting fitness level. Normal heart rate intensities can be applied once a base level of fitness is
established.
TIME
As stated earlier each session should only last 40 minutes total, with the bulk of the work done in the first 20 minutes.
CONCLUSION
Wheel chair athletes provide an exciting challenge for strength coaches. These athletes love the joy of competing and
challenging themselves in training. They are very dedicated and determined athletes. They do need some specific
coaching, but can produce outstanding results. A quick summary of points to consider are:
• Increase learning curves, and phase

• Longer training cycles
• Repetitive programming, re enforcing movement technique
• Longer warm up, re training muscles the movement
• Shorter workout time, easy fatigued
Keeping these points in mind, training a wheelchair athlete can be very rewarding. And a great challenge. These athletes
love having a go. Be brave, try things, make mistakes, they will fall, out of chairs, etc. they are fine to brush themselves
off and keep going, don’t put them in cotton balls, keep these points in mind but train them hard.
Exercise Sets Intensity Reps *

BarBell Bench Press 5 warm up, 4 training 80 % 1RM 4 –6
Dumbell Flat Press 2–3 4- 6
Cable Row 2–3 4-6
Lat Pulldown to front 2-3 4-6
Leg Press 2–3 6-8
Dumbell Shoulder Press 2-3 4-6

Abdominal floor exercises 4 –5 8-12
REFERENCES
www. Betterhealth.vic.gov.au
Victorian Wheelchair athlete, Jayne Baxter - Wheel chair sports Vic, Rob Cotter. 9473-0133

2003
Exercise and the Elderly.
Strength
Strength and Conditioning Coach. 12(3):25-28. 2004 © ASCA
And
Conditioning EXERCISE AND THE ELDERLY
Coach
Tim Van Dalen
ISSN 1324-8006
INTRODUCTION
The 2003 Australian Masters Games commenced in Canberra on the 1st of November 2003; The Games
accommodated thousands of competitors from all over Australia and is testimony to the adage of physical activity for a
lifetime. In response to these games, many commercial training providers offered services to prepare these athletes for
the games. It is timely to review the older adult and review service provision and exercise recommendations for this
growing segment of the Australian population.
Cardiovascular Function
Maximal oxygen consumption, which is an index of maximal cardiovascular function, decreases by between 5 and 15%
per decade after the age of 25 years (13), this is due primarily to reductions in maximal cardiac output. (A function of
maximal heart rate and stroke volume).
Maximal Heart Rate (MHR) decreases by 6-10 bpm per decade (220 – age = MHR.) and is centrally responsible for the
age related decreases in maximal cardiac output. (8).
Blood pressure and systemic vascular resistance are also higher during maximal exercise in older versus young adults
(8)
The cardiovascular responses of older adults to sub maximal exercise are qualitatively and, in most cases, quantitatively
similar to those of young adults (8)
Endurance exercise training and the cardio vascular system

It is clear that older adults can achieve the same 10-30% increases in VO2 Max with prolonged endurance exercise
training, as their younger counterparts (11). As with young adults, the extent of improvements in VO2 Max is a function
of training intensity; with light intensity training causing minimal adaptation (11). Further evidence indicates that
maintaining high levels of endurance exercise training results in a diminished rate of loss of VO2 Max in older adults.
One study reported a reduced rate of loss expressed as a percentage of initial VO2 Max (16). However, the rate of VO2
Max decline for endurance trained athletes over age 70 appears to be similar to that for sedentary adults, presumably
as a result of inability to maintain training stimuli consistent with their earlier levels of training. (23)
Effect of endurance exercise training on cardio vascular disease risk factors

Most cardiovascular ill health symptoms are much more prevalent in older adults. In addition, many other ‘lifestyle
conditions’, such as type II diabetes and obesity are associated with increasing age, which can substantially impact an
adult’s cardiovascular response to exercise.
Cross-sectional and intervention studies in older adults consistently indicate that endurance exercise training is
associated with improved glucose tolerance (if initially impaired) and insulin sensitivity, these changes are evident prior
to changes in body composition (7).
Endurance exercise training appears to lower blood pressure to the same degree in both young and older hypertensive
adults (10). One study established that endurance exercise at 50% VO2 Max (65% MHR) elicited the same and often
higher reductions in resting blood pressure when compared to endurance exercise at 70% VO2 Max (70-75% MHR)
(11).
Body composition is improved with endurance exercise training for both younger and older adults. The most consistent
finding is a 1-4% reduction in overall body fat levels, even if body weight is maintained (11). In addition to this, one study
indicated that intra-abdominal fat decreased by 25% in older men who lost 2.5kg of body weight with endurance exercise
training. This is particularly of note considering the well-documented link between intra-abdominal fat and cardiovascular
disease risk factors in male adults (25).

Endurance exercise training and the cardio vascular system in older adults with cardio vascular ill health
Older adults with cardiovascular disease appear to obtain the same beneficial cardiovascular adaptations with exercise
training when compared to younger adults with cardiovascular disease, including decreases in heart rate both at rest
and during sub maximal exercise (18).
Recommendations for the Strength and Conditioning Coach

The practical application for the Strength and Conditioning Coach is to understand that increasing age correlates with
diminished cardiovascular capacities (due primarily to reductions in maximal heart rate response and subsequent
cardiac output), irrespective of training history (which only serves to slow the rate of decline), for this reason training
volume, duration and intensity will have to be proportionally lower than their younger activity matched peers.
However increasing age does not correlate with a decrease of trainability of the cardiovascular system; increases in
VO2 max can be achieved with moderate to high intensity endurance training (70-90% VO2 Max or 70-95% MHR). The
contra indicators to high intensity endurance training are the same for any segment of the population but it is always
wise to obtain medical clearance prior to undergoing such activities (considering the older adult will experience higher
blood pressure responses to this level of intensity and may have a higher incidence of relevant cardiovascular
pathologies). This has to be understood both by the Strength and Conditioning Coach and the older adult if the outcome
of any training regime is to promote endurance orientated performance.
The main challenge to the Strength and Conditioning Coach may well be to counsel the older adult, as training intensities
of 70-90% VO2 (70-95% MHR) Max may be at conflict with any exercise advice that has been prescribed by the medical
fraternity. This is because health orientated recommendations focus on low to moderate intensity training which has
been shown to elicit the same if not greater health orientated benefits than higher intensity training. Furthermore low to
moderate level training is often prescribed because of an increased likelihood to promote exercise adherence.
One of the first priority’s of exercise prescription will be to establish the particular focus of the program; health versus
performance.
In the later example; programming for performance (moderate to higher levels of training intensity) may be precluded
by health factors, such as lifestyle conditions that are often implicated with the older age groups, including obesity,
hypertension and type II diabetes. In this instance low to moderate intensity training with appropriate medical clearance
is recommended.
Additionally, with an increased prevalence of cardio vascular pathologies there is a decreased cardiovascular response
to exercise. This means that heart rate response may not be truly indicative of exercise intensity. It is recommended
that heart rate response be monitored throughout activity in conjunction with the use of an appropriate Perceived Rate
of Exertion scale for subjective monitoring.
Strength Training
Sarcopenia (loss of muscle mass) occurs with age. The excretion of creatinine, muscle creatine content and total muscle
mass, decreases by approximately 50% between the ages of 20 and 90 years (26). Computed tomography of the knee
extensors indicates that after 30 years, there is a decrease in cross sectional area, a decrease in muscle density and
an increase of intramuscular fat, with these changes been more evident in women (15).
A reduction of force generation (muscular strength) is a part of ‘normal’ aging. It has been reported that isometric and
dynamic strength of the knee extensors increases up to the age of 30 years and then decreases after the age of 50
years with an approximate reduction in muscle strength of 30% generally found between the ages of 50 and 70 years
(17)
Strength and Functional Capacity

A significant correlation between muscle strength and preferred walking speed has been reported by elderly adults (3).
In older, frail women, leg power was highly correlated with walking speed, accounting for up to 86% of the variance in
walking speed. For this reason, leg power (dynamic measurement of muscle function) can be used as a useful predictor
of functional capacity (4), this has obvious correlations with athletic functionality and mobility with advancing age.
Protein needs and ageing

The compensatory response to long-term decreases in dietary protein intake is a reduction in Lean Body Mass. On the
basis of contemporary research, the recommended protein intake for older men and women should be between 1.0 –
1.25 g/kg of body weight/ per day of high quality protein (5). In a study conducted by Hartz, S.C. (12), found that
approximately 50% of 946 healthy free-living men and women above the age of 60 years consumed less than this
amount and less than 25%, in this study, were found to consume less than 0.86g (men) and 0.81g (women).

Energy Metabolism
Daily energy expenditure declines progressively throughout adult life (21). Lean Body Mass has been reported to be
reduced by an average of 15% between the third and eight decade, this contributes to a lower metabolic rate (6). As a
result, fat mass can increase due to a diminished metabolic rate and often associated declines in activity levels without
a subsequent reduction in kilojoule intake. (24).
The preservation of Lean Body Mass and the prevention of scarcopenia can aid in the prevention of the decline in
metabolic rate. (24).
Resistance Training
A number of studies have indicated that given an adequate training stimulus, older men and women will experience
similar or greater strength gains compared with young individuals as a result of resistance training (9).
Significant increases in metabolic rate with resistance training have been associated with significant increase in energy
intake required to maintain body weight in older adults (5)
The effects of a heavy resistance training program on bone mineral density has been displayed in recent studies, these
increases in bone mineral density can offset the typical age-associated declines in bone health experienced by the older
populations (22)

As a Strength and Conditioning coach it must be understood that increasing age correlates with sarcopenia and a
decreased capacity for force generation. Resistance Training has to incorporated into any programming that is focused
on athletic performance, as well as for improvements in general health and well-being.
The positive effects on athletic performance that strength and power training can provide for the older adult are a
reduction in fat mass via increased needs for energy expenditure and by increasing the basal metabolic rate. Increases
in muscular power have also been correlated with increases in functional mobility in all modes of movement.
Progressive strength training improves nitrogen balance, which greatly improves nitrogen retention at all intakes of
protein, and for those on intakes below the recommendations, this will offset the loss of body protein stores (muscle).
Further benefits of strength training include providing the stimulus for Minimal Essential Strain (MES), which is required
for the formation of new bone tissue and for the retention of bone mineral density, this is of particular importance as
nutritional and pharmacological treatment modalities, focused on bone mineral density, generally only slow the rate of
loss.
Additionally with increased muscular strength and power, it can be assumed that the older adult will exhibit an increased
tendency for spontaneous activity that is brought upon by increased mobility.
The benefits of strength and resistance training for the older adult are the same as for their younger counter parts and
age should not be a contra indicator for undertaking such programs. However, it is wise to seek medical clearance prior
to undertaking this form of training as the usual contra indicators, which may be pronounced in the older generations,
still apply, for example hypertension (which involves prevention of overhead movements and the discouragement of the
Valsalva manoeuvre).
The American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) has released specific recommended variables for resistance training
and the older adult (2). These recommendations include; the frequency of resistance training should be between 2 - 4
days per week to generate strength improvement. Sessions should last for between 20 – 45 minutes in duration, as
longer duration sessions have often been implicated in increased risk of injury potential due to fatigue (in particular
neural fatigue). Multi joint exercises and machine weights are recommended, however the older adult is also encouraged
to engage in free weight training once a certain degree of skill mastery has been achieved. The older adult should focus
attention to the major muscle groups of the body including: chest, shoulders, arms, back, abdomen and legs. Sessions
should involve 1 - 2 exercises per muscle group. For example, if the focus of a resistance training session was the chest,
shoulder and arm groups, then the older adult should engage in 1 - 2 exercises per group, this is an exercise range of
between 3 - 6 exercises per session. The novice older adult is encouraged to undertake 1 - 3 sets per exercise and then
progress to three or more sets as a form of progressive overload. Two to three minutes rest between sets should be
adhered to and the older adult is encouraged to undertake 10 - 15 repetitions per exercise (65-75% 1RM). Progression
and progressive overload should not be precluded.
POSTURAL STABILITY AND FLEXIBILITY
Although difficult to quantify, postural stability, as applied to the older adult simply means a decreased likelihood for
losing balance and ‘falling over’ during a movement activity.

Postural stability generally declines with age due to decline in function of sensory and motor systems (1) and as a result,
systems responsible for postural control are receiving inaccurate corrective data. This is also compounded by the
muscular effectors, which may be experiencing a diminished capacity to respond to such demands. (1).
In a recent study by (20), it was established that participation in light intensity programs significantly reduced the number
of falls compared with randomly assigned control groups.
It has further been established that training on tasks specifically targeted at the sensory systems (for example
proprioception) involved in the maintenance of postural stability also resulted in improved stability in the older
populations (14).
Following a program of walking, flexibility and strength exercises, improvements in strength, reaction time and body
sway on both firm and soft surfaces has also been shown (19).

It must be considered that this paper is addressing the effects of exercise and exercise participation in postural stability,
however it does not take into account mental dysfunction, postural hypertension, medications, environmental hazards,
vision and lower extremity dysfunction.
It also must be accepted that ongoing research is required to distinguish between the types, modes, frequency’s,
intensity’ s and duration’s of exercise prescription to establish a recommended training protocol which will directly
improve postural control and stability in the older population.
However there is conclusive evidence, which illustrates a strong correlation between exercise, particularly when the
form of exercise addresses the sensory systems of the body, and improvements in postural stability. The Strength and
Conditioning coach must accept that program prescription should involve special conditioning exercises, which involves
a high degree of neural activity. For example stabilising the body on an uncertain surface (standing on one leg on a mini
tramp). From a performance standpoint improvements in postural control will obviously correspond to improvements in
efficiency of movement as less energy is lost on maintaining posture and motor patterns become more efficient to in act
the movements required of the athletes chosen sport.
Additionally, as a Strength and Conditioning Coach, it is wise to have organised support in place for the older
populations. Exercise prescription that does involve a high degree of neural activity, will lead to neurological fatigue. It
is unwise to undertake a conditioning program, aimed at the sensory systems and inducing neurological fatigue and
then leaving your athlete/client to their own devices to find their way home.
SUMMARY
In respect to exercise participation and physical activity for a lifetime, age should not be a limiting factor. Research has
illustrated that the physical, social and emotional benefits of exercise are achievable for all ages. All people should be
encouraged to be active, in some form or another, to achieve and maintain optimal health status. Exercise professional’s
should take all due care in their prescriptions, however special consideration will need to be given to the older adult.
This special consideration includes an understanding and accommodation of diminished capacity due to age and in
particular: cardio vascular deterioration, sarcopenia and functional neural decline. The exercise professional should also
screen for all potential lifestyle associated conditions such as high blood pressure and type II diabetes. In any event a
medical clearance is strongly recommended.
During activity, the exercise professional is encouraged to utilise a variety of monitoring devices such as heart rate
response and rate of perceived exertion (as impairment of the sympathetic nervous system may ‘blunt’ cardiovascular
response). Activities that require a higher degree of coordination should be discouraged until the older adult has
achieved a suitable degree of mastery.
The exercise professional should not have any preconceived opinions on ability and inability’s until confirmed via an
appropriate medical professional.

REFERENCES
1. American College of Sports Medicine. Medicine and Science in 14. Hu, M-H. and M. H. WOOLLACOTT. Multisensory training of
Sports & Exercise. Volume 30, No 6. Position Stand. Exercise and standing balance in older adults: I--postural stability and one-leg
Physical Activity for Older Adults. June 1998. stance balance. J. Gerontol. 49:M52-M61, 1994.
2. American College of Sports Medicine. Current Comment. Resistance 15. Imamura, K., H. Ashida, T. Ishikawa, and M. FUJII. Human major
Training and the Older Adult. April 2001. psoas muscle and sacrospinalis muscle in relation to age: a study by
3. Bassey, E. J., M. J. Bendall, and M. PEARSON. Muscle strength in computed tomography. J. Gerontol. 38:678-681, 1983.
the triceps surae and objectively measured customary walking 16. Kasch, F., J. Boyer, S. Van Camp, L. Verity, and J. P. WALLACE.
activity in men and women over 65 years of age. Clin. Sci. 74:85-89, Effect of exercise on cardiovascular ageing. Age Ageing 22:5-
1988. 10,1993.
4. Bassey, E. J., M. A. Fiatarone, E. F. O'Neill, M. Kelly, W. J. Evans, 17. Larsson, L. G., G. Grimby, and J. KARLSSON. Muscle strength and
and L. A. LIPSITZ. Leg extensor power and functional performance speed of movement in relation to age and muscle morphology. J.
in very old men and women. Clin. Sci. 82:321-327, 1992. Appl. Physiol. 46:451-456, 1979.
5. Campbell, W. W., M. C. Crim, G. E. Dallal, V. R. Young, and W. J. 18. Lavie, C., R. Milani, and A. LITTMAN. Benefits of cardiac
EVANS. Increased protein requirements in the elderly: new data and rehabilitation and exercise training in secondary coronary prevention
retrospective reassessments. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 60:167-175, 1994. in the elderly. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 22:678-683, 1993.
6. Cohn, S. H., D. Vartsky, S. Yasumura, A. Savitsky, I. Zanzi, A. 19. Lord, S. R. and S. CASTELL. Physical activity program for older
Vaswani, and K. J. ELLIS. Compartmental body composition based persons: effect on balance, strength, neuromuscular control, and
on total-body potassium and calcium. Am. J. Physiol. 239:E524- reaction time. Arch. Physiol. Med. Rehabil. 75:648-652, 1994.
E530, 1980. 20. MacRae, P. G., M. E. Feltner, and S. REINSCH. A 1-year exercise
7. Cononie, C., A. Goldberg, E. Rogus, and J. HAGBERG. Seven program for older women: effects on falls, injuries, and physical
consecutive days of exercise lowers plasma insulin responses to an performance. J. Aging Phys. Act. 2:127-142, 1994.
oral glucose challenge in sedentary 60-80 yr olds. J. Am. Geriatr. 21. McGandy, R. B., C. H. Barrows, A. Spanias, A. Meredith, J. L. Stone,
Soc. 42:394-398, 1994. and A. H. NORRIS. Nutrient intake and energy expenditure in men
8. Fleg, J., F. O'Connor, G. Gerstenblith, L. Becker, J. Clulow, S. of different ages. J. Gerontol. 21:581-587, 1966.
Schulman, and E. LAKATTA. Impact of age on the cardiovascular 22. Nelson, M. E., M. A. Fiatarone, C. M. Morganti, I. Trice, R. A.
response to dynamic upright exercise in healthy men and women. J. Greenberg, and W. J. EVANS. Effects of high-intensity strength
Appl. Physiol. 78:890-900, 1995. training on multiple risk factors for osteoporotic fractures. JAMA
9. Frontera, W. R., C. N. Meredith, K. P. O'Reilly, and W. J. EVANS. 272:1909-1914, 1994.
Strength training and determinants of VO2max in older men. J. Appl. 23. Pollock, M., L. Mengelkoch, J. Graves, D. Lowenthal, M. Limacher,
Physiol. 68:329-333, 1990. C. Foster, and J. WILMORE. Twenty-year follow-up of aerobic power
10. Hagberg, J., S. Blair, A. Ehsani, N. Gordon, N. Kaplan, C. Tipton, and body composition of older track athletes. J. Appl. Physiol.
and E. ZAMBRASKI. Position stand: physical activity, physical 82:1508-1516, 1997.
fitness, and hypertension. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 25:i-x, 1993. 24. Roberts, S. B., V. R. Young, P. Fuss, M. B. Heyman, M. A. Fiatarone,
11. Hagberg, J., S. Montain, W. Martin, and A. EHSANI. Effect of G. E. Dallal, J. Cortiella, and W. J. EVANS. What are the dietary
exercise training on 60 to 69 year old persons with essential energy needs of adults? Int. J. Obes. 16:969-976, 1992.
hypertension. Am. J. Cardiol. 64:348-353, 1989. 25. Schwartz, R., W. Shuman, V. Larson, K. Cain, G. Fellingham, J.
12. Hartz, S. C. Nutrition in the Elderly: The Boston Nutritional Status Beard, S. Kahn, J. Stratton, M. Cerqueira, and I. ABRASS. The effect
Survey, S. C. Hartz, R. M. Russell, and I. H. Rosenberg (Eds.). of intensive endurance exercise training on body fat distribution in
London: Smith-Gordon, 1992, pp. 1-287. young and older men. Metabolism 40:545-551, 1991.
13. Heath, G., J. Hagberg, A. Ehsani, and J. HOLLOSZY. A physiological 26. Tzankoff, S. P. and A. H. NORRIS. Longitudinal changes in basal
comparison of young and older endurance athletes. J. Appl. Physiol. metabolic rate in man. J. Appl. Physiol. 33:536-539, 1978.
51:634-640, 1981.

Additional Resources
ASCA DVD.
CHILD AND YOUTH RESISTANCE TRAINING –

A GUIDE FOR PROGRESSING THE DIFFICULTY OF BODYWEIGHT EXERCISES.
Baker, D.
Available free to all Level 1 course participants via Level 1 Course Resource on the ASCA
website.
































Additional Reading
Volume 5 (3) 1997
Designing, implementing and coaching strength training for beginner and intermediate
athletes – Part 1 – Designing the Program.
Strength
And Strength and Conditioning Coach. 5(3):11-20. 1997 © ASCA
Conditioning
Coach DESIGNING, IMPLEMENTING AND COACHING STRENGTH TRAINING FOR BEGINNER
AND INTERMEDIATE ATHLETES – PART 1 – DESIGNING THE PROGRAM
Daniel Baker
The Official Magazine of the Strength and Conditioning Association MHSc (Sports Science) Head Strength Coach, Brisbane Broncos Rugby League, Australian
ISSN 1324-8006
U/23 Powerlifting Team.
INTRODUCTION
Levels of strength can discriminate between athletes of different abilities in sports such as rugby union, rugby league,
American football, kayaking, volleyball and rowing. Consequently strength training is an integral part of the physical
training for a number of sports. The purpose of this series of articles is outline the theory and practice of designing an
appropriate strength program, implementing the strength program and the coaching of a strength program for beginner
and intermediate level athletes. For the purpose of this manuscript a beginner will be defined as an athlete who has not
undergone any regimented systematic strength training program. An intermediate level athlete will be defined as an
athlete who has undergone at least one cycle of a beginners strength program.
DESIGNING THE PROGRAM
Defining the Objectives

Strength training should be a planned, methodical and objective process. Unfortunately due to the ubiquitous influence
of bodybuilding methodologies, for example the "muscle confusion principle", the strength training processes can
become confusing for coaches. One of the most distinguishable attributes of competent coaches is their ability to set
goals, plan strategies to attain those goals and then put into exact measures that will allow for the attainment of the
defined goals. Thus strength training, as a microcosm of the entire coaching process, should reflect these processes.
Therefore the first aspect of designing the strength training program is to define the objectives of the strength training
process. These objectives may themselves need to be based upon scientific (needs analysis or game analysis) or
perhaps more empirical data. Nonetheless the entire strength training process should be objective driven. In fact
strength training provides an excellent opportunity for defining concrete objectives (such as weight lifted, power
produced, body weight increased) and planning measures for attaining these objectives.
The difficult aspect is defining the appropriate objectives and choosing the methods to attain these objectives. For the
beginner and intermediate level athlete the defining of objectives is less complicated than with advanced athletes, as
almost universally at this training age (Training to train) training is concerned with increasing basic strength, increasing
body mass and basic preparation for the training to follow in the years to come. Table 1 outlines some of the most
common general objectives for beginner and intermediate level athletes.
Table 1 - The common general objectives of the strength raining process for beginner and intermediate level athletes.
Beginners
1. Introduction to strength training methods
2. Increase muscular endurance
3. Increase muscular (intr & intra) coordination leading to an
increase torso stability
4. Increased torso stability
5. Increase hypertrophy and muscle balance
I
ntermediates
1. General strength
2. Hypertrophy and muscle balance
3. Introduction to power training methods
4. Increased torso stability and muscle balance

A certain level of strength (in kg lifted in a bench press or front squat) or an increase in body-mass can provide objective
data that can be deemed specific objectives. Some objectives can also seem somewhat subjective in nature or
assessment. The objective of a young athlete developing good torso stability under loading is a prime example, as it
often relies on the subjective decision of the strength coach / physiotherapist as to when it has been attained. However
the further future integration of computer technology with the basic barbell will tend to make formerly subjective methods
of assessment more objective.
For motivation, goal setting and reinforcement it is important to provide athletes with specific individualised objectives
where possible (for example "X" amount of weight lifted for a 3RM in the front squat) (Wilks, 1994a).
Once the objectives have been chosen it is necessary to design the strength program. There are a number of strength
training variables that must be considered. It is the acute manipulation of the training variables that allows for the
attainment of the chosen objectives.
Eight variables of strength training program design

In designing a strength training program there are at least eight variables which must be considered, if the program is
to exert control over the strength training process. These variables are the exercise, the repetitions, the sets, the load
upon the bar-bell, the order of exercises, the speed of lifting, the rest period between sets and/or exercise, and the
periodisation structure.
For beginner and intermediate athletes. Whose objectives are generally an increase in general strength, an increase in
body mass, improved torso stability, balanced musculoskeletal development and basic preparation for the future training
years, the eight variables maybe manipulated in the following manner.
1. Exercise
The exercises selected in a strength training program must help to achieve the chosen objective and be appropriate to
the athlete, the stage of training, the facilities available and so forth. Exercises differ from each other in the muscles
used, the range of movement, the speed of movement, the biomechanics and so on. Exercises may be deemed core
or assistant exercises, general, specific, single joint or multi-joint, beginner or advanced and so forth.
The vast array of definitions and classifications can also be seemingly confusing to a coach. A simplified method of
classifications and choosing exercises is to use the method that has been previously outlined (Baker, 1995). Exercises
are classified as either being chosen for the prime objective of developing strength or power. These two broad groups
(strength exercises and power exercises) can be further divided into corer and assistant power exercises. As an
example of core and assistant strength and power exercises appropriate to this training age are present in the example
programs. Exercises from these two broad groups may also achieve, depending upon the manipulation of other training
variables, other objectives, such as developing hypertrophy or agility.
For the beginner and intermediate level athlete the core and assistant strength exercises are of the most important in
achieving the objectives outlined in Table 1. The assistant power exercises play an increasing role with increased
strength development. (I.e. with intermediate level athletes) whilst the core power exercises may not be used till the
second or third year of training (or third strength training cycle).
Thus the simple core strength movements of front squat, squat, bench press and chin up (lat pulldown) may constitute
the bulk of the training prescription, with assistant strength exercises such as various shoulder presses, rows, curls, etc.
added to aid in hypertrophy and balanced muscle development. Very basis assistant power exercises such as slow
power shrugs and clean pulls can also be chosen as not only do they provide an introduction to power training concepts
and methodologies, but are almost unparalleled in their ability to develop torso stability.
Consequently the basic premise for the beginner is to choose the simplest exercise that allows for the attainment of the
objectives. The intermediate level athlete will be able to perform slightly more difficult exercises such as the assistant
power exercises.
2. Repetitions
The repetitions performed is an important variable influencing both volume (the amount of work) and the intensity (the
degree of difficulty of the training). As a general rule the repetitions for a beginner should be high (8-15) and moderately
high for intermediate athletes (5-10 or 12). The number of repetitions are also influenced by the exercise to be performed
(strength vs power, core vs assistance).
High repetitions with low to medium weights, allow for the concrete formation of the motor skill of the exercise, muscle
endurance, hypertrophy and torso stability. Each repetition should be seen as a trial for motor skill development and
accordingly using high repetitions with beginners will allow for the quickest and safest development of the skill which
may last for the athlete’s competitive career (8-12 years). High repetitions also allow a high volume to be attained,

ensuring a highly anaerobic state within the muscle tissue. This is a situation favourable to the development of both
muscle endurance and hypertrophy.
More moderate repetitions will allow for the use of heavier loads, which will tend to develop strength through increased
recruitment, rate coding and synchronization of motor units. The power exercises will use less repetitions than the
strength exercises, so that a high speed of execution can be maintained. The fatigue associated with high repetitions
will impair speed and technique in power movements, which is a highly undesirable situation. In general, the core
exercises will tend to use lower repetitions than the assistance exercises in the later stages of a strength training cycle
(for example, the core strength exercises are developing strength and the assistance strength and the assistance
strength exercises are developing hypertrophy.
Whilst these are general principles for selecting the selecting the repetition structure, it should be noted that the
repetitions structure changes every few weeks, such that the intensity is cycled up and the volume cycled down (see
table 2). The repetitions are higher at the beginning of a cycle and lower at the end of a cycle. Thus the athlete’s
strength capabilities are “peaked” at the end of a cycle and should coincide with testing to determine if the specific
objectives have been attained.
3. Sets
The number of sets performed influences the volume of training and the magnitude of the overload. For beginner athletes
this influences skill formation (that is the skill of the strength exercise), muscle endurance and hypertrophy. For
intermediates the number of sets is more important as a method of ensuring overload.
For beginners normally two sets per exercise will suffice in the first two weeks as the repetitions will be high, and hence
fatiguing. Furthermore beginners do generally not have intensive store4s of ATP-PC or glycogen to allow a much higher
work load than two sets per exercise. By the third week of training however the number of sets can be increased to
three and can be maintained at that level till the completion of the cycle. Intermediate level athletes who have become
accustomed to the strength training process (completing cycle #2 or #3) can increase the number of sets to four on the
core strength and assistance power exercise during th4e early stages of their cycle then they are doing 8-10 repetitions
(only three sets should be done if commencing the cycle with 12 repetitions). This procedure will ensure a greater
overload in volume with work load and hopefully a greater hypertrophic response. The assistance strength exercises
are maintained at three sets. In the later stages of the intermediate level cycle, the number of sets in the core strength
and assisted power exercises are reduced to three to compensate for an increase in weight upon the bar and to reduce
training volume such that a peak in strength occurs. This pronounced drop in volume and rise in intensity, outlined in
Table 2, in the final two weeks of a cycle is important for peaking strength (Wilks, 1994a). It should be noted it is more
pronounced for the intermediate (for example, volume of 32 repetitions dropping to 18 repetitions compared to 30
dropping to 24) than for the beginner. If a 3RM test is conducted in the last week, then there is an even more pronounced
drop in volume and rise in intensity. Consequently strength levels will be highest at this point.
4. Load upon the barbell

The load or weight upon the barbell is one of the most vital, though largely ignored, strength training variables. Whilst
the number of repetitions to be performed largely dictates the load upon the barbell, there is still room for more finite
planning of the exact weight used to achieve a precisely planned overload for a training session. Though contrary to
popular scientific opinion, it is not necessary or wise to use a load that signifies a RM effort for each set or workout.
Practical experience has illustrated that the continual use of RM loads, even if the load is periodised from high repetitions
to low repetitions, may induce neural fatigue or a form of overtraining. This results in a marked and rapid loss of strength,
more pronounced in intermediates and advanced strength training athletes, than beginners.
Training to close to failure with repetitions load will also cause premature fatigue results in a marked decrease in
workload for ensuring sets or exercise (Sforzo and Touey 1996). Table 3 provides an example of the decrease in
workload caused by using too high a load upon the barbell and the resultant drop in workload. This occurrence appears
more pronounced in whole body core exercises such as squats, front squats, bench press and power clean (and whole
body assistance power exercises such as push press, clean pull, power shrugs) than in isolated assistance strength
exercises (curies, leg curies etc.). Hence it appears to be related to the magnitude of the system load (body mass plus
mass of barbell) rather than merely relative intensity.

Table 2 - The sets and repetitions for core strength training exercises over an eight week cycle for beginner and
intermediate level athletes. Volume is the total number of repetitions. Strength testing takes place after the last week
of training.
Weeks 1-2 3-4 5-6 7-8

(S x R) 2 x 15 3 x 12 3 x 10 3x8
Beginner cycle
(volume) 30 36 30 24
(S x R) 3 x 12 4 x 10 4x8 3x6
Intermediates cycle
(volume) 36 40 32 18
(S x R) 4 x 10 4x8 4x6 3x5
Intermediates #2
(volume) 40 32 24 15
or
Weeks 1-2 3-5 6-8 9-10
(S x R) 4 x 10 4x8 4x6 3x5
Intermediates #2
(volume) 40 32 24 15
Weeks 1-2 3-4 5-6 7-8 9-10

(S x R) 3 x 12 4 x 10 4x8 4x6 3x5
Intermediates #2
(volume) 36 40 32 24 15
S(S x R) = Sets x repetitions

(Volume) = The product of the sets x repetitions e.g. 3 x 10 = a volume of 30 repetitions
Consequently the load upon the barbell at the beginning of a cycle is initially low in terms of absolute weight lifted and
in relative terms for whole body exercises (circa 70%-80% of the designated RM load). This light load allows the beginner
and intermediate level athletes to concentrate on developing sound technique without having to worry about whether
the set will be successfully completed.
Throughout the training cycle the load upon the barbell becomes closer to the RM effort for the number of repetitions to
be performed. Only in the last few weeks will the weight upon the barbell be equivalent to the RM effort for the designated
repetitions. Within one to two weeks of the load upon the barbell being close to or equivalent of the RM effort there will
be a peak in strength, followed inevitably by a decrease in strength (irrespective of what the strength coach implements).
This peak should coincide with the strength testing.
Figure 1 provides a graphic example of this notion for an intermediate athlete who has previously performed three
training cycles. In this example of an eight week training cycle, the repetitions are reduced every two weeks (from sets
of ten repetitions to sets of eight, sets of six and finally sets of five). However the athlete starts squatting with 80kg for
ten repetitions, even though their 10RM is 100kg. Every week the load upon the barbell is increased such that the
disparity between what the athletes actually uses for a given repetition schedule and what their RM capabilities for that
schedule are, become less and less. Thus in week 1 there is a 20 kg disparity between the training weight and the RM
weight that could be used. In week 3 there is only a 12.5 kg disparity, which is gradually reduced to only 10kg by week
4. Consequently by week 6 the athlete is training with 125 kg for 6 repetitions, whilst the 6 RM equals 130kg. By week
8 the athlete is training with the heaviest load possible of 140kg for 5 repetitions, which is also equivalent to the 5 RM
for that day. The load upon the barbell and the level of effort needed to lift that load have gradually increased across
the eight weeks.
Intermediate level athletes also require the use of the "heavy-light"- system of loading on whole body exercises (Wilks,
1994a; Wilks, 1994b). Under this system if an exercise is performed twice per week, then one workout is heavier and
one workout of medium intensity (minus 5-20 kg compared to the heavy day load of the week). This procedure of
contrasting loads results in improved recovery from the heavy workout, increased technical mastery of the exercise,
increased power output during the exercise performance and an improved super compensatory adaptation. A simple
method of invoking this principle for squat training would be to use squat on the heavy leg training day and front squats
on the "light" training day. As front squats can usually only be performed with 80-88% of the load of the squat for the
same number of repetitions (Hakkinen et al.,1987) this results in a reduction of loading upon the legs. The same
procedure can be utilised for bench press and narrow grip bench press, clean pulls and power shrugs and so on.

Experience has also dictated that most strength training athletes tend to lift up heavy a load upon the barbell too early
in their strength training cycle, which will therefore reduce the overload during the latter stages of the cycle, when the
strength and power should be peaking. It is vital that the strength coach ensures tight and rigid control over what load
is upon the barbell to ensure against premature peaking (followed by plateauing and then a decline) in strength.
Thus the role of the strength coach is select the exact load upon the barbell to ensure the appropriate overload for an
athlete for a given stage of the training cycle. This should entail relatively lighter loads earlier in the training cycle,
building to a crescendo of intensity in the latter stages of the training cycle. Ideally the load upon the barbell should
increase every week for the core strength and for both the core and assistant power exercises. Due to the smaller
magnitude of loads lifted in the assistant strength exercises and the fact that an increase of 2.5kg may represent a high
relative % of maximum, an increase every two weeks is often more prudent for exercises from this classification. There
should be greater variation in both absolute and relative loading for the whole body exercises than for isolation exercises.
Table 3 - The decrease in the workload caused by selecting an inappropriately heavy load for the number of repetitions
to be performed. The use of a submaximal RM load, such as training at 90% of the 12 RM rather than the full 12 RM
load of 77.5kg causes an increase in the workload by 16% (2520 vs 2170) in comparison to training to failure which
usually results in less repetitions to be performed in succeeding sets.
A 12 RM lifting to failure vs Training at 90% of the 12 RM

Set 1 = 12 x 77.5 kg = 930kg Set 1 = 12 x 70kg = 840kg
Set 2 = *9 x 77.5 kg = 697.50kg Set 2 = 12 x 70 kg = 840kg

Set 3 = *7 x 77.5kg = 542.5kg Set 3 = 12 x 70kg = 840kg
Total Workout = 2120kg vs Total Workout = 2520kg
• Training to failure on the first (or any) set generally results in less repetitions being performed in the
following sets
5. Order of Exercise
The order of exercise performance greatly influences the physiological effects of strength training (Sforzo and Touey,
1996). The issues to be considered are the straight sets vs circuit systems of training, whole body (multi-joint) exercises
vs isolated exercises, upper vs lower body exercises, strength vs power exercises, agonist/antagonist super sets and
the use of contrasting loading.
If strength and power are the ultimate objectives of training then the straight sets system of training, rather than the
circuit system, would provide a more appropriate method. Circuit training results in reduced intensity, in terms of load
upon the barbell and speed of lifting to fully develop strength or power, respectively, and consequently serve as a
method of strength-endurance training. Research and experience clearly shows that whole body or multi-joint exercises
should be performed as isolated exercises using the same muscle groups, or a dramatic reduction in workload occurs
(Sforzo and Touey, 1996).
The efficiency of performing lower body exercises first in a workout has not been clearly established. Generally whatever
body area requires a priority in training should be trained first. A more important consideration may be whether to perform
power or strength exercises first. It may remain an individual preference or a matter for successful time-equipment
management (see part 2) as to whether lower body or upper body is trained first.
As a general rule it is believed power exercises should be performed first in the workout to ensure that the residual
fatigue stemming from the performance of strength exercises does not reduce speed of performance and less then
optimal motor unit recruitment (Zatiorsky, 1995). However as the training regimen of beginners should not contain any
core power exercises this point is less relevant to that group. Whilst beginners may perform exercises deemed as
assistance power exercises (slow clean pull to waist, slow power shrug), the slow speed of lifting that should be
prescribed in these early stages to assist technical development, hypertrophy and torso stability results in these
exercises not having a true power training effect1'. As a result, beginners may perform the assistant power exercises
after the core strength exercises.
For intermediate level athletes in their third strength training cycle, the use of contrasting exercises and loads may prove
a useful power training (Bulgarian and Russian speed-strength methods) characterised by, for example, the alternating
of heavy squats to stimulate strength and reduce neural inhibition and light jump squats to facilitate power production
(Baker, 1994). Other examples appropriate for the intermediate level athlete may be power shrugs verses power cleans
from the hang and the bench press verses bench press throw in the smith machine.

The alternating of sets of agonist and antagonist exercises, whilst still respecting an appropriate rest interval, is also a
method that warrants consideration. Essentially this cannot be done effectively for lower body exercises of the lower
body use both the quadriceps (to the ex-tend the knee) and the hamstrings (to extend the hip) within the same repetition.
However alternating sets of agonist/antagonist exercises for the upper body is a useful method for developing
hypertrophy, muscle balance and most importantly allowing efficient time and equipment usage (see part 2).
6. Speed of lifting
The speed of lifting is a variable that influences the strength, power or hypertrophic effects of strength training exercises.
An increased time under tension/slow speed of lifting is a variable which largely influences hypertrophy, whilst an
increased speed of lifting influences power, irrespective of the training age.
For beginners a very slow speed of lifting ensures the successful formation of the motor skill of the strength exercises,
increases the anaerobic capacities of the muscles and aids in the development of torso stability.
The speed of lifting is largely controlled by the eccentric speed of movement and to a lesser degree whether there is
an isometric pause within the movement. The concentric lifting speed, apart from the initial weeks of a training cycle,
should be as explosive as possible for most athletes.
On lower body multi joint exercises such as the squat, and slow power shrug a four second eccentric portion and a one
second isometric pause at the bottom of the movement in the first two weeks of training may be warranted. Gradually
the speed of lifting is increased (three seconds eccentric to two seconds and no isometric pause) as the weight upon
the barbell and technical control increases. For the upper body exercises such as the bench press, where there is a
decreased range of movement and external stability afforded by the bench, a three second eccentric portion within 2-3
weeks.
As a general, the speed of lifting is slow at first, gradually increasing with increased technical control and heavier loads
upon the barbell. This applies to the core and assistance strength exercises and the assistance power exercises. It may
be unnecessary to revert to very slow training for more than 2-4 weeks each year, at the commencement of the strength
training cycle or when rehabilitating injuries.
As the objective of training moves towards both developing both strength and power (intermediate cycles#2 & 3) the
speed of lifting of the assistant power exercises increases markedly and the core power exercises may be introduced
in the third cycle, if they are deemed necessary. Thus the speed of lifting is periodised or cycled according to the exercise
being performed and the underlying objectives of the workout, week or cycle. If athletes cannot exert great control at
slow speeds and with low weight, then there is little chance they could manage to perform strength or power exercises
safely with high loads or fast speeds. The premise of learning to "Learn to crawl, before you walk, before you run" may
be an apt analogy for the concept of exerting control of the speed of lifting variable in strength training program design.
7. Rest Periods
The rest periods between sets or exercises influences strength, hypertrophy, power and muscular endurance through
the differing effects that rest periods may exert upon energy substrate utilisation, motor unit recruitment / patterns of
firing and hormonal response. There are distinct workload and hormonal effects due to short (one to two minutes or
less) or long rest (three minutes or more) periods.
For the beginner the first weeks of training are characterised by shorter rest periods (1-2 minutes) as the objectives of
these early stage of training are muscle endurance / conditioning and motor skill acquisition, performed against a
background of low loads. The high repetitions and short rest periods indicative of these early weeks of a training cycle
also appear to favourably influence hypertrophic adaptations, possibly through an interplay of anaerobic and hormonal
responses.
However as strength must also be addressed by the utilisation of heavy loads to ensure high motor unit recruitment and
rate coding, then rest periods have to be lengthened towards the latter stages of the strength training cycle to allow for
the lifting of heavier loads. For beginner and intermediate level athletes the rest periods between sets with heavy 5-6
repetition loads (approaching the RM capabilities) in the core strength exercises may be in order of 3-5 minutes
(Zatiorsky, 1995). The rest period for assistance strength exercises can be maintained at two minutes or even at one
minute when performing agonist / antagonist super sets.
Power exercises require full rest periods for optimal speed overload. However as the time for the execution of power
exercises is shorter, due to their increased speed of performance, recovery is quicker. The rest period may range from
one minute for a low intensity plyometric to two minutes for jump squats to three minutes to power clean from the hang.
The increasing use of computer technology to aid the measuring and training of power will enable the coach to more
accurately determine the rest period for power training exercises for each individual. Any pronounced drop in power
from one set to the next will indicate that the rest period may not have been adequate.

As a general rule of strength training for beginner and intermediate level athletes, do not commence the following set
until the heart rate drops below 108 bpm. Of course sometimes this procedure may be unclear as the future performance
of a very intense load (close to the full 5-6RM in the latter weeks of a cycle) may cause the heart rate to stay elevated
due to anxiety rather than fatigue. The subjective eye of the coach and the feeling of the athlete may prove more potent
indicators of readiness to lift intense or powerful loads rather than the objective passage of time.
8. Periodisation structure
Periodisation refers to the division of the training year or period into smaller more manageable periods with differing
objectives and content (differing manipulation of training variables). Periodisation as a concept should be viewed as
broad method of effectively implementing training (Zatiorsky, 1995). In the strength training context it influences the
length of the entire cycle (the macrocycle), the smaller sub-cycles of 2-4 weeks duration (mesocycles), the weekly cycle
(microcycle), the number of days trained per week and how long the manipulation of training variables fits into the overall
plan. Strict adherence to a dogmatic paradigm of periodisation, such as only using three week mesocycles for maximum
strength training (Bompa, 1993), may be unwarranted.
Essentially the periodisation structure should merely be the attempt to bring together the seven other strength training
variables in a methodical and coherent system of training. By observing the periodisation of the other seven variables
(i.e. the acute manipulation of these variables across a number of weeks), a virtual road map detailing how the training
objectives will be attained, should be developed. Tables 4 and 5 provide an example of an actual training program used
by one athlete at his beginner and intermediate level stage of development. The acute manipulation of variables across
the cycles is easily observed. Consequently the periodisation structure can be seen as the method by which the
manipulation of training variables is structured.
By studying the program examples, it should become obvious that the athlete and coach should be in no doubt as in
what to do for each and every workout. Furthermore, how the successful completion of each workout is a small step in
achieving the programs goals should be apparent.
In developing the periodisation structure, it is simple to start with the small units such as how many days per week and
the length of time per day. A three day per week, one hour per day system is very effective, although good results can
be obtained with two days per week in beginners. Four days per week (upper body / lower body split routine) can be
used for intermediate #2 athletes, if preferred. It is not necessary or prudent for beginner athletes to perform strength
training for more than three days per week and intermediate level athletes four days per week. Five and six days per
week of strength training is definitely ineffective and counterproductive for strength development in drug free athletes
performing heavy strength training exercises A six week macrocycle would ,appear the minimum length of time
necessary for a beginners strength training cycle. For beginners and intermediate level #1 athletes an eight week
macrocycle, preceded and followed by strength testing and exercise familiarisation, appears to be a more effective
variant. This cycle would compromise of four 2 week mesocycles. Inter-mediate level #2 athletes may require a ten
week macrocycle with variations being five 2 week mesocycles or using a 2 week mesocycle at the beginning and at
the end of the cycle with two 3 week mesocycles in between. As athletes become stronger, the length of the macrocycle
necessary to produce improvements also increases (eight weeks for beginners, ten for intermediate, twelve for
advanced) and the mesocycle increase in length up to 3-4 weeks, as opposed to two weeks (Wilks,(1994).
Over the long term, each macrocycle of training prepares the athlete for the next cycle of training. Thus a calendar year
of strength training may be viewed as, for example, the accumulation of two back to back development macrocycles of
eight weeks each (i.e. a general and specific preparation macrocycle), followed by three seven week in-season
maintenance macrocycles. The consequence of such training is that the strength training stimulus is presented in a
wave like manner across many months (i.e. higher volume and lower intensity at the beginning of each macrocycle and
vice versa at the end of the cycle). Thus the cumulative effects of strength training should be taken into account as
should the time needed to transform weight room improvements into sporting field improvements (process of delayed
transmutation, Zatiorsky, 1995).
Whilst the above may be general rules of thumb regarding the effective planning of macro and mesocycles, the reality
of planning in many Australian sports should take into consideration socio-cultural events. For example, the winter sports
such as the football codes usually commence training during the first week of the football financial year (first week in
November), but must cease the week before Christmas-New Year. Thus only a seven week cycle is usually possible
before the cessation of training. After the New Year then only a six to eight week cycle may be possible before reverting
to a maintenance cycle (Baker 1995). Experience dictates that the length of these macrocycles and the interruption of
the holiday period is less than optimal in physiological terms, but in reality an unavoidable and perhaps psychologically
favourable phenomenon. Therefore training must be planned accordingly.
For beginner and #1 level intermediate athletes, the above scenario does not pose a severe problem as two full peaking
cycles can be achieved within these time periods at this stage of development. For more advanced intermediates faced
by the above scenario, only one true peak can be achieved at the end of the second cycle, with the first cycle serving
as a “sub peak” to gauge training progress

Consequently periodisation should be concerned less with the dogmatic adherence to periodisation theories in mind
and more with the practical implementation of training.
Whilst a ten week cycle may appear the most optimal for an intermediate level athlete, a seven week cycle may have
to suffice in reality due to unavoidable :breaks" in training such as holidays etc. Thus a strength coach cannot control
the socio-cultural events of a country but they can control the strength training plan to reap the most rewarding result in
any given situation.
CONCULSIONA philosophy of the theoretical and practical aspects of designing strength training programs for beginner
and intermediate level athletes has been presented.
Strength training should be an objective driven process. The basis of strength training program design is the control and
manipulation of the eight variables of strength training which the coach can influence. Each of these eight variables and
the effect of their different manipulations upon strength is discussed. The acute manipulation of these variables occurs
to achieve the changes in objectives that result from different periodisation phases or training age stages. Examples of
the design of beginner and inter-mediate level athletes strength training programs have been presented
150
140
130
120
110 Training Load RM Load
100
90
80
70
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Weeks
Figure 1 - The relationship between the maximum strength capabilities for any given repetition assignment, the actual
training load used for that repetition assignment and the stage of the macrocycle. The athlete uses 80kg for 10 reps in
the squat in week 1, even though as this stage his 10RM was cica 100kg. In the last training week the load upon the
barbell is 140kg for 5 reps, equivalent to 5RM. Only in the last weeks of a macrocycle do the RM capabilities and actual
training load closely equate. This process causes the peaking of strength in the following week (2) (week 9 coinciding
with strength testing as per the below example)

Table 3 – Part “A”

Day 1 Beginners Basic Program Test # 1 Results BWt = 79. Bench = 72.5. Front Squat = 70. Chin = 94 (+15kg)
Order Exercise Week 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 Squats WEIGHT 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
SETS X REPS 2 X 15 2 X 15 3 X 12 3 x 12 3 x 10 3 x 10 3x8 3x8
SPEED 411 411 31x 31x 20x 20x 20x 20x
REST PERIOD 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3
2a Power shrugs onto WEIGHT 27.5 32.5 37.5 42.5 47.5 52.5 57.5 62.5
toes SETS X REPS 2 x 10 2 x 10 3x8 3x8 3x6 3x6 3x5 3x5
SPEED 512 512 41x 41x 31x 31x 21x 21x
REST PERIOD 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3
3 Bench Press WEIGHT 50 52.5 55 57.5 62.5 67.5 70 72.5

SETS X REPS 2 x 12 2 x 12 3 x 10 3 x 10 3x8 3x8 3x6 Goal=80kg
SPEED 311 311 21x 21x 20x 20x 10x 3 x 6 Test 3
REST PERIOD 2 2 2.5 2.5 3 3 3 RM
10x
3
4a Press behind neck WEIGHT 22.5 22.5 25 25 27.5 30 32.5 35

(seated) SETS X REPS 2 x 15 2 x 15 3 x 12 3 x 12 3 x 10 3 x 10 3x8 3x8
SPEED 211 211 21x 21x 20x 20x 10x 10x
REST PERIOD 1 1 1.5 1.5 2 2 2 2
4b Chins (close grip) WEIGHT Bwt Bwt +5 +5 +7.5 +10 +12.5 +15
do pulldowns if SETS X REPS 2 x 10 2 x 10 3x8 3x8 3x6 3x6 3x5 Goal=+22.5
chins can’t be SPEED 20s 20s 20s 20s 20x 20x 20x 3 x 5 Test
performed for the # REST PERIOD 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3RM
of reps 20x
3
5 Curls WEIGHT 15 15 17.5 17.5 20 20 22.5 25

SETS X REPS 2 x 15 2 x 15 3 x 12 3 x 12 3 x 10 3 x 10 3x8 3x8
SPEED 201 201 201 201 201 201 201 2-1
REST PERIOD 1 1 1.5 1.5 2 2 2 2
Abdominals 2 x 8-15

Table 3 – Part “B”

Day 2
8 (Goal =
Order Exercise Week 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 90kg Test 3
RM)
1 Front squats WEIGHT 37.5 42.5 47.5 52.5 57.5 62.5 67.5 72.5
SETS X REPS 2 x 12 2 x 12 3 x 10 3 x 10 3 x 10 3x8 3x6 3x6
SPEED 311 311 21x 21x 20x 20x 20x 20x
REST PERIOD 2 2 2.5 2.5 3 3 3 3
2 Clean pull from WEIGHT 27.5 32.5 37.5 42.5 47.5 52.5 57.5 62.5
mid-shin pause at SETS X REPS 2 x 10 2 x 10 3x8 3x8 3x6 3x6 3x5 3x5
knee SPEED 2x 2x 2x 2x 1x 1x 1x 1x
REST PERIOD 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3
3 Narrow grip bench WEIGHT 45 47.5 50 52.5 55 57.5 60 60

press SETS X REPS 2 x 12 2 x 12 3 c10 3 x 10 3x8 3x8 3x6 3x6
SPEED 311 311 21x 21x 20x 20x 10x 10x
REST PERIOD 2 2 2.5 2.5 3 3 3 3
4a Seated front WEIGHT 22.5 22.5 25 27.5 30 32.5 35 37,5

shoulder press SETS X REPS 2 x 15 2 x 15 3 x 12 3 x 12 3 x 10 3 x 10 3x8 3x8
SPEED 211 211 21x 21x 20x 20x 20x 20x
REST PERIOD 1 1 1.5 1.5 2 2 2 2
4b Wide grip WEIGHT 30 32.5 35 37.5 40 42.5 45 47.5

pulldowns behind SETS X REPS 2 x 15 2 x 15 3 x 12 3 x 12 3 x 10 3 x 10 3x8 3x8
SPEED 311 311 21x 21x 20x 20x 20x 20x
REST PERIOD 1 1 1.5 1.5 2 2 2 2
5a Dips WEIGHT Bwt Bwt +5 +5 +7.5 +7.5 +10 +10

SPEED 211 211 21x 21x 20x 20x 10x 10x
REST PERIOD 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
5b Upright row WEIGHT 17.5 17.5 20 20 22.5 22.5 25 27.5

SPEED 211 211 21x 21x 20x 20x 10x 10x
REST PERIOD 1 1 1.5 1.5 2 2 2 2
Abdominals 2 x 8-15

Table 4 – Part “A”

Day 1 Intermediate Program Test # 2 Test #2 Results BWt = 82. Bench 3RM = 82.5 Front Squat = 95. Chin = 107 (+25kg)
Order Exercise Week 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 Squats WEIGHT 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
SETS X REPS 3 x 12 3 x 12 3 x 10 3 x 10 3x8 3x8 3x6 3x6
SPEED 211 211 20x 20s 20x 20x 20x 20x
REST PERIOD 3 3 3 3 3 1 3 3
2a Power shrugs onto WEIGHT 52.5 57.5 62.5 67.5 72.5 77.5 82.5 85
toes SETS X REPS 3x8 3x8 3x6 3x6 3x6 3x5 3x4 3x4
SPEED 31x 31x 31x 31x 21x 21x 21x 21x
REST PERIOD 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
3 Bench Press WEIGHT 52.5 55 57.5 60 62.5 65 67.5 70

narrow grip SETS X REPS 3 x 10 3 x 10 3x8 3x8 3x6 3x6 3x5 3x5
SPEED 20x 20x 20x 20x 20x 20x 20x 20x
REST PERIOD 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
4a Press b back WEIGHT 32.5 32.5 35 35 37.5 37.5 40 42.5

SPEED 211 211 20x 20x 20x 20x 20x 20x
REST PERIOD 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
4b Wide grip WEIGHT 37.5 40 42.5 45 47.5 50 52.5 55

pulldowns behind SETS X REPS 3 x 12 3 x 12 3 x 10 3 x 10 3x8 3x8 3x6 3x6
neck SPEED 211 211 20x 20x 20x 20x 20x 20x
REST PERIOD 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
5 Curls WEIGHT 20 20 22.5 22.5 25 25 27.5 3 27.5

SETS X REPS 3 x 12 3 x 12 3 x 10 3 x 10 3x8 3x8 x 6 3x6
SPEED 201 201 201 201 201 201 201 201
REST PERIOD 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
Abdominals 2 x 8-15

Table 4 – Part “B”

Day 2
8 (Goal = 90kg
Order Exercise Week 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Test 3 RM)
1 Bench Press WEIGHT 60 62.5 67.5 70 75 77.5 80 82.5
SETS X REPS 3 x 10 3 x 10 3x8 3x8 3x6 3x6 3x5 3x5
SPEED 20x 20x 20x 20x 20x 20x 20x 20x
REST PERIOD 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
2a Very close grip WEIGHT 40 42.5 45 47.5 50 52.5 55 57.5

bench press SETS X REPS 3 x 12 3 x 12 3 x 10 3 x 10 3x8 3x8 3x6 3x6
SPEED 211 211 211 20x 20x 20x 20x 20x
REST PERIOD 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2b Chins (close grip) WEIGHT Bwt Bwt +5 +10 +15 +17.5 +20 +22.5 Goal =
SETS X REPS 3x8 3x8 3x6 3x6 3x5 3x5 3x4 3 x 4 +30kg
SPEED 20x 20s 20x 20x 20x 20x 20x 20x Test 3RM
REST PERIOD 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
3 Front Squats WEIGHT 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 Goal =

SETS X REPS 3 x 10 3 x 10 3x8 3x8 3x6 3x6 3x5 3x5 105 kg
SPEED 20x 20x 20x 20x 20x 20x 20x 20x Test 3RM
REST PERIOD 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
4 Clean pulls to WEIGHT 60 57.5 62.5 67.5 72.5 77.5 82.5 85

waist no pause SETS X REPS 3 x 10 3x8 3x6 3x6 3x5 3x5 3x4 3x4
SPEED x x x x x x x x
REST PERIOD 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
5 Front Shoulder WEIGHT 35 35 37.5 37.5 40 40 42.5 42.5

SPEED 211 211 20x 20x 20x 20x 20x 20x
REST PERIOD 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Abdominals 2 x 8-15
REFERENCES
1. Baker, D. (1994) Improving vertical jump performance: The 5. Sforzo, G & Touey, P. (1996) Manipulating exercise order affects
application of general, special and specific strength training. muscular performance during a resistance training session J
Proceedings of the 1994 National Coaching Conference. ACC, Strength & Conditioning Res. 10(1): 20-24.
Canberra 6. Wilks, R. (1994a) Level 1 Powerlifting coaching manual Power-
2. Baker, D. (1995) Strength training for rugby league. Proceedings of lifting Australia, Sth Yarra, Vic.
the 1995 Australian Strength & Conditioning Conference. ASCA, 7. Wilks, R. (1994b) Periodisation or training for powerlifting - an applied
Toowong, Aust. model of maximal strength training. Strength & Conditioning
3. Bompa, T. Periodisation of Strength. Veritas Publishing, Toronto, Coach. 2(4): 9-18.
Ontario, 1993. 8. Zatiorsky, V. Science and practice of strength training. Human
4. Hakkinen, H., Kauhanen, H & Komi, P. (1987) Aerobic, anaerobic, Kinetics, Champaign, IL. 1995.
assistant exercise and weightlighting performance capacities in elite
weightlifters. J. Sport Med., 27,241-246.

Volume 5 (4) 1997

Designing, implementing and coaching strength training for beginner and intermediate
athletes – Part 2 – Implementing the Program.
Strength
And
Conditioning
Coach DESIGNING, IMPLEMENTING AND COACHING STRENGTH TRAINING FOR BEGINNER
AND INTERMEDIATE ATHLETES – PART 1 – IMPLEMENTING THE PROGRAM
Daniel Baker
The Official Magazine of the Strength and Conditioning Association MHSc (Sports Science) Head Strength Coach, Brisbane Broncos Rugby League, Australian
ISSN 1324-8006
U/23 Powerlifting Team
INTRODUCTION
A paucity of information exists concerning on how actually to implement a strength training program. This may be
partially ascribed to unique difficulties that may not apply across situations, rendering a cross-over of data less
applicable. However the author’s experience in the Australian sporting environment has indicated that there are often
problems encountered by strength coaches when attempting to implement a program.
Specifically these problems are what tests to implement, how to implement testing for large groups of
beginner/intermediates, how to efficiently utilize equipment, time and personnel, how to individualise weight selection
for different exercises and what degree of progress to expect at different training ages and stages. This paper will
attempt to address these common problems associated with implementing a strength training program with practical
solutions that have been used by the author.
CHOICE OF TESTS
Testing of strength is necessary to measure specific objectives of training and the progress to those goals, as well as
allowing the strength coach to individually select the weight upon the bar for each exercise for each training session.
However it is not necessary to implement a holistic battery of strength tests as a few simple tests should suffice with
beginner and intermediate level athletes.
Whilst the nature of the sport often dictates which tests are most appropriate, for most field sports (football codes,
hockey etc) the following tests have proven very useful for testing general strength capabilities. For upper body pushing
and pulling strength, the bench press and chin up (reverse grip for beginners and female athletes) respectively have
been proven easy to implement and perform by low level subjects. These strength tests have provided data which
indicates that performance on these simple tests can discriminate between different level athletes, even at the earliest
stages of training (Baker, 1996; Malone, 1996).
For the lower body measurement of strength the front squat is the easiest exercise to impellent for beginner and low
intermediate level subjects. The front squat, from the authors experience with hundreds of beginners and intermediate
level subjects, is easier to perform and learn compared to the back squat. Furthermore there appears to be less
psychological inhibitions amongst beginners to holding a bar on the front of the shoulders as compared to the back of
the shoulders. This may also be due to beginners generally being able to bench press more than they can front squat,
thus providing confidence about being able to handle the weight. This would not occur with the back squat, which is
more difficult to master and would use a larger load than the bench press. The simple vertical jump and reach test may
be implemented if the coach desires a basic leg power test.
The use of the back squat, as a test of strength, and the power clean as a test of lower body explosiveness, are best
left to the later intermediate level stage, although it is not necessary to change to these tests if experience had dictated
that the front squat and vertical jump have been adequate. For example, extremely tall athletes find the front square
more comfortable to perform due to less forward lean. However experience had dictated that the back squat is more
suitable at all raining ages/stages for female athletes, who find it uncomfortable to perform the front squat due to the
difficulty of maintaining the barbell upon the clavicles.
The use of 3RM test is recommended for beginner and intermediate level athletes as they do not often possess the
neural control to safely make the quantum leap from 3 RM to 1 RM loads. If desired a 1RM can be extrapolated from a
3RM by multiplying the load by a factor of 1.08 (Baker, 1995a).

The use of a total strength score (e.g. Total strength = 3RM bench press, chin up and front squat) has proven the most
successful single strength measure of discriminating athletic ability, even up to the elite level (Baker, 1996, Malone,
1996).
Comparisons based on solely strength per kg greatly favour lighter athletes and are accordingly less useful for accurate
analysis.
IMPLEMENTING THE TESTS
When testing larger groups of beginners and intermediates it is necessary to have a number of testers available to
insure safety and efficiency. A ratio of one tester per ten athletes is recommended. Testing of large groups can be
divided into two groups, with one starting with the bench press and the other, the vertical jump. Following the bench
press, this group will rotate to the chin-up test and then to the vertical jump, whilst the vertical jump group will proceed
to the bench press and then the chin-up. The front squat is tested last to ensure that the athletes are fully warmed up
and to utilise the larger numbers of athletes as spotters. Utilising this strength coaches, tested over 30 athletes in one
hour.
Testing of strength with be-ginner athletes is based upon the trial and error method. With beginners start lifting with an
empty barbell (six to ten repetitions) to ensure that technique is adequate. Increase the load to a load that you presume
may be about 50% of the 3RM to gauge the difficulty of this load. Then increase the weight by 5 to 10 kg an attempt till
the maximum is achieved. When determining a "maximum" if athletes fail to lift the third repetition in an attempt on the
bench press, but manage to get the barbell halfway up or further, than subtract 2.5kg from that attempt to ascertain the
3RM (ie. two and a half repetitions with 7.5kg = a 3rm of 72.5kg). The same procedure with the front squat is also used
but 5kg is reduced from failed attempts to determine the 3RM. However if athletes can only perform two repetitions,
then the last successfully completed load is used as the 3RM or 5kg is subtracted from the attempted goal. The chin-up
test score equals the body mass plus additional weights that were attached to the body to derive the 3RM (eg. 74kg +
7.5kg = 3RM of 81.5kg). If an athlete performs only one or two repetitions with their body weight, then subtract 5kg each
rep less than 3reps to derive the chin score. If no repetitions can be performed at all, then substitute a lat pulldown to
below the chin to derive a 3RM.
With intermediate level subjects who have previously completed a test, a more precise use of loads to ascertain the
3RM can be utilised. This method is the pinpoint or goal method, whereby a certain goal weight is predetermined, based
on previous test results and recent training efforts. As a general rule, athletes who perform a 3RM with 50-75kg, usually
test a 5 kg more than the weight used in the last workout of 3 x 5. Athletes who lift a 3RM of 75-100kg usually test at
7.5kg more than the weight they used in their last 3 x 5 workout. Athletes who lift 100-125kg usually test at 10kg more
than the weight used in their last 3x5 workout. Thus by knowing this the testing procedure can be extremely pin-pointed
(see table 1).
EFFICIENT TIME, EQUIPMENT AND PERSONNEL USAGE
One of the major problems faced by coaches working with amateur or low level teams is efficient usage of time,
equipment and personnel. A situation where the number of athletes is much higher than the equipment available is a
common problem in the Australian sporting environment. Crowded or disorganised training leads to unproductive or
dangerous training as well as alienating most of the beginners from the strength training experience. From the authors
experience the following procedures and methods can be useful in ensuring a productive training environment.
The four best methods for coaching large groups of low level athletes is to 1).ensure a ratio 3:1 athletes to major exercise
situations 2) stagger the starting exercise and ensuring order of exercise performance 3) stagger the starting time of the
workout for different groups and 4) variation in programming (more so for intermediate level athletes).
If timetables dictate that all the athletes must start training at the same time, then a staggered starting exercise and
adequate equipment are required. Attempt to have one major training station per three athletes. A major training station
is defined as for core strength or assistant power exercises. A bench press, squat / power rack and platform area
(plywood sheet) defines a station. Thus if 18 athletes are to train at the same time, two bench presses, two squat racks
and two platform areas (and six barbells) ensure an adequate training facility by relegating the numbers of athletes to
major equipment stations as 3:1. Under this procedure all 18 athletes can start training at the same time, in groups of
three, starting at either bench press type exercise, a squat exercise or a assistant power exercise upon the platform.
Table 2 outlines the specific order that can be followed for two different types of program to efficiently use time, space
and personnel, whilst not corrupting training by having to perform isolation exercises before core or multi- joint exercises.
The other solution is to have staggered starting times, whereby groups start training at different 15 minute intervals.
This especially suit situations where there is limited equipment. Other coaches have also used staggered training days
(group "A" does lower body whilst group "B" does upper body exercises), but this is more of a method for intermediate
level athletes who may be performing four days per week.

Intermediate level athletes programs become more individualised or positional specific, as compared to the general
program of the beginner, resulting in less congestion in the weight room at any given point. Some coaches of
intermediates also use a method whereby a body part is prescribed to be trained and the athlete chooses the exercise
of their choice to perform for the prescribed number of sets and repetitions (e.g. Back: choose any chin, pulldown or
rowing exercise). The author does not personally choose this method as it reduced the control of the coach over the
training process.
For the coach to be efficient in spreading their time amongst a number of athletes, the author recommends that the
coach plan the training and clearly define upon the program exactly what must be done in the workout (all eight variables
are accounted for).
The goal should be to make the program “idiot proof”. This will reduce the number, but never eliminate, the frivolous
questions that reduce the spread of the coaches “eye”.
As a goal I recommend that the coach attempts to view at least one of each athlete performing the core or assistant
power exercises during each workout. This will allow the coach to gauge the progress of every athlete they train. Make
a mental note or written note (after the session) of their progress in technique development.
Efficient personnel usage can also be managed by educating the athletes to the coaching process and by making them
spotters and loaders for their partners. Educating to the strength coaching process means writing or describing the key
coaching cues for each exercise. Thus the training partner provides feedback concerning performance to their partner
and uses a cue to reinforce aspects of performance. This concept is explained in more detail in Part 3 of the series.
INDIVIDULISING WEIGHT SELECTION
The appropriate load upon the barbell is an important variable for ensuring the most appropriate overload of athletes at
any given stage of training. Selecting the most appropriate load for any exercise for an individual is a difficult process
until more training and testing information has been gathered. From experience, when confronted by a large number of
athletes who have little or no strength training experience, the starting weights for the most common exercises can be
selected by using the percentage listed in Table 3. Consequently a starting weight for every exercise can be selected
for any individual who tests. These starting weight are then increased by 5kg per week for the multi-joint low body
exercises and 2.5kg for most of the upper body exercises. For upper body exercises which utilize smaller loads (e.g.
Curls), then the weight may be increased only every two weeks. Female athletes may experience smaller increases of
the order of 2.5kg per week for lower body exercises and 2.5kg every two weeks on the bench press.
For example, if a beginner athlete had a bench press 3RM of 60kg and is programmed to perform 2x15 in the first
workout, then the starting weight would be 40klg (60kg x 66% = 40kg). An intermediate who bench pressed 92.5kg for
a 3RM would be using 70kg for the first workout if performing sets of ten reps (92.5kg x 75% = 70kg).
It is essential that the coach ensure that these loads are manageable for the athlete so that the athlete does not train to
failure, especially in the first half of a training cycle. If the loads become too easy then it is far wiser to increase them
more towards the end of a cycle rather than at the beginning. This will ensure that there is a sharp rise in intensity near
the end of a cycle (a peaking of strength), as is discussed in Part 1. Thus during the last week of the training cycle the
athlete should be using loads that are virtually RM, so that their strength will peak in the following week. For beginners
and intermediates these loads are usually what the previous 3RM was. For example, a beginner may perform 3 x 6 at
65kg during week 8, with 65kg being the 3RM of the test performed eight weeks earlier.
Thus an effective method of selecting the load upon the barbell for the front squat, bench press and chin-up is to
ascertain the starting load, based upon the lead to the finishing load (e.g. 3 x 5), which should be the previous test
maximum. The loads for other exercises are proportionally increased.
STRENGTH LEVELS OF BEGINNER AND INTERMEDIATE ATHLETES
The strength levels of male and female beginner and intermediate level athletes are outlined in Table 4. Clearly strength
increases with chronological and training age.
By reviewing the normative data for different ages and training stages, a generalized picture of the strength
improvements can be gained. From experience beginners make between a 1.5-2% increase per week in upper body
strength for 6-12 weeks. Intermediates increase by about 1% per week for 8-12 weeks, a finding which is also reported
in numerous studies (Berger, 1962; Hakkinen and Komi, 1981; Stowers et al, 1983; Hakkinen, 1985; Gater et al, 1992;
Willoughby, 1993; Baker et al, 1994; Baker 1995b).

The lower body strength changes are much larger, circa 4% per week for beginners and about 1.5-2% per week for
intermediates over 6-10 weeks (see also the references listed above).
Outlined in Table 5 is an example of the progress of a group of athletes across two training cycles from beginner to
intermediate level. In the first eight weeks of training the increase of bench press strength is higher (14%), as must be
expected, then the following eight weeks (9%). The change in lower body strength is much higher, as compared to upper
body strength, in the initial cycle is associated with a more modest increase in lower body strength, similar to that of the
bench press. Thus across 16 weeks (two by 8 week training cycles) beginners can expect to improve bench press
strength by about 25% and front squat strength by about 45%. The rate of improvement diminishes with increased
training experience.
The data for the female athletes listed illustrates similar rates of progress of 19% in upper body strength and 43.9% in
lower body strength following two 8 week strength training cycles. One reason why upper body strength increases seem
to slowdown in for female athletes, may be that the smallest standard weight increment is 2.5 kg, a relative increase of
5% for the average female athlete bench press. This amount may be relatively to great for weekly or even fortnightly
load increments. It may be prudent to attempt to attain smaller weight plates (.25kg and .5kg) with female athletes so
that weekly increases in upper body training weights may be implemented. Very small weight increases are
physiologically and psychologically better than no increase at all.
By knowing the average rate of improvement gives the strength coach an advantage in planning what weights should
be upon the bar for an individual. Knowledge of these results can also stop "poundage phobia” that young athletes often
experience, whereby they believe they must be lifting huge poundages from the beginning of training.
CONCLUSION
The main problems facing Australian strength coaches when attempting to implement a strength training program
appear to concerned with time, equipment and personnel usage. Other problems appear to be with knowledge of testing
procedures and the realistic levels of strength of beginner and intermediate level athletes. This paper has put forward
methods for efficiently testing and training large groups of low level athletes. The level of strength at different ages and
stages of training has also been presented.
Table 1 - Procedures for testing strength in beginner and intermediate level athletes.
Beginner and intermediate level test battery 3RM bench press +

3RM chin-up +
3RM front squat
= Total strength (kg)
Female athlete test battery 3RM bench press +
3RM close grip pulldown/chin+
3RM back squat
Intermediate Level 3 and advanced test battery 1RM bench press+
1RM power clean+
1RM back squat
A) Beginner’s testing procedure for the first test (the trial & error approach)
20kg 40kg 50kg 60kg 65kg 67.5kg
6 reps 3 3 3 3 3
Successful 3RM = 67.5kg
B) Intermediate’s testing procedure (pinpoint or goal weight approach)
(previous 3RM = 92.5kg & finished the current training cycle with 3 x 5 @ 92.5kg. Therefore 3 RM goal for this test
= 100 kg
40kg 60 80 90 100
5 3 2 1 3
Successful 3RM = 100kg. If only 2.5 reps are performed with 100kg, then the 3RM = 97.5kg. If only 2 reps are
performed with 100kg then 3RM = 95kg

Table 2 - A method for ensuring efficient, time equipment and personnel usage by staggering the starting exercise and
the subsequent order of performance of exercises by different positional sub-groups in a junior rugby union team.
Exercise order by playing group

Day “A”
Order Tight Five Backrow + ½’s Outside back
Exercise # 1 2 3
2 3 1
3 1 2
4 5 7
5 7 4
6 4 5
7 6 6
Exercises are ordered in the program 1) Squat 2) Power shrug 3) Bench press 4) Military press 5) Chin/pull-downs
6) curl 7) abdominals
The athletes perform the order of exercises as described for their positional grouping. The isolation exercises of
either curls or abdominals are performed last. The sets, reps, lifting speed, load on the barbell and rest period are
prescribed on their individual programs
Table 3 - Selecting starting loads for individual athletes for different repetitions based upon percentages of the 3RM test
loads.
Exercise 15 reps 12 reps 10 reps 8 reps

(% of 3RM bench press test)
Bench Press 66% 70% 75% 80%
Narrow grip bench press 60% 66% 70% 75%
DB bench press 33% of the bench press starting weight
Close grip front pulldown 60% 66% 70% 75%
Wide grip pulldown behind 40% 45% 50% 55%
DB rows (1 arm) Same as DB bench press
Press behind neck 33% 40% 45% 50%
Military press in front 33% 40% 45% 50%
Upright rows 25% 30% 35% 40%
Curls 20% 22.5% 25% 27.5%
DB curls 50% of the weights used for barbell curls
Lying tricep ext. 20% 22.5% 25% 27.5%
(% of 3RM squat test)
Front squat 55% 60% 65% 70%
Squat 66% 70% 75% 80%
Power shrugs 40% 45% 50% 55%
Clean pull to waist 40% 45% 50% 55%
Step ups 25% 27.5% 30% 32.5%

Table 4 - Comparison of strength levels of beginner and intermediate level athletes* of different ages
3RM Bench Press 3RM Front Squat

Beginner Under 17 yrs
73.1 68.5
(n=88)
Intermediate Under 17 yrs

88.1 96.6
(n=31)
Intermediate Under 19 yrs 91.2 102.9
Intermediate Under 21 yrs 104.9 111.8
3RM Bench Press 3RM Full back squat

Female Rugby Union
(beginner strength trainers) 42.9 57.2
(n=21)
Female Rugby Union

(Intermediate strength trainers) 50.3 83.1
(n=17)
*Intermediate – Rugby union and rugby league players selected for representative squads or junior elite teams who
have completed at least two cycles of strength training
Table 5 - Progression in strength levels for beginner to intermediate level athletes training 3 days per week.
School boy 1st XV Rugby Union Players

(n=15)
Beginner training cycle Intermediate training cycle

( 8 weeks) (8 weeks)
Bench Press 3RM 72.6 82.6 90.5

14.0% 9.3%
24.7%
Front squat 3RM 68.3 88.9 98.6
30.2% 11.0%
44.4%

Volume 2 (2) 1994

The Principles of strength Training– Part 2 – Variation & Recovery.
Strength
And
Conditioning THE PRINCIPLES OF STRENGTH TRAINING PART 2: VARIATION & RECOVERY
Coach
Greg. J. Wilson PhD
Centre for Exercise Science & Sport Management

Southern Cross University, Lismore
ISSN 1324-8006
In the implementation of training to develop human physical capacities there are a number of fundamental training
principles which determine the response of the human system. These principles included:
• PROGRESSIVE
• OVERLOAD
• SPECIFICITY
• VARIATION
• RECOVERY
A thorough understanding of these principles is essential if effective sport specific resistance training routines are to be
developed. This two part article outlines the basis to the above principles and discusses their practical implications to
the development of resistance training routines. In the last issue I discussed the training principles of overload and
specificity. In this article the principles of variation and recovery are addressed.
VARIATION
The training principles of overload and specificity are well known and have been extensively researched over many
years. The principle of variation is a more recent concept and has been subjected to substantially less scientific scrutiny.
The principle relates to the fact that if the training stimulus is consistently presented to the body in exactly the same
way, its efficiency will diminish, the athletes will become stale and their training gains will be reduced (Poliquin 1988).
Variation in training regimes can be achieved by manipulating the following training variables.
• The number of repetitions performed per set

• The number of sets performed per body part or per workout
• The loads used
• The speed of performance of the exercise
• The rest interval between sets
• Exercises performed
• The order in which the exercises are performed
One of the most common training errors is the failure to regularly change the training stimulus. Too often individuals
will get into a routine and simply fail to modify it.
Periodization
The variation of the training stimulus performed in a systematic manner throughout a training cycle is referred to as
periodization and there are currently several popular methods in use.
Undulating Periodized Model

The undulating periodized model was advocated by Poliquin (1988) and in this system the athlete alternates between
the use of lighter loads performed for high numbers of repetitions, termed volume training, with periods of heavy training
where heavy loads are performed with few repetitions, termed intensity training. An athlete alternates every two or three
weeks between these phases in an effort to vary the training process. The volume phases are believed to increase
muscular hypertrophy, while the intensity phases are through to promote the neural adaptations to resistance training.
By alternating between these phases, optimal strength increases are believed to result. An example of an undulating
periodized training routine, used to maximize gain over a 12 week training period is outlined in Table 1.
The Linear Periodized Model

Another popular periodized form of resistance training was outlined by Stone et al. (1981) and is termed the linear
periodization model. This method involves a gradual progression from light loads and high volume, to heavy loads with

lower volume and greater intensity. This progression is thought to enhance muscular hypertrophy initially and towards
the end of the training cycle facilitates the neural mechanisms responsible for strength development. An example of
linear periodized training routine, used to maximize strength gain over a 12 week training period, is outlined in Table 2.
At the end of the twelve week training cycle the priodized programs can be repeated, hopefully commencing with greater
loads. These general periodized training routines may be further varied by altering the intensity of the training sessions
within the week as outlined in Table 3. Thus the linear model will involve a gradual progression towards higher loads
and lower repetitions on the heavy training day, however the light training day may involve relatively light loads
throughout the training cycle (Table 3).
Table 1 - Undulating periodised training routine Table 2 - Linear periodised training routine
Training week Sets x Repetitions* Training week Sets x Repetitions*

1-2 5 x 10 1-2 5 x 12
3-4 5x6 3-4 5 x 10
5-6 5x8 5-6 5x8
7-8 5x4 7-8 5x6
9-10 5x6 9-10 5x5
11-12 5x3 11-12 5x4
*The load used is the maximum possible so that *The load used is the maximum possible so that
only the nominated number of repetitions can be only the nominated number of repetitions can be
performed performed
Table 3 - Heavy-light linear periodised training routine
Training week Sets x Repetitions*

1-2 5 x 10 (Heavy) 5 x 12 (Light)
3-4 5 x 8 (Heavy) 5 x 10 (Light)
5-6 5 x 6 (Heavy) 5 x 10 (Light)
7-8 5 x 5 (Heavy) 5 x 8 (Light)
9-10 5 x 4 (Heavy) 5 x 8 (Light)
11-12 5 x 3 (Heavy) 5 x 6 (Light)
*The load used is the maximum possible so that only the
nominated number of repetitions can be performed
Comparison Between Periodized Models

In the recent study by Baker et al. (1994) the use of undulating and linear periodized models results in similar
improvements in strength over a 12 week training period, when experienced weight-trained individuals were used as
subjects. Such a result is not surprising and perhaps reflects the principle of variation. Given that a training routine
involves sufficient intensity and volume to overload the muscles, and includes variation to continually stimulate the
neuro-muscular system, the routine should be successful, regardless of the actual periodized model adopted.
RECOVERY
Muscle growth and adaptation occur between training sessions. Therefore, in order to allow training adaptations of
muscle to occur, adequate recovery is essential. As a general rule a recovery period of approximately 48 to 72 hours
should occur between intensive resistance training sessions of the same muscle, depending on the intensity of the
session, age of the individual and the type of contraction. Research has demonstrated that recovery from eccentric
muscular contractions is longer than from concentric contractions. Too little recovery time will result in reduced
performance and may also lead to injury.
One of the most common training errors is the failure to provide appropriate recovery between work-outs. For example,
many people will perform chest exercises such as the bench press, inclined bench press and dips on one day and
deltoid and triceps exercises on the following day. However, these chest exercises are multi-joint multi-muscle exercises
involving most of the upper body muscle groups. Therefore such a training program required the deltoids and triceps
brachii muscle groups to be trained on consecutive days. Consequently these muscle groups become overtrained and
maximal training gains will not be achieved. For many individuals who perform all their resistance training on the one
day and have a least one day’s rest between repeat sessions, the above represents no problem. However, when more

advanced training routines are adopted, which involve resistance training on consecutive days, then the organisation of
the training week becomes more complicated.
Split Routines
In essence, split routines are adopted when the resistance training session is of such a long duration that a high training
intensity cannot be maintained throughout the duration of the session. In such instances the work-out is partitioned into
smaller training sessions. Thus rather than performing a few large training sessions a week, the athlete performs many
smaller work-outs, at a higher training intensity.
To prevent overtraining when using split routines it is important to train all muscles which act together in the one training
session and have adequate recovery between these sessions. For this reason it is popular to perform split routines
where the upper body (pectorals, deltoids, latissimus dorsi, forearm musculature, biceps and triceps brachii) are trained
on one day and the low body musculature (quadriceps, hamstrings, calf group, erector spinae and the abdominals) are
trained on the next training occasion. Similarly push/pull type split routines are also popular, where all the muscles that
are involved in pushing movements (e.g. pectorals, deltoids, etc.) are trained in one session and those which pull (e.g.
latissimus dorsi, bicep brachii, etc.) in the next. Examples of split routines are outlined in Tables 4 and 5.
One problem that is often encountered when training muscle groups which act together in the same workout is that the
muscles trained towards the end of the session are subject to fatigue. For example, the fatigue accumulated from
exercising the pectorals may impede the training of the deltoid and triceps brachii muscles. In fact, this is often why
such similar acting muscle groups are trained on separate days, resulting in over-training. To prevent this problem the
muscle group just trained should be rested prior to the training of subsequent muscle groups which have similar actions.
For example, consider the athlete who has just trained the pectoral muscle group and wishes to train the deltoids in the
same session. If the deltoids are trained directly following the pectoral exercises then they will be fatigues and unable
to be trained at maximal intensity. To reduce this problem, prior to training the deltoids, one of the following strategies
may be used:
• An unrelated muscle group such as the calf group or the abdominal muscles may be trained
• The individual may perform some aerobic training such as riding a bike
• The individual may simply rest for 20 minutes
After this “rest period” the deltoids will have had time to at least partially recover and can be trained with greater intensity.
Table 4 - Example of a two way (upper body/lower Table 5 - Example of a three way split routine
body split routine
Monday & Tuesday & Friday Wednesday &

Monday to Thursday Wednesday to Saturday
Thursday Sunday
Pectorals Quadriceps Pectorals Latissimus Dorsi Quadriceps
Deltoids Hamstrings Deltoids Erector Spinae Hamstrings
Latissimus Dorsi Erector Spinae Triceps Brachii Biceps Brachii Calf Group
Forearm
Biceps Brachii Abdominals Abdominals
Musculature
Triceps Brachii Calf group
Forearm Musculature
CONCLUSION
This two part article has outlined the basis to the training principles of overload, specificity, variation and recovery and
discussed their practical implications to the development of resistance training routines. Whether developing a new
resistance training program or modifying an existing one, it is of fundamental importance to consider the above training
principles. These are the foundations upon which successful training programs are built. Consequently all training
programs should satisfy the below requirements:
• Overload the musculature to a level of intensity that induces positive adaptations to the neuromuscular system;
• Dominantly consist of exercises that are very specific to the competitive performance they are attempting to
enhance;
• Periodically vary the training stimulus; and
• Allow for adequate recovery of the musculature between exercise sessions

REFERENCES
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Sport Science Reviews Vol. 9, pp 1-73, Franklin Inst. Press, quadriceps exercises at different knee angles. Scandinavian
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2. Baker, D., Wilson, G.J. and Carlyon, B. (1994) Periodization: The 9. McLaughlin, T.M., Gillman, CJ. and Lardner, T.J. (1977) A kinetic
effect of manipulating volume and intensity upon strength. In press model of performance in the parallel squat by champion powerlifters.
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(1990) The influence of strength training on overhead throwing Association of Canada 8(8).
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and Medicine In Sport 22, 63-67. Korol (ed.) Strength and Power in Sport pp 249-265 Blackwell
4. Brylinsky, J., Moore, J.C. and Frosch M (1992) The effect of using Scientific Publications, Oxford.
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2406-2412.

Improving vertical jump performance: The application of general, special and specific strength training.
Proceedings of the 1994 National Coaching Council. 13-18.
IMPROVING VERTICAL JUMP PERFORMANCE:

THE APPLICATION OF GENERAL, SPECIAL AND SPECIFIC STRENGTH TRAINING
Daniel Baker
Daniel Baker, Southern Cross University, Lismore, NSW & Australian Institute of Sport (Diving), Brisbane.
ABSTRACT
Good vertical jump ability is a necessary requirement for successful performance in a number of sports. Vertical jump
scores can consequently distinguish between athletes of different levels as the normative data provided in this paper
will illustrate. The purpose of this paper is to firstly provide a theoretical rationale for a strength training program by
identifying the neuro-mechanical factors that affect jumping performance. Secondly a definition and examples of
general, special and specific strength training exercises that are used to improve jumping performance will be provided.
The role and application of these different exercises for athletes of different levels and sports will be discussed. Thirdly
the theoretical rationale and practical implementation of the different types of exercises into a longer term training plan
will be discussed. Current and future trends in programming to improve jump ability will also be examined. Examples of,
and results from, the training programs of Australian Institute of Sport diving, QLD Academy of Sport rugby union and
national league soccer and netball teams will be provided and discussed.
INTRODUCTION
Good vertical jump ability is a necessary requirement for successful performance in a number of sports. Vertical jump
scores can consequently be used to distinguish between athletes of different levels of achievement in sports such as
diving (Baker & Foley, 1994) (see Table 1) and volleyball where jumping ability appears critical to overall sport success,
through to American football. Thus the objective of implementing strength training to improve vertical jumping ability to
enhance overall sport performance would appear well founded.
The purpose of this paper is to firstly provide a theoretical rationale for a strength training program by identifying the
neuro-mechanical factors that affect jumping performance. Secondly a definition of, and rationale for, the use of general,
special and specific strength training exercises that are used to improve jumping performance will be provided. A review
of the relevant literature will attempt to determine the merits of the three classification of strength training exercises for
improving vertical jump. The role and application of these different exercises for athletes of different levels and sports
will be discussed. Thirdly the theoretical rationale and practical implementation of the different types of exercises into a
longer term training plan will be discussed.
Neuro-mechanical factors affecting jump performance

Vertical jump performance appears dependent upon the contractile properties of the muscle as well as the augmentation
to concentric work that occurs due to the stretch-shorten cycle (SSC) (Komi & Bosco, 1978). The performance of a
vertical jump preceded by a rapid stretch shorten cycle (SSC) is commonly called a countermovement jump (CMJ) as
opposed to a jump that is not immediately preceded by pre-stretch (a squat jump, SJ). These two measures of jump
ability have been used to distinguish between the contractile (SJ) and SSC (CMJ) contribution to jumping (Komi &
Bosco, 1978). A CMJ usually provides additional height to a VJ, over that of a SJ, presumably through the enhanced
use of elastic strain energy and the neural augmentation to the muscles. Therefore it can be rationalised that VJ
performance can be enhanced through a training of principally the contractile elements of the muscle or the efficiency
of the SSC. Table 2 provides some normative data taken from various studies indicating performance levels in a number
of athletes from different sports in SJ and CMJ jumping tests.
Whilst inter-individual variations affect the exact contributions of the relevant muscles, Hubley and Wells (1983) have
estimated that the knee, hip and ankle extensors contribute 49%, 28% and 23%, respectively to the work done during
a CMJ vertical jump. The contribution of arm-swing appears less stable, with figures ranging from 5-15%. It has been
argued that the exact contribution of arm-swing depends heavily on the skill of the jumper.
The total time for the CMJ may be in the order of 530-550 ms, with the concentric portion of the movement occupying
330-370 ms. In sport specific jumps such as diving take-offs, where a high skill component exists, this total jump time
may be higher principally due to a lengthened eccentric phase up to 350-450 ms. The vertical ground reaction forces
developed during a CMJ without arm-swing is of the order of 1700 N, which is reached within 370-400 ms. Consequently
vertical jumping is characterised by high force production within a limited time frame, a situation which distinguishes

jumping from "true" or maximal strength activities. This fundamental fact, that the high forces in jumping must be
produced by the lower body extensor muscle groups within a limited time frame of around 350 ms (concentric force
production period), provides the underlying rationale for the implementation of general, special and specific strength
training.
Theory of general, special and specific strength training
Exercises can be classified as general, special or specific (ASCA Level 1 Strength & Conditioning Coaching Course)
depending upon their intended effect upon the neuromuscular system.
General strength training exercises commonly used to improve VJ ability can be defined as those that increase the
general or maximal force producing capabilities of the relevant muscles. The exercises depicted in Table 3 illustrates
that all the exercises listed are typified by two main factors: foot contact with the ground and hip and knee extension (at
least) during the concentric portion of the exercise.
Special strength exercises can be defined as those exercises that are biomechanically more closely related to jumping
than the general exercises. It could be conceived that the special exercises have the role of converting strength to
power, the true requirement of jumping. Those special exercises in this instance are typified by more powerful execution
than the typical general strength exercises (Garhammer & McLaughlin, 1983; Wilson et al., 1993; Garhammer, 1994),
rapid hip, knee and ankle extension, similar time periods for force production and possibly loss of foot contact with the
floor.
Specific strength exercises used to improve VJ ability are various jumping exercises that are similar in specific patterns
of motor unit recruitment, temporal sequencing and firing frequency to allow for a "transfer" to sport specific jumping
(Bosco, 1985).
Review of strength training and jumping literature
The effect of various resistance training programs upon vertical jump performance has been extensively researched
(Stone et al., 1981; Stowers et al., 1983; Baker et al., 1994a). Whilst earlier research tended to focus upon whether
resistance training did or did not affect VJ ability, more recent research has attempted to identify the type of resistance
training or program that was most effective in improving VJ (Berger, 1963; Hakkinen & Komi, 1985a; Hakkinen & Komi,
1985b; Adams et al., 1992; Wilson et al.1993). The focus of this more recent research would appear to be attempting
to determine the mechanism(s) via which VJ is improved and how these mechanisms are effected by strength training
variables. It may be theorised that general strength training aims to improve the VJ ability predominantly via improving
the contractile capabilities of the muscle, specific strength training via more efficient utilisation of the stretch reflex and
the use of elastic energy and special strength training via a combination of both the contractile and stretch-shorten cycle
mechanisms.
Both periodised and non-periodised general strength training appear equally effective in improving VJ when squats and
clean pulls are performed (Stone et al., 1981; Stowers et al., 1983; Baker et al., 1994b). However research comparing
general strength training utilising squats compared with the effects of other general strength training exercises such as
Hydra-gym squats (Bauer et al., 1990), or leg presses (Sylvester et al.1982 ) has illustrated that squat training is more
effective in improving VJ than other general leg strength exercises. If strength training is of a general isometric nature,
then the transfer to jumping also appears limited compared to general dynamic training (Berger, 1963; O'Shea & O'Shea,
1989). Certainly isometric strength or rate of force development measures do not correlate well with VJ ability (Young
& Bilby, 1993; Baker et al.1994a). Baker et al. (1994a) have postulated that these differences between isometric strength
and VJ would be due to the significantly different structural, neural and mechanical attributes of the two activities.
This may indicate that even in general strength training certain exercises appear more "specific" to improving VJ than
other exercises. The biomechanics of the squat and the Olympic pulling type exercises may lend themselves more
readily to a "transfer" to jumping (Andrews et al., 1983; Burkhardt & Garhammer, 1988; Garhammer & Gregor, 1992).
Training intensity and volume variations within general squat training do not appear to affect VJ (Stone et al., 1981;
Stowers et al., 1983; Baker et al., 1994b) and the degree of general strength gained through squat training does not
appear to affect the degree of change in VJ. In fact Baker et al. (1994b) reported that the relationship between the 1 RM
squat and VJ were non-significant (r = 0.051) and that the changes in performance in both measures consequent to
training was also non-significant ( r =.11). Furthermore Alen et al. (1984) reported no change in jumping ability following
24 weeks of heavy squat training in elite strength athletes, despite a large improvement in 1RM squat strength. In the
other studies listed above the subjects were low or intermediate level strength athletes, compared to the subjects of
Alen et al. (1984). Consequently whilst general strength training has been associated with improved VJ, the
improvement in VJ may due to the strength training process per se, not the degree of change in maximal strength and
in elite strength athlete’s general strength training may not lead to positive changes in VJ. Thus there may appear to

be a ceiling of effectiveness for the use of general strength training in improving VJ in elite strength athletes. Other
mechanisms besides general or maximal leg strength must contribute to VJ ability.
The search for more effective means of improving VJ has led researchers to compare other methods of resistance
training which may be defined as special (barbell squat jumps, cleans, snatches etc) and specific (plyometric jump
training) strength training. Early research (Berger, 1963) reported that special strength training, utilising squat jumps,
was more effective than either general or specific strength training in improving VJ. As part of a wider investigation,
Hakkinen & Komi (1985a) reported that general strength training, using heavy squats, resulted in a 10.6% and 7.3%
improvement in CMJ and SJ, respectively. However, a combination of special (jump squats with up to 100 kg) and
specific (plyometric jump) strength training resulted in improvements of 17.5% and 21.2% in CMJ and SJ respectively
(Hakkinen & Komi, 1985b). In a classical study attempting to discriminate between the effectiveness of the three different
strength training methods, Wilson et al. (1993) compared general (squats), special (jump squats with an optimal power
load) and specific (plyometric depth jumps) strength training. The special strength training resulted in a 17.6% and
15.2% improvement in CMJ and SJ which was superior to the 5.1% and 6.8% for the general strength training group
and the 7.2% for the SJ for the specific training group. The specific training group reported a similar improvement in
CMJ as compared to the special training group. In an unpublished report Baker (1994b) illustrated that the degree of
improvement in a special strength optimal power jump squat accounted for 78% of the change in a specific vertical jump
test. However the subjects in this case study performed general and specific strength exercises as well as the special
strength jump squats.
The above research and observations would tend to favour the use of special strength training in the improvement of
VJ, however theoretically the use of combined general strength and specific strength may bring similar results by
predominantly training the contractile and stretch-shorten cycle elements relatively independantly. A number of studies
have compared the use of general, specific and combined methods (eg. general-specific strength training) in improving
VJ. Adams et al. (1992) reported equal improvements in VJ comparing general (squat) and specific (plyometric jump)
training as did Clutch et al. (1983). However the combined training group in Adams et al. (1992) experienced an
improvement of twice the magnitude of either single method training groups lending support to the theory of improving
VJ through enhancing both the contractile and stretch reflex properties of the muscle as opposed to unidirectional
training. In a unique approach Venable et al. (1991) compared general strength training (squats) to a combined method
of squats and electrical stimulation. Both methods resulted in an equal improvement in VJ. Bauer et al. (1990) reported
similar improvements between general (squat), combined (squat & plyometrics) and combined (Hydragym &
plyometrics) training which were all more effective than either specific training (plyometrics) or Hydragym general
training alone. These studies probably best illustrate the need for either combined training, or at least, squat training for
low level strength athletes who need to improve VJ.
In opposition to the above results, Verhoshanski & Tatyan (1983) reported that a more intense form of specific strength
training (depth jumps) was more effective in improving VJ than the combined use of general strength and specific
(vertical jumps) in experienced speed-strength athletes. Because of the nature of the depth jump, the foot contact time
is less than for a normal VJ, resulting in an increased emphasis upon the speed of the contraction and the utilisation of
elastic energy, which decays exponentially as a function of the length of the pasue between the eccentric and concentric
phases (Wilson et al., 1991b). It may be theorised that the experienced speed-strength athletes involved in this study
possessed an adequate general strength base and that the faster depth jump execution lead to a greater improvement
in jumping performance via the enhanced use of elastic energy and the neural augmentation to the concentric phase of
the movement (Wilson et al., 1991a).
The studies cited above, whilst apparently revealing certain anomalies, indicate that various forms of resistance training
act to improve VJ ability perhaps through different mechanisms. For low level athletes general strength training is
associated with reasonably large improvements in VJ. It may be theorised that the role of general strength training is to
initially condition the neuro-muscular system to the high level of forces (e.g. 3-5 times body weight) that occur with
jumping. However the degree of change in maximal strength is unrelated to the degree of change in VJ and in elite
strength athletes general strength training such as in heavy squats may not lead to any further positive adaptation in
jumping ability.
Where adequate levels of general strength exist, a more efficient usage of the stretch reflex and elastic energy, brought
about through special and specific strength training, may offer a more appropriate training stimulus. In this regards
special strength training, such as in jump squats, have appeared to be the most effective form of training. In the study
of Wilson et al. (1993) the special strength jump squats appeared to be offer the best single method of training.
Nonetheless a combination of methods (general, special and specific) would theoretically lend themselves to a greater
transfer of effects through theoretically enhancing the contractile and stretch reflex/elastic properties of the muscle.
Special attention must also be paid to the specific patterns of motor unit recruitment, temporal sequencing and firing
frequency when performing specific plyometric jump training to allow for a "transfer" to sport specific jumping (Bosco,
1985). In support of this theory recent work by Bobbert & Van Soest (1994) suggests that an increase in strength alone

may actually retard VJ ability if the ability to "control" the new levels of force has not been improved. These researchers
constructed a VJ "model", based upon elite volleyball players, and examined the effects of equal improvements in
strength in the various lower body muscles, with and without enhanced neural control (temporal sequencing and specific
patterns of motor unit recruitment). Their results suggested that a 20% increase in VJ would translate to an improvement
of 7.8 cm in VJ if optimization of jumping skill also took place. The same increase in strength would lead to a decrement
of 2 cm if the neural control of the new levels of force production were not optimised to the jumping skill. The conclusions
of these authors were that "muscle training exercises should be accompanied by exercises in which the athletes may
practice with their changed muscle properties." In effect this lends support to the use of general strength training to
increase the strength of the muscles and special and specific training to "fine tune" the control of the jumping muscles.
The nature of the sport, the training age of the athlete, the periodisation of the training year and the needs of the
individual may all dictate what combination of strength training exercises is most appropriate at any given moment (King,
1993). The difficult task for the strength & conditioning coach may be to decide the exact manipulation of training
variables for an athlete, given the complexities of the training process and the number of training variables open to
variation (King, 1993; Baker, 1994a).
GENERAL
The role of the general exercises is to provide a general strength/power base to low level athletes or to athletes returning
to resistance training after some cessation in training or sport peak. In low level athletes general strength training
exercises in themselves bring about some adaptations that cause an increase in vertical jumping ability. However after
some period of training adaptation the effectiveness of these exercises to improve jumping ability by themselves appears
diminished. Accordingly whilst squat training is often associated with jumping improvements in low level athletes,
continuing incessantly with squat training may not bring about further jump improvements.
Consequently incessantly increasing general strength may not lead to an adaptation of improved jumping. This may be
due to the existence of much greater time frames for force production (concentric) in the execution of the squat as
compared to the VJ (2-4 s vs 350 ms), as well as other neuromechanical factors. Therefore after the initial general
strength training adaptations that increase the ability to produce force, the VJ may require training on exercises that
produce force in similar time frames (special and specific exercises) to precipitate further jumping improvements.
Below is a list of general strength exercises that are used to improve jumping ability. Importantly even this general
strength training exercise list contains exercises thought to be more "specific" to improving jumping than other exercises
(squat vs leg press or leg extension).
Squat: The squat is considered a good general strength exercise for the lower body and by itself will bring about gains
in vertical jumping ability in novice and intermediate level athletes. It may do this by facilitating certain neural adaptations,
such as increased neural activation of the jumping muscles and reduced inhibition to high force production as well as
through morphological adaptations to the muscle fibre.
Front squat: The front squat acts similarly to the squat, but due to reduced forward torso lean, there is less action
performed by the hip extensors (hamstring and gluteals).
Split squat: The split squat enables force production with the legs apart, a situation athletes often find themselves in
during competitive situations or when they are jumping after an initial run-in.
Power shrugs with a very slow eccentric dip to the knee: A modified power shrug, characterised by a very slow eccentric
lowering of the barbell to the knee before a more explosive concentric contraction, is a useful general strengthener of
the hip extensors. Furthermore it also allows for the use of a rapid combined hip & knee extension within the concentric
movement, a situation biomechanically similar to jumping.
SPECIAL EXERCISES
The role of the special exercises is to further facilitate adaptions that may enhance vertical jumping. They may do this
by a number of methods such as being similar in the mechanics of force production, similar in the times for force
production and similar in the use of the relevant muscles. Furthermore the special exercises may be manipulated to
facilitate certain special adaptations that can be used to make the more "specific" training more effective.
Essentially the role of the special exercises may be seen as converting the general strength more into "power", the true
requirement of jumping. Thus the special exercises are characterized by a more rapid or explosive execution than as
compared to the general strength exercises. Because traditional or general strength exercises have extended periods
of deceleration, even with light weights lifted rapidly, the general or traditional exercises are considered less effective

for improving jumping. Below is a list of the more power oriented exercises that are used to improve VJ ability. Some
are modified jumping exercises and others are from Olympic style weightlifting.
Jump squats: Jump squats with a barbell held firmly upon the shoulders is an excellent way to transfer general strength
to general jumping power. Experience has shown it is probably safer and generally better to perform the jumps in a
Smith machine so that only vertical displacement is allowed. A normal barbell may cause extraneous lateral or forward
movement in less strong or experienced jumpers. There are two basic variations for this exercise in so far as the loads
used.
a) Optimal power jumping: The optimal power load that can be jumped with can be determined by recent advances in
plyometric training technology such as the Plyopower training system or the Record Time software linked to a timing
mat. Loads upon the bar are gradually increased till the measured power output plateaus and/or declines. The load
upon the bar that brought about the highest jumping power is designated as the "optimal power" load (W ilson et al.,
1993). Training can then be performed with this load, with regular modifications to ensure the load has remained
"optimal".
b) Variable load jumping: Because the loads for optimal power training can be as high as 50-60 kg, it is often initially
more prudent to introduce jump squats with less "optimal" loads. Also for some athletes jumping may be
characterized by larger or lesser external resistances to be overcome and therefore training periods with more
variable loads may be warranted. The foot contact times may also be used to determine the load upon the bar during
jump squats, as the optimal load may cause a major increase in the foot contact time, essentially decreasing the
"special" nature of the exercise.
Power shrug jumps: The performance for this exercise is similar to that of the power shrug above, however the eccentric
lowering is faster (the same as during jumping) and the athlete extends up into a jump. Power cleans/snatchs/pulls:
Force plate analysis has shown the biomechanics of the power clean and VJ are similar, especially the thrust portion of
the clean from the top of the knee to top pull position. The concentric force production time in this period of the two
exercises is also of a similar length. Consequently the power clean is seen to be an exercise that has a good cross-over
to the VJ.
Push press: The push press has a special effect for jumping because it combines rapid knee extension with shoulder
flexion, a situation similar to jumping. Importantly the knees dip to a similar range as during jumping and are
consequently rapidly extended. Very explosive athletes may actually leave the floor slightly when performing this
exercise with light weights.
SPECIFIC STRENGTH TRAINING
Whilst the role of special strength training is often seen to be that of "converting" strength into power, the role of specific
strength exercises is thought to be to further convert power into the actual specific jumping requirements of the sport.
For example, an increase in maximal squat jumping power will not transfer 100% across a sport specific VJ. However
combined with some specific jump training, the increase in jumping power may transfer across to a sport specific VJ by
as much as 78% (Baker, 1994, unpublished report to QAS Rugby on the effectiveness of strength/power training for
line-out jumpers.)
Consequently the specific strength training exercises should be seen as the last step in the training cycle that allows
the athlete to fine tune the strength/power gains into the specific jumping motor pattern necessary for that sport. Below
is a list of specific strength training exercises. Whilst all are modified jumping exercises, it is important to note the
methods of overloading involved. Overloading to create a training effect may be induced by the volume of jumps, the
height from which the jumps occur (depth jumps) or the addition of extra loads strapped to the waist of the jumper (scuba
diving weight belt or a weight vest).
Loaded jumps mimicking the actual sport performance: The most specific form of jump training is to apply additional
load to the athlete (via a weighted vest or scuba diving weight belt) and have them perform the exact technique of the
jump as it occurs in the athletes sport. For example, a rugby player can perform a line-out jump wearing a scuba divers
weight belt with 8kg of lead weights attached. A diver can perform a simulated take-off for a standing back take-off from
the board in the gym wearing the diving belt to provide additional overload. Care must be taken not to apply to great an
overload for these specific strength exercises as excessive loading alters the biomechanics of the exercise considerably,
altering the specific nature of the exercise. From experience 1-10 kg is the range of loading that appears to work best.
The use of the Record Time computerised jump height measuring system is also very valuable in providing feedback
and training data during this type of specific strength training.
Plyometric jump training using the volume of jumps as overload: The performance of jumping exercises similar to the
sport performance jump is a popular method of jumping overload. In most instances the overload is provided by the

volume of the activity such that 10 basketball rebound type jumps provides a training effect but 1 jump may not provide
sufficient training stimulus.
Depth jumps: A depth jump off a box that consequently entails jumping upwards for a ball is a very specific jumping
exercise for a number of ball or court sports. The overload is provided by the additional load that occurs when landing
from heights.
Practical application of general, special and specific strength training exercises into the overall training plan.
Whilst all the exercises above may contribute to improved jumping, an increase in maximal strength itself may
not directly correlate to an increase in jumping height. In fact Baker et al. (1994) observed an insignificant correlation
of r= .11 between increased maximal squat strength and increased vertical jump height after 12 weeks of squat training.
However in this study the vertical jump performance was significantly improved by the strength training process, but not
by the absolute increase in squat strength itself.
Therefore a strength coach must not believe that an increase in squat or leg strength will necessarily transfer to improved
jumping. The transfer of the effects of general strength training may be spurious at best. An increase in jumping height
may occur through the strength training process, which brings about neural disinhibition and other neural adaptations,
but a very large increase in maximal strength does not necessarily equate to a very large increase in jumping height.
Consequently it would appear necessary to proceed beyond the usual fare of general strength exercises into the special
and specific strength exercises. This may be especially the case with more advanced athletes or those already quite
experienced in strength training.
Conceptually, there would appear to be a continuum of exercises for the use in strength training for jumping, proceeding
from general to special to specific. Below is a simple continuum that explains the practical progression in the application
of general, special and specific strength training.
GENERAL SPECIAL SPECIFIC

Squats------------------------------------------------------Jump squats----------------------------------Specific loaded jumps 10 reps
3-4 reps light optimal power heavier lighter
(light) (heavy) (e.g. 20kg) (40-60 kg) (5-10 kg) (1-5 kg)
Whilst the above training continuum displays an example of training progression, it does not indicate the intricacies of
programming to achieve the desired result of improved jumping. A few general hints on the practical implementation of
the exercise classifications would be:
1. Light, high repetition, slow speed squats before heavier, low repetition faster speed squats.
2. Lighter jumping squat loads before optimal power loads. This is because most athletes show great reluctance to
jump with anything but the lightest loads initially and probably with good reasoning. Force plate analysis has shown
that even light jumping loads produce the same force output from the muscles as do 1RM squats. Therefore this type
of exercise is very intense, irrespective of the magnitude of the load, and great prudence is necessary in its
introduction to training as the athlete must be very strong to be able to handle the high forces that are produced so
rapidly.
3. Use light loads (1-5 kg for most athletes) for the specific loaded jump exercises. Larger loads tend to alter the
biomechanics of the jump, reducing the "specificity" of the specific strength exercise.
4. The use of contrasting exercises and loads has been shown to influence VJ height (Baker, 1994). These methods
are characterised by the alternating of exercises or loads that are in stark contrast to each other. For example Baker
(1994) reported using an alternating of heavy squats and lighter squat jumps to improve the VJ ability of elite divers.
He observed that on some occasions the best squat jump from the second set of jumps could be as much as 17%
higher than that of the first set if a heavy squat set was performed in between. The reason provided for such
occurrences is that the heavy load, be it in the form of heavy jumps or heavy squats, may provide an additional
neural stimulus such that the lighter jumps "feel much lighter" after the completion of a heavy load set. Whilst the
exact mechanism by which VJ may be improved after a heavy contrasting load is not be fully understood, the
effectiveness of this form of training would appear to warrant further research.
Table 3 illustrates the exact manipulation of general, special and specific strength exercises from the training of an elite
male diver, experienced in strength/power training and plyometric jump training, from the AIS. Prior to training the height
of the diver's standing back take-off jump was 51.7 cm. After the completion of this training cycle the standing back take-
off jump height was 61.1 cm. The table details the weekly progress in general strength (back squats, later changing to
front squats), special strength (the jumping load and power output, in watts, of the jump squats) and specific strength

(loaded jumps and the best height attained during a set of loaded jumps). The subtle progress in general, special and
specific strength can clearly be seen across the two 3-week mesocycles.
Diagnosis of jumping and its relevance to strength programming.

The contribution of the contractile elements and stretch-shorten elements to jumping (see Table 2) may be used as a
diagnostic tool for prescribing individual training when programming to improve VJ. If the difference between the SJ and
the CMJ are small (<10%) than this may indicate inefficient use of the ssc. If the differences are large (>20%) than this
may indicate that jumping may be improved by a greater training emphasis upon the contractile elements of the muscles.
In the above scenarios, greater emphasis would be placed upon the special and specific strength exercises for the case
of the former and upon the general exercises in the case of the latter. Well trained jumpers tend to display differences
of 15-20% between SJ and CMJ measures (see the volleyball players and divers in Table 2). Such a diagnosis may
provide more objective data about the effects of strength training on jumping for both the athlete and the coach.
CONCLUSION
A rationale for the prescription of general, special and specific strength training to improve vertical jumping ability has
been provided. This rationale is based upon the neuromechanical factors influencing jump performance and how these
factors may be affected by different exercises and training variable manipulations. A program used by an elite jump
athlete was also provided to illustrate the exact manipulation of such training over a short term training cycle.
Table 1 - Jump and reach scores for different athletes (cm). *
Weight trained athletes 49.7

Strength trained athletes 53.3
Elite male divers 63.8

Sub-elite male divers 59.3
Elite female divers 51.0

Sub-elite female divers 44.5
*Data collected by author
Table 2 - Normative jumping data for different athletes.
Group CMJ SJ
Phys. Ed males* 40.3 35.5
Phys. Ed females* 23.3 19.2
Volley ball (M)* 43.4 37.2
Untrained males** 29.1 27.4
National league netball*** 32.5 30.2
Elite male divers*** 42.1 33.6
*From Komi & Bosco (1978) **From Harman et al. (1990) ***Data collected by author
Table 3 - General strength training exercises used to improve VJ.
Squats
Front squats
Split squats
Power shrug with very slow eccentric dip to the knee

Table 4 - Special training exercises used to improve VJ.
Jump squats
a) Optimal power jumping
b) Variable load jumping
Power shrug jumps
Power cleans/snatchs/pulls
Push press
Table 5 - Specific strength training exercises used to improve VJ.
Loaded jumps mimicking the actual sports performance

Plyometric jump training using the volume of jumps as overload
Depth jumps
Table 6 - Strength training program of an AIS diver over a 6 week macrocycle.
Wks 1 2 3
General: B. Sq. 3 x 8 / 60 kg 3 x 8 / 70 kg 3 x 6 / 80kg
3 x 8 / 35 kg 3 x 8 / 40 kg 3 x 6 / 38kg
Special: Jump sq.
* (1428 w) (1748w)
3 x 8 / 2.5 kg 3 x 6 / 3.75kg
Specific: Jumps 3 x 8 / 0 kg
(47.5 cm) (47.7 cm)
Wks 4 5 6
General: B. Sq. 3 x 8 / 7kg **F. sq. 3 x 6 /60 kg **F. sq. 3 x 6 /65kg
3 x 8 / 35kg 3 x 6 / 45kg 3 x 6 / 42.5 kg

Special: Jump sq.
(1661 w) (1691 w) (1700 w)
3 x 8 / 5 kg 3 x 6 / 5 kg 3 x 6 / 5 kg
Specific: Jumps
(47.8cm) (50.4cm) (51.6cm)
*Jumping power data was not collected during this week
**Squats changed to front squats from this week
Definition of and rationale for types of strength training exercises relevant to improving VJ.
General strength
Exercises that increase the general or maximal force producing capabilities of the relevant muscles.
Special strength
Exercises that have the special effect of training to convert “general strength” to the special qualities of power as relevant
to jumping.

Specific strength
Exercises that specific as possible in terms of biomechanics, motor unit recruitment, temporal patterning and firing
frequency, to the actual competitive jumping performance.
Strength training continuum
GENERAL SPECIAL SPECIFIC

Squats Jump squats Specific loaded jumps
10 reps 3 – 5 reps Light optimal power Heavier lighter
(light) (heavy) (e.g. 20kg) (40-60kg) (5-10kg) (1-5kg)
General recommendations in using the strength training continuum
1. Light, high repetition, slow speed squats before heavier, low repetition or faster speed squats.
2. Light jumping squat loads before optimal power loads.
3. Use light loads (1-5 kg for most athletes) for the specific loaded jump exercises.
4. The use of contrasting exercises and loads has been shown to influence VJ height
Additional Resources
- ASCA LEVEL 1 COURSE BASIC STRENGTH AND POWER EXERCISES AND VARIATIONS PHOTOS AND
TABLES
- ASCA LEVEL 1 COURSE LIFTS AND VARIATIONS TECHNIQUE AND INFORMATION VIDEO RESOURCE
Suggested additional ASCA DVD for purchase
TRAIN FOR SPORT: AN ASSESSMENT METHOD FOR STRENGTH AND POWER OF

THE LOWER BODY.
T.Doyle and J. Sheppard.
Further information can be found from the following link:

Train for Sport DVD
HOW TO USE BANDS AND CHAINS.
D. Baker.
Further information can be found from the following link:

How to Use Bands and Chains DVD

For additional articles and resources for strength training programs for specific sports please search the ASCA
Publications and DVD Library.



















Additional Reading
Agility drills for basketball: Review and practical applications.
From The Field: Directed Topic

AGILITY DRILLS FOR BASKETBALL: REVIEW AND PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
Adam J. Safaric, BExSc(Rehab)1,2

Stephen P. Bird, PhD, CSCS AEP RNutr 1,2
1School of Human Movement, Studies, Charles Sturt University, Bathurst NSW, Australia.
2Strength and Conditioning Internship Program, Western Region Academy of Sport, Bathurst
NSW, Australia
INTRODUCTION
The physiological demands of basketball include aerobic and anaerobic energy utilisation, and integrates physical
characteristics including muscular strength, power, endurance, flexibility, speed, agility and skill (22). Players frequently
change direction throughout the duration of the game which contributes to much of the intensity imposed (9). Research
(4) suggests that per game average, elite basketball players execute 50-60 changes in direction and speed transitions
in addition to 40-60 maximal jump efforts. When looking at developing key characteristics of speed and agility, such as
acceleration and explosiveness, the anaerobic energy system is most dominate whilst performing such movements (22).
Therefore, basketball appears to be more dependent upon anaerobic power, in contrast to aerobic capacity (16). The
need for speed and agility training in basketball is essential, with current practices of National Basketball Association
(NBA) strength and conditioning (S&C) coaches suggesting that agility training complements the development of speed
(20). Additionally, change of direction (COD) activities are also outlined as a means of injury prevention and
prehabilitation (20). The rationale behind this philosophy relates to the concept of ‘movement rehearsal’, which is
commonly integrated into contemporary prehabilitation programs for the purpose of lowering injury risk, especially
targeting the ankle (2, 8, 14). The NBA S&C review (20) reports that the majority of NBA S&C coaches (70%) train
athletes for agility, revealing the importance of training this component. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to (i)
outline practical coaching strategies for training basketball-specific agility drills; and (ii) present coaches with video
examples of a combination of conventional agility and reactive agility drills currently used in the Western Region
Academy of Sport pre-elite youth basketball program.
DEFINING AGILITY
A recent definition of ‘agility’ by Oliver and Meyers (15) relates specifically to an athlete’s ability to efficiently change
direction, referred to as ‘planned agility’. This suggests that COD requires athletes to possess movement pattern
awareness. With this in mind, training ‘reactive agility’ moves away from drills using cones and markers that
predetermine COD, toward drills utilising varied stimuli including lights, sounds, and/or visual cues. For the purpose of
this article, the term reactive agility is defined as the propensity to which an athlete can react to a stimuli and is capable
of consistently changing direction for the purpose of efficiently making a play in their favour (7, 23). As agility is
categorised as a motor skill (12), therefore execution is predetermined by familiarity and training. The ‘reaction’
component of agility differentiates those athletes who possess greater perceptual characteristics (23). Recently, Gabbett
and colleagues (10) provided agility classifications based on both the physical and perceptual characteristics that make
up effective agility performance (Figure 1), thus exemplifying the interaction between speed, strength, and change of
direction and perceptual decision-making abilities.
Figure 1 - Agility classifications based on effective agility performance. Both physical (linear speed, strength, change of
direction speed) and perceptual/decision-making are essential characteristics. Adapted from Gabbett et al. (10).

COACHING STRATEGIES
Program Design
The amount of time dedicated to each drill is dependent upon the number of athletes, the goals of the session, and the
length of time dedicated to the entire session. When implementing drills into a training program, athletes must be
categorised and progressed upon their level of development, with general athlete classifications being novice,
intermediate, advanced (17). S&C coaches may initially employ planned agility drills because of their simplicity, and
eventually progress to reactive based drills, as athletes progress through intermediate to advanced stages. Using the
novice, intermediate, and advanced athlete classification, coaches are able to implement appropriate training loads into
an athlete’s program. As a general agility prescription rule the authors recommend sessions of no greater than 500
metres (excluding warm-up) in total distance covered. The novice stage involves basic skill acquisition and learning
proper exercise mechanics (3, 6). As the athlete progresses into the intermediate and advanced levels, there is
emphasis on perfection of exercise execution along with higher intensity and faster movements. It must be noted, that
training frequency will vary depending upon the training phase. Table 1 presents training goals and variables for training
agility as well as athlete progressions.
Table 1 - Agility training variables for novice, intermediate, and advanced athletes.
Athlete Type Training Goal Frequency Volume Intensity Rest

Novice Movement
1-2 days per High (500 m) Low
awareness; 1:6-8
week 8-10 drills (40-50% ME)
Correct mechanics
Intermediate Technical
performance; 2-3 days per Moderate (400 Moderate
1:8-10
Exercise mastery; week m) 6-8 drills (50-80% ME)
Reinforcement.
Advanced Sport-specific
movements;
Low (300 m) High
Complex exercises 3+ days per week 1:10-12
6 drills (80-100% ME)
linking movement
actions.
Abbreviations: ME = maximum effort; m = total session metres (excluding warm-up).
Rest Periods
Sufficient rest periods for maximal effort per repetition should be a product of drill displacement and approximate
duration. For short bouts with 15 metre displacement, a work-rest ratio of 1:10 is adequate (1). As most basketball-
specific agility drills are greater in distance (25-50 m) it is suggested that the work-rest ratio must increase to 1:12 (1)
for adequate performance recovery. For example, a drill that has a total displacement of 30 metres that is completed in
a time of 10 seconds, a rest period of 120 seconds is prescribed for full recovery of the anaerobic system during this
particular drill. However, speed can still be developed when these rest periods are shorter, although performance may
decline (1).
Training Phase
The current training phase impacts the training variables including volume, intensity, and rest (Table 2). Bompa and
Carrera (5) categorise the training phases into pre-competition, competition, and post-competition. Training variables
are adapted within these phases in order to promote athletic performance, provide a tapering effect, and decrease
athlete fatigue during transition through the training phases. For example, when an athlete transitions from pre-
completion to the competition phase, it is appropriate to decrease training volume while increasing intensity to maximise
the transfer of training effect (6).

Table 2 - Agility training variables for various training phases.
Training
Phase Frequency Volume Intensity Rest
period
Low (300 m) Moderate
Preparatory General preparation 2 days per week 1:8-10
6 drills (50-80% ME)
High (500 m) Low
Specific preparation 3 days per week 1:6-8
8-10 drills (40-50% ME)
Moderate (400 m) High
Competition Pre Competition 3+ days per week 1:10-12
6-8 drills (80-100% ME)
Moderate (400 m) Moderate
Competition 2-3 days per week 1:8-10
6-8 drills (50-80% ME)
Low (300 m) Low-Moderate
Transition Transition 2 days per week 1:6-8
6 drills (40-80% ME)
Abbreviations: ME = maximum effort; m = total session metres (excluding warm-up).
Youth Athletes
When working with youth athletes, particularly those between the ages 7-11, agility drills must be perceived to be fun
and competitive in order to attain strong participation (18). Research suggests that intrinsic motivation is attributed to
new skill acquisition, physical activeness, winning orientation and extrinsic rewards (11). Therefore, for youth athletes
program design should emphasize skill development, especially for those just commencing training. Aligning goals and
interests is important when considering participation among youth age groups. Agility drills are designed using
movement patterns integrating walking, running, COD, jumping and landing techniques (21). Each movement patterns
is applicable to the agility goals of the athlete. As such, the athlete should see the relationship between the drill, training
goal, and improving athletic performance.
BASKETBALL-SPECIFIC AGILITY DRILLS
Agility training for basketball is aimed at developing an athlete’s movement potential with and without the ball. The agility
program primarily utilises competitive drills that target three distinct movement patterns and speed transitions, such as
straight-line sprinting, backpedalling, and defensive sliding. These drills are broken into reactive agility drills and
conventional agility drills. The aim of such drills is to emphasise the competitive component and encourage athletes to
perform maximal efforts in an attempt to win. Normative data and for youth basketball athletes and drill distance are
presented in Table 3 (See page 31).
Reactive Agility Drills

Reactive drills offer participants a means of training with minimal familiarisation. Young and Farrow (23) define the goal
of reactive agility training as becoming a skilled decision maker. The application of reactive agility drills is aimed at
developing cognitive abilities related to decision making, reacting to surrounding players, and are frequently executed
under simulated game play conditions. Reactive agility commonly involves a stimulus for the COD; however, it is not
always sports-specific. Creating a sports-specific stimulus for reactive agility provides a more realistic perceptual
component for training (15). Basketball-specific stimuli include the sound of a ball bouncing, receiving a pass, or the
action of neighbouring participants; all of which can be used by S&C coaches creatively. To maximise the training effect
it is essential to ensure agility training is arranged in a context specific manner (13). As suggested by Jeffreys (13), the
framework of reactive agility in terms of sports specific training can therefore be varied through modifying velocity,
stimuli, precision, and anticipation components among physical skill requirements. The following reactive agility drills
(figures/video clips 2 to 5) are presented with video footage of examples the authors currently use with pre-elite youth
basketball athletes.

Figure 2 & Video 1 - T-Drill. Athlete dribbles ball from the bottom of the T toward the central cone, reacts to directional
cue given by S&C coach to the corresponding marker, dribbles around marker, back to the central marker and returns
toward the start. See video clip for full execution.
Figure 3 & Video 2 - Caterpillar Drill. Athletes sprint to each corresponding cone, defensive slide laterally and sprint
again when “Break” is called. Returns to the central marker, defensive slide laterally and backward pedal to baseline.
See video clip for full execution.
Figure 4 & Video 3 - Tennis Ball Slide. Athlete is located between two markers, defensive slide laterally toward marker,
touches maker, and alternates. Meanwhile, S&C coach throws tennis ball toward participant, who catches and return
throws tennis ball whilst completing defensive slide laterally.

Figure 5 & Video 4 – Cone Leg Touch. Athlete situated between four cones. Each numbered from 1-4. Athlete uses
auditory cues from the S&C coach to sprint to the cone which is called out, either 1, 2, 3 or 4. Athlete decelerates before
getting to the cone and single leg hover over the selected cone. Athlete returns to the middle and waits for the next
command.
Conventional Agility Drills
Conventional or “planned” agility drills present predefined movements prior to the commencement of an activity(19).
Most recently, Jeffreys (13) classified planned agility as a useful tool in the development of technique, based on a
behavioural approach to learning. However, planned movements do not replicate swift and diverse responses that are
critical under game conditions. Integrating basic technique development within planned agility drills is a key method
used by coaches to reinforce basic movements including running, jumping, landing and changing direction (21).
Conventional agility provides coaches with a foundational training modality prior to the implementation of more complex
agility training that is reactive based. Once again, training progressions align with the skill level of the athlete. The
following conventional agility drills (figures/video clips 6-9) are presented as examples the authors currently use with
pre-elite youth basketball athletes.
Figure 6 & Video 5 - Clover Leaf Drill. Athlete follows direction of the arrows (anti-clockwise direction), running around
the outside of each marker until return back to marker 1. Repeat in the opposite direction.

Figure 7 & Video 6 - X–Drill. Athlete sprints diagonally from marker 1 (black) to marker 2 (red). Stepping around the
marker 2 (red), backward pedal to marker 3 (blue), lateral defensive slide to the left from marker 3 (blue) to marker 1
(black) and back to marker 3 (blue). Diagonal sprint from marker 3 (blue) to marker 4 (green), around marker 4 (green)
and backward pedal to marker 1 (black).
Figure 8 Video 7 - T-Race. Two athletes per drill, competitive race. Start at the marker 1 (green), sprint marker 2 (red),
hand touch, sprint to the outside of marker 3 (blue), circle it with hand touch, lateral defensive slide back to marker 2
(red), hand touch, and sprint to marker 4 (black) to finish.

Figure 9 & Video 8 - Inside-out box run. Athlete runs to each marker as per a normal box run drill, but the athlete runs
around each marker in a clockwise direction before sprinting to the next marker. At the final marker (green) athlete
finishes in an athletic stance after a jump stop landing, using their lower limbs to absorb the breaking forces. Great drill
to develop ankle stability.
Table 3 - Normative data for basketball-specific agility drills in youth athletes.
Target Time
Agility Drill Distance Range (sec) Av. Time (sec)
(sec)
T-Drill 30 m < 7.5 7.9 – 9.0 8.3
Caterpillar Drill 15–20 m* < 12.0 13.0 – 15.0 14.0
Tennis Ball Slide 4m < 1.5 1.6 – 2.5 1.9
Cone Leg Touch 7m < 2.5 2.9 – 4.0 3.4
Clover Leaf Drill 40 m < 13.0 13.0 – 15.0 14.0
X–Drill 32 m < 11.5 11.5 – 13.0 12.5
T-Race 20 m < 6.0 6.0 – 7.5 6.5
Inside-out box run 20 m < 10 10.5 – 12.0 11.0
Abbreviations: sec = seconds; m = metres per repetition; < less than; * variable distance.
KEY POINTS
1. Agility is a multidimensional characteristic which requires development of sub-components including speed, power,
and COD.
2. Reactive agility is the prominent training technique aimed at developing sport-specific skills requiring perceptual
abilities.
3. Basketball athletes benefit from the inclusion of both conventional agility drills to develop movement competency
and reactive agility drills that develop sport-specific skills.

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Responding to “change” in the sporting environment: A brief review of recent agility testing
and training research.
Peer Review
RESPONDING TO “CHANGE” IN THE SPORTING ENVIRONMENT: A BRIEF REVIEW OF
RECENT AGILITY TESTING AND TRAINING RESEARCH.
Ryan C. Holding, Rudi A. Meir, Shi Zhou
School of Health and Human Sciences, Southern Cross University, Lismore, Australia
All research was conducted at Southern Cross University, Lismore Campus
ABSTRACT
The ability to display high levels of speed whilst changing direction is of vital importance for athletes competing in open-
type sports such as soccer, football, field hockey, rugby, etc. Recently in the literature, researchers have highlighted
that in the performance setting, athletes are repeatedly challenged to display fast and efficient movement in response
to stimuli within the environment. As a result, the definition of agility has been updated from describing simple change-
of-direction movements to incorporating both a physical movement and a perceptual decision-making component. This
has given rise to research into differing strategies in relation to testing and training for agility performance that challenges
both the athlete's physical movement and their perceptual and decision making ability. The purpose of this brief review
is to highlight the recent literature regarding the development of sport specific agility testing and training protocols.
Recent publications with a focus on producing new tests of agility and also studies that have attempted to promote agility
by developing both the athlete’s movement ability and perceptual–cognitive ability have been reviewed. Considerations
for coaches including the inclusion of agility drills that challenge the athlete’s perceptual abilities are highlighted.
Keywords - Decision-making, perceptual-cognitive, change-of-direction speed, implicit learning, explicit learning.
INTRODUCTION
Most of the physical components required for elite sports performance such as explosive power, strength, speed,
endurance, etc., have clear and precise protocols that can be employed for testing and training in relation to a specific
sport. In contrast, one physical component, agility, has a range of protocols with no ‘gold standard’ agreed upon.
Agility has historically been related to the ability of an athlete to display high levels of speed with the inclusion of
directional changes. Therefore it has been identified as being a factor of supreme importance in sports such as soccer
(6,38), rugby league (26), and tennis (9,22). Recently, researchers have noted that movement displayed in sport is
primarily governed by stimuli within the environment, and thus an athlete’s ability to perceive changes and respond
accordingly will greatly impact upon the athlete’s movement speed and efficiency (14,19,31). As a result, the definition
of agility has been updated to “a rapid whole-body movement with change of velocity or direction in response to a
stimulus” (34, p.922). This definition therefore includes both the perceptual and physical components of agility.
As a consequence of agility’s definition being altered over recent times, research has begun to focus on the best
practices to test and train for this quality. Many publications (12,19,35) have begun to shift their attention from improving
performance in simple change-of-direction tests, to developing testing and training batteries that incorporate both the
athlete’s physical movement and perceptual-cognitive abilities within their specific sport. Due to the sport- specific nature
of agility under the new definition, testing and training designs have been greatly varied across studies. This review will
attempt to provide clarity on the developing discussion by highlighting the recent work in the field. In addition, this review
aims to provide practical advice for coaches and athletes as to the best methods of testing and training for agility.
METHODS
I. Search strategy
In searching relevant journal articles for use in this review, key word searches using the term/s ‘agility’, ‘agility AND
sport’, ‘agility AND testing’, ‘agility AND training’, ‘reactive agility’, ‘change of direction speed’, were used within the
online databases; Scopus, Google Scholar and SportDiscus. Articles found within these searches were selected for use
in the review based on the following criteria:
1. Their relevance to the understanding of agility

2. Their applicability to sport specific testing and program design

The reference lists of selected articles were then scanned for additional relevant studies. Additional articles were
included as part of a discussion on different learning strategies used within agility training studies.
II. Search summary

The keyword searches identified 1,184 potentially relevant articles. 26 of these articles satisfied the selection criteria
and were therefore included in this review. Additionally, 7 articles were used as part of the discussion on learning
strategies.
DISCUSSION
I. Defining agility
In earlier research, agility was defined as simply the ability to change direction rapidly (4,8,24); or alternatively the ability
to change direction rapidly and accurately (3,21). However, such definitions only describe the physical aspects of agility
with testing and training studies reflecting these definitions. Testing an athlete’s level of agility was undertaken by
employing simple movement tests with pre-planned changes-of-direction. Examples of these include the T-test
(5,29,31), Illinois Agility Run, 505-test (10), pro-agility shuttle (16) and the L-run (26). This long-standing ideology of
agility being simple, pre-planned sprinting movements with the inclusion of directional changes is still predominantly
employed in practical settings by strength and conditioning coaches. Such definitions however fail to recognise the
perceptual element of agility performance. In open-skill sports, athletes are required to display fast and efficient
movement skills in response to environmental stimuli. This, in tandem with team tactics, governs an athlete’s decisions
on when, where and how to move or respond. It is therefore important to test both the physical and perceptual
components of agility, as high performance on one component does not necessarily predict high performance on the
other (18). For example, an athlete may have excellent physical movement characteristics, but display limited ability to
quickly and accurately formulate a response to a stimulus, thus slowing overall movement time. Conversely, an athlete
who can quickly interpret and formulate a response to a stimulus may be let down by slow physical movement skills
(18). Therefore, as a deficiency in either component of performance will detract from agility performance, any test which
used to assess this quality should address both these components.
Chelladurai (7) first highlighted the perceptual nature of agility performance when he noted that different tasks within a
sporting environment have differing levels of cognitive involvement. He described that tasks ran from simple (as seen
in a gymnastics routine, where there was no cognitive uncertainty, meaning the athlete does not have to extract
environmental cues in order to formulate appropriate decisions) to universal uncertainty (such as a soccer game, where
the players’ movements are totally governed via the information extracted from the surrounding environment). Extending
upon Chelladurai’s research, some researchers therefore began to categorize agility tasks as being either open or
closed. Closed tasks involve situations where the athlete is able to totally pre-plan their movements (e.g. gymnastics),
in contrast to open agility tasks where the athlete’s movements are determined via environmental cues (e.g. soccer).
Young (40) proposed that for a task to be deemed as an agility task, a reaction to a stimulus must be present. Including
such a criteria resulted in closed-type agility tasks being classified as ‘change-of-direction speed’ (CODS), which is
considered an independent skill in addition to being a subset of agility (40). Following on from Young’s previous work
(40), Sheppard and Young (34), developed a new definition of agility, which described the skill as “a rapid whole-body
movement with change of velocity or direction in response to a stimulus” (34, p.922). Thus, this definition has included
both the perceptual-cognitive component and the physical (change of direction and/or velocity) component of agility.
This definition also highlights that directional changes are not necessary for the skill to be termed an agility task, as
some stimuli may warrant acceleration/deceleration as a response rather than directional change. This updated
definition (34) has therefore spawned research into identifying the best practices to be utilizing when assessing agility,
including both the physical and perceptual components.
II. Recent methods of agility testing

As agility was previously defined as ‘the ability to change direction rapidly’, testing for agility saw the implementation of
simple CODS tests such as the 505 test, L-run, Illinois Shuttle run tests, etc. These tests have been used (10,26) to
discriminate between athletes in terms of CODS ability. However, as these tests are totally pre-planned, they do not
challenge the athlete’s perceptual skill ability, therefore cannot be classified as agility tests under Sheppard and Young’s
(34) definition.
Agility research is now focusing on producing sport specific reactive agility tests (RAT) that are designed to assess the
athlete’s agility prowess via coupling both the physical movement and perceptual skill characteristics of agility. An
important consideration when analysing a RAT is the context in which it is being employed. In contrast to tests for
endurance, speed, power, etc. (which can be replicated across a multitude of sports), agility is highly sport-specific. As
a consequence each RAT will be specific to each individual sport, making the possibility of producing a ‘gold-standard’
test of agility unlikely. Therefore, each RAT needs to be analysed for its ability to test for agility in its specific context.
One of the first studies focusing on testing reactive agility was conducted by Farrow et al. (14). In this netball specific
study, participants from lesser, moderately and higher skilled playing groups were assessed using life-size video
projections. These video projections showed an opposition player executing a netball-specific pass. The participants
were required to respond to the video by moving in the direction in which the pass was directed, thus mirroring a

defensive response. A high-speed camera positioned behind the participant measured the time between the onset of
the sport-specific stimulus and the player’s movement initiation. This quantified the participants decision-making time.
Light gates were used to measure the total test time. It was found that response time (time from stimulus onset to
participant’s reaction) of highly-skilled players’ (357ms ± 14) was significantly faster (p= 0.05) in comparison to the
lesser-skilled players (383ms ± 11) (14). This increased speed of response was able to differentiate the differences
between total movement times, while pre-planned movements (only testing the physical component) were unable to
discriminate between the playing levels.
A similar protocol was developed specifically for rugby league (32) using video projections of high-level players. These
videos, filmed from a defender’s point-of-view, showed the attacking player running towards the camera and then
executing a 45 degree change-of-direction, which could also include a feint (used to mislead the defender) or actual
pass. The participant, after running forward approximately 8 metres, then had to respond to the video projection and
move in the correct direction. Light gates were used to record total test time and a high speed camera was used to
quantify response time. The methodology was repeated without the inclusion of video projections in order to eliminate
the perceptual element whilst assessing change-of-direction speed (CODS). The results mirrored the results found by
Farrow et al. (14) in that significant differences were found between the higher and lower performance groups only when
the reactive task (video projection) was included.
Reactive agility testing protocols have also been developed specific to Australian Rules football (19,39,41). Henry et al.
(19) studied the reactive agility performance differences between high-level players, low-level players and non-
footballers. Reactive agility was tested using both a light-based and a video-based RAT. Within the light-based RAT,
participants moved in response to illuminating LED light clusters. Within the video-based RAT, participants responded
to sport-specific video projections and moved in accordance with the video stimulus. These tests were compared with
a planned agility test, i.e. CODS. Results found that the higher-level groups significantly outperformed the low-level
players in the video-based RAT rather than the light-based RAT. This indicates that the higher level athletes were able
to read and respond to cues from opposition players bodily orientation more effectively than their lesser skilled
counterparts. The CODS task was again unable to predict playing level, thus highlighting the importance of the
perceptual component (19).
Further efforts have been made to test for reactive agility testing while simultaneously quantifying performance success
(20). Whilst testing reactive speed in cricket fielding, Hopwood et al. (20) also tested for fielding success. The participant
was standing in a fielding position, waiting for a batsman to strike the ball between two cones on either side of the
participant. High-speed cameras placed behind the fieldsman quantified the participant’s response time. In addition,
fielding success was recorded based on whether the fieldsman was successful in stopping the ball. This pairing of the
reactive ability test (response time) with performance success may be more valid than previous methods where only
reactions to video projections were used.
Reactive agility testing can also be completed without the use of video technology. Meir et al. (27) developed a RAT
specific to rugby league that included a reactive component without the use of video projections. As shown in Figure 1,
the athlete begins at the start cones situated 0.5m behind ‘light gate A’. The athlete begins the test by accelerating up
to ‘light gate B’, which gives a 10m acceleration time. When the athlete reaches light gate B, the tester (labelled as
researcher in the diagram) standing 5m back from the light gate and facing the oncoming athlete, initiates a step forward
using either the left or the right foot on approximately a 45° angle. The athlete responds to the tester by accelerating in
the opposite side of the testers step (thus “wrong-footing” the defender), reaching either ‘light gate C’ or ‘light gate D’,
which provides the overall time. For example, the athlete accelerates the initial 10m and at the point of reaching the
10m light gate (light gate B), the tester steps forward on a 45° angle to the left (from the athletes perspective). In
response to the tester’s movement, the athlete then changes direction by stepping to the right in order to reach ‘light
gate D’. The initial 10m time indicates the athlete’s acceleration time. The time split between reaching the 10m light gate
and the final light gate (either C or D) is subject to how quickly the athlete can read the movements of the tester and
efficiently change direction appropriately. Athletes who can pick-up advance cues in the tester’s movement will be able
to begin their change of direction to the appropriate light gate earlier and therefore will have a faster time. Athletes who
cannot read the tester’s movements as efficiently will begin their change of direction later and therefore have a slower
time. An athlete who takes longer to respond to the tester may also lose more speed from the initial acceleration than a
faster responding athlete, further compounding the slower time to the final gate. This test was shown to have a good
level of reliability (27) and has the advantage of suiting coaches without access to video projections, thereby eliminating
the drawbacks of the time, financial and expertise requirements to administer such testing protocols.

5m 5m
Light gate Light gate D

C
Research
er
5m
10m
Light gate B
10m
Light gate A
0.5m
Start cones
2.5m
Figure 1 - A reactive agility test specific to rugby league (27).
Video 1 – RAT: No ball.
III. Recent methods of agility training

As testing mechanisms of agility have recently been developed and refined in the literature, so too have the training
methodologies employed for the improvement of agility. Training for agility has attempted to integrate the perceptual
and physical components. It has been suggested that an increased ability to read and respond to sport-specific stimuli
was a result of longer exposure to deliberate practise of these specific reactive situations (2); however the use of
technology is being tested for its ability to ‘fast-track’ this variable.
Farrow and Abernethy (12) studied the effects of 4 weeks of video training on the ability to anticipate serve direction in
tennis. Thirty-two schoolboy tennis players were split into four equal groups; explicit video training, implicit video training
(for definitions see next section), control and placebo. The two video training groups viewed identical videos of a player
serving the ball. The videos were filmed from a receiver’s perspective and included temporal occlusion (the video is
stopped at a set point in time in order to stop giving the viewer information). The participants had to select with a pen-
and-paper response whether the ball was going to be served to the left or right. The participant then watched the total
unoccluded video. The difference between the video groups was that following the unoccluded video replay, the explicit
group had specific service action variables highlighted to them. These variables included ball toss location, movement
and angle of racquet, server’s grip, stance and shoulder rotation, all of which impacted on potential serve location. The
implicit video group did not receive any information regarding these service variables and were instructed to anticipate
service speed. The placebo group watched professional tennis matches and the control group completed physical
training. Results after the 4 week training intervention showed that the implicit video training group significantly improved
their service direction anticipation while none of the other 3 groups improved (12). The researchers proposed that as
multiple cues were highlighted to the explicit group, the participants sampled a number of information sources rather
than focusing on the most valuable anticipatory information source. In contrast, the implicit group (who were judging
service speed) focused predominantly on only one information source, the racquet head motion, which was the most
informative anticipatory cue (12). Intervention improvements were lost after a 32-day unfilled (no training) retention
period.

Hopwood et al. (20) studied the effects of a video training intervention on fielding performance in cricket. Using
professional cricket players, pre-testing was completed using both a video-based anticipation test and a field-based test
where the participant had to field balls. The training intervention involved half of the group watching video projections of
batsmen striking the ball in their direction and the participant having to respond accordingly by moving in the appropriate
direction. The training video included both occluded and unoccluded trials, meaning the participants would sometimes
have to respond using advanced postural cues from the batsmen. Implicit learning strategies were used in that
participants were not shown what to look for. The 6-week training intervention saw the video training group significantly
outperform the control group within the video-based fielding test and showed greater improvements within the field-
based test (20).
In a rugby league based study, Serpell (33) studied whether the perceptual and decision-making components of agility
were trainable through video based training and whether this training resulted in an improvement in performance during
a RAT. The training group completed reactive agility tests, which involved temporally occluded video projections with
the participant required to move in the corresponding direction. Explicit based learning was used as participants were
instructed to look at the hips, shoulder and trunk regions of the attacking players. It was found that the training group
using video projections significantly improved their scores pre- to post-intervention and also significantly outperformed
the non-training group. CODS tests did not show significant differences between the two groups. The training and testing
videos also included feints, which showed that players are able to pick-up advanced kinematic cues in order to anticipate
the direction in which the attacker will move (32).
Engelbrecht (11) compared the effectiveness of video-based training in comparison to field-based training on reactive
agility performance. The video-based training participants responded to video projections of rugby situations filmed from
the participant’s point-of-view. The field-based training group completed reactive agility drills that encouraged decision
making and pattern recognition. These field-based athletes trained by responding to visual cues (opponent running, ball
flight, etc.) and auditory cues (whistles, balls bouncing, etc). Following the six-week (two sessions per week) training
period, the participants from the video-training and field-based training both significantly outperformed the control group
(normal rugby training) on the reactive agility test. No significant differences were shown between the video- and field-
based training groups. It was therefore concluded that video-training can be used as an effective tool in reactive agility
training (11). A major limitation of this study however, was the use of ‘SmartSpeed’ light gates in the RAT protocol. The
RAT therefore only required the athletes to respond to a generic light-based reaction, which does not challenge the
perceptual decision-making abilities that the athletes may have developed in training. Due to the questionable validity
of the testing, the results of the study may have limited application.
One of the limitations of the recent research into agility training using video technology is its lack of universal applicability
to strength and conditioning coaches. For a significant proportion of strength and conditioning coaches, using video
technology in their training programs may not be achievable due to time and financial constraints; in addition to the high
level of technical expertise required to produce these videos. Strength and conditioning coaches can still train for sport-
specific agility through the use of field drills that challenge both the physical and perceptual elements of agility. The key
to designing and implementing effective agility drills in the field is to promote the principle of specificity. Therefore the
drills must:
• challenge the athlete to read and respond to sport-specific stimuli; and

• involve sport-specific movement patterns.
Figure 2 shows an example of a progression of agility drills used for rugby type sports. These drills force the athlete to
read and respond to sport- specific cues whilst displaying efficient movement skills, thus promoting the development of
agility. Note that this progression is appropriate for rugby type sports rather than as a general agility training battery. For
example, a basketball strength and conditioning coach would need to alter these drills by including the specific
movement patterns and stimuli-responses required in basketball to allow his/her athletes to achieve the best
improvements that will transfer to performance.

Drill 1- Simple Reaction
The athlete (A) accelerates forward towards the coach (C), who initiates
a stimulus. This stimulus can be visual (e.g. in the form of a body step
or arm movement) or auditory (e.g. the coach calling “left” or “right”).
A C The athlete has to pick up the coaches signal and move in the
appropriate direction.
4m
Drill 2 - Dynamic Reaction
(a)
(b)
B X X
A
X X
2m 4m 8m
(a) Two athletes start with the leader (A) standing in front of a follower (B) separated by approximately 2m. The leader
accelerates towards the agility pole and steps to change direction, straightens up and reaccelerates past the pole. The
follower mirrors the leader’s movement by stepping in the same direction. (b) Two athletes stand 8m apart facing each other
with an agility pole in the centre. The leader (A) accelerates towards the agility pole and steps to change direction before
reaccelerating. The follower (B) accelerates towards the agility pole at the same time as the leader and steps in the opposite
direction. The aim is for the follower to minimize the time delay between seeing the leader step and initiating his/her own
response.
Drill 3 - Sport Specific Dynamic Reaction
B A C 6m
10m
Two attackers (A and B) start from one end of a 10m x 6m rectangle with one (the leader) standing approximately 2 metres
directly in front of his/her partner (the follower); the leader is holding a rugby ball. Another athlete, the defender (C), starts
opposite on the other side of the grid. On the coaches “go” command, all athletes run forward with the follower trailing the leader.
As the front attacker nears the defender, the trailing attacker “calls” for the ball and runs off the leader’s hip on the nominated
side to receive a pass (indicated in the diagram by the black line) and then tries to evade the defender to reach the other end of
the drill and “score”. The defender’s role is to make a two-handed tag on the defender receiving the pass before they reach the
end of the drill. This trains the ability to anticipate offensive movement in a sport-specific setting.
Figure 2 - Sample progressions for sport specific (rugby football) agility development.

Video 2 – Explicit training example.
IV. Implicit vs. explicit learning

When using video training to improve anticipation, the type of learning is a variable that needs to be considered. Two
broad types of learning exist regarding how information is gathered by the learner. These two types of learning include;
implicit and explicit.
Explicit learning, also referred to as conscious, selective and intentional learning (17,28), describes motor learning which
“involves the use of specific instructions about how to develop a particular skill and concomitantly results in the
acquisition of a large verbalizable knowledge base about how to perform the skill being acquired” (12, p.472). Implicit
learning, also referred to as unconscious, unselective, tacit and incidental learning (17,28), in contrast refers to “the
acquisition of a motor skill without the concurrent acquisition of explicit knowledge about the performance of that skill”
(25, p.111). More simply, explicit training is when the individual is instructed on which specific cues to focus on, whereas
implicit training allows individuals to learn instinctively without outside instruction.
Studies in motor learning and skill acquisition have attempted to find the ideal method for teaching new skills (25).
Explicit learning has been used as an effective mechanism to highlight key contextual cues and relate this information
to the subsequent outcome. For example, highlighting the racquet face angle may improve service direction anticipation
in tennis (13). The reasoning behind this theory is that explicit instruction contributes towards the cognitive knowledge
base upon which perceptual knowledge is based (37). In contrast, it is proposed that implicit learning involves the
acquisition of deep information about event sequence structure, which is not typically conveyed by explicit verbal
instruction (1). It is also proposed that this deeper information encoding enhances information retention, which has been
shown to be maintained longer than when information was learned via explicit instruction (1).
Additional studies have also proposed that learning implicitly increases the chance of skill retention under physically
and mentally stressful situations (23). Masters (23) tested golf putting accuracy amongst explicitly and implicitly trained
participants. It was found that the implicitly trained group, who had no explicit knowledge of their acquired skill, performed
better under a stressful situation compared to the explicitly trained group. It was proposed that the stressful situation
interrupted the automated processing of information in the explicitly trained group (23). In an anxious state, explicitly
trained individuals are said to “reinvest this knowledge back into performance causing participants to revert toward the
more conscious control strategies assumed to characterise early performance” (23, p.108).
CONCLUSIONS AND PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
Much of the research completed thus far in the area of producing reactive agility tests (RAT) has been successful in
merging both the physical and perceptual challenges of agility. This has been shown by the ability to discriminate
between playing levels through the inclusion of a reactive component where no difference was seen when the
movements were pre-planned (12,15,19). These new testing protocols have also been proven to be reliable (27,36,41).
These results indicate that traditional agility tests such as the L-run, pro-agility test, etc., may be useful in assessing
change-of-direction movement ability; however their value in assessing sport-specific agility, where athletes are
challenged to move in response to cues from the environment and their opposition, may be limited.
A key challenge in producing a valid RAT is the specific nature of the stimulus. When using video-based stimuli, the
images shown must mirror the stimuli that would be present in the performance setting. If the stimulus is not
representative of the performance environment, athletes who have a higher reactive skill level specific to their sport will
not be able to distinguish themselves from lower level performers. This is also of significant importance in training
methodologies, as players may be training to react to a stimulus that is not representative of the stimuli that will be
presented to them during performance, resulting in limited transfer from training to performance settings.
An additional challenge in producing a reliable RAT is the amount of stimuli presented to the athlete. Most of the
previously developed RAT protocols (14,15,32,35,36) only present the athlete with one visual stimulus, which may
lessen the ability to distinguish top performers from less skilled athletes. In performance settings, athletes are presented
with an abundance of information from different stimuli simultaneously (e.g. movement of off-ball opponents, aural

stimuli, etc.). High-level performers are more adept at interpreting multiple cues whilst distinguishing between useful
and non-useful information in order to make an accurate decision (30). Also, if training involves the presentation of only
one stimulus, athletes may find it difficult to transfer this ability to a performance setting where they are challenged to
interpret cues from multiple sources within the environment. Therefore, a future direction in agility testing may be to
challenge athlete’s physical and perceptual ability in a more open environment, challenging the athlete to interpret and
respond to an overlay of differing stimuli.
Much of the recent research has used video projections and video cameras to quantify movement times. These
resources may be beyond the capacities of many coaches and teams. In addition, these tests require a great deal of
time and expertise to administer, which may be counterproductive to strength and conditioning coaches with a large
playing roster. This review has provided options for coaches to test and train for agility without the use of video
technology. Meir et al. (27) provided a reliable testing battery specific to rugby type sports that does not place high
demands on the use of technology. In addition, this paper provided strength and conditioning coaches with instructions
for designing agility training drills that challenge both the physical movement and perceptual decision making
components of agility without the use of technology. A sample progression of agility drills specific to rugby type sports
was also provided.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank the Southern Cross University Research Centre for Tourism, Leisure and Work for their
valuable support.

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Sprinting kinematics of elite rugby players.

Peer Review
SPRINTING KINEMATICS OF ELITE RUGBY PLAYERS
Matthew J Barr1, Jeremy M Sheppard1 and Robert U Newton1.

1 Centre for Exercise and Sport Science Research, Edith Cowan University, Perth, Australia.
Data Collection - Data was collected at the Rugby Canada Centre of Excellence in Langford,
BC, Canada.
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to characterize the sprinting kinematics of elite rugby players as they transition from a
standing start to maximal velocity. A group of players (n=11) underwent an assessment of their sprinting ability by
performing four 50 m sprints. All players (height = 1.86 ± 0.08 m, mass = 100 ± 9 kg) had played senior international
rugby. Each of the sprints was filmed using Nikon J1 video cameras recording at 400 f/s at the 3 m, 9 m, 15 m, 21 m,
27 m, 33 m, 39 m, and 45 m marks of the 50 m sprints. Stride length, stride rate, ground contact time, flight time and
velocity were calculated using a computer program (Kinovea). Velocity peaked at either the 33 m or 39 m mark with
significant differences in velocity between the 33 m mark and velocities at 3 m, 9 m and 15 m marks (P<0.05 -
P<0.0001). Ground contact time at the 3 m mark was significantly longer than at every other distance measured
(P<0.0001). Stride length was significantly shorter at the 3 m (P<0.0001) than every other section. Stride length and
ground contact time at 9 m were significantly different from every other distance except for 15 m. No differences were
found in stride rate between any of the distances. Elite rugby players achieve their top speed between 30 m and 40 m
and do so by decreasing ground contact time and increasing stride length as they accelerate.
Keywords - Speed, maximal velocity, ground contact time, stride rate, stride length.
INTRODUCTION
Sprinting speed is considered to be an important physical ability for rugby players (22, 23). Speed is often considered
to be just one single physical quality and athletes are often evaluated by their time to complete a sprint of a given
distance (i.e. 40 m). However, sprinting ability could be considered to be several different physical qualities, as long
sprints are considered to consist of several different phases. Definitions vary, but typically involve one or more
acceleration phases and a maximal velocity phase (4, 16, 25). Acceleration is often considered highly important for
rugby because of the high number of sprints done over a short distance during games (1). Maximal velocity is also
considered important as rugby players frequently hit their maximal sprinting velocity during games (8), and in field
running sports, sprint bouts are often initiated from a moving start such that athletes can achieve top speed in a relatively
short period of time (3).
The distinction between different sprint phases is important as each phase has kinematic differences (7, 12, 26) and
needs to be approached differently when coaching technique and designing training programs to improve them. Training
programs for rugby players, however, should be based on what is typical of elite rugby players rather than what is typical
of elite sprinters as there likely are differences between the two. For instance, the reported distance that athletes attain
maximal velocity at ranges between 50-60 m in elite sprinters (9), 30-40 m in national level sprinters (6), 30-40 m in
physical education students (2), 30-40 m in adolescent sprinters and 20-30 m in pre-pubescent sprinters (20). It is
currently unknown at what distance rugby players transition into a maximal velocity phase or at what distance maximal
velocity occurs. It is also unclear how kinematic variables such as velocity, stride rate, stride length, ground contact and
flight time change as elite rugby players accelerate up to maximal velocity.
The aim of this study was to characterize the sprinting kinematics of elite rugby players as they transition from a standing
start to maximal velocity. It was hypothesized that rugby players would achieve maximal velocity between 30 m and 40
m. It was hypothesized that rugby players would achieve their maximal velocity in this range because of similar distance-
velocity profiles in sub-elite sprinters.
METHODS
Approach to the Problem

In order to characterize sprinting kinematics of elite rugby players, a cross sectional experimental design was used. The
subjects participating in the study underwent a series of sprints that were filmed with high speed video cameras in order
to determine changes in their sprinting kinematics as they accelerated up to maximal velocity and the distance from the

start in which they achieved maximal velocity. The testing was conducted as part of regular training sessions with elite
rugby players.
Subjects
A group of players (n=11) underwent an assessment of their sprinting ability. The players (age = 23.5 ± 2.9 y, height =
1.86 ± 0.08 m, mass = 100 ± 9 kg) who participated in the study were a mix of 5 forwards and 6 backs that had played
senior international rugby. The national team that all of the players play for is typically ranked 11 th-14th place on the
International Rugby Board (IRB) world rankings. Eight out of the 11 participants (non-tight 5 players) also played 7s
rugby for the national team of the same country (typically 9 th-12th in IRB World 7s Series). All participants consented
and gave informed written consent to take part in the study which had Institutional Review Board approval.
Procedures
On two separate occasions, one week apart, the players performed four 50 m sprints on artificial field turf on clear warm
days without wind. Each of the sprints was filmed using two Nikon J1 video cameras recording at 400 f/s. Calibration
markers were placed 0.5m to either side of the run at 0 m, 6 m, 12 m, 18 m, 24 m, 30 m, 36 m, 42 m, and 48 m. On the
first testing session, the cameras recorded two of the sprints of each athlete in the 0-6 m, 6-12 m, 12-18 m, and 18-24
m sections. During the second testing session the cameras recorded two of the sprints of each athlete for the 24-30 m,
30-36 m, 36-42 m, and 42-48 m sections. The participants undertook a 25 minute warm up that included light running,
dynamic stretches and five 50 m sprints that progressively increased in intensity from 60% of maximal volitional effort
to 95% of maximal effort. After warm-up, the participants were given a four minute break before they performed their
first 50 m sprint. The participants were given four to five minutes of passive rest between each sprint.
In order to assess the sprinting kinematics of each player, stride rate, stride length, velocity, ground contact time and
flight time were calculated with the aid of computer software (Kinovea). A stride was considered to be the time from
touchdown from one leg to the last instant before touchdown of the other leg. Stride length was determined by measuring
the distance between successive toe-off positions in each stride, with the most anterior part of the foot at toe off was
used as a marker for measuring stride length. Ground contact times were calculated by counting the number of frames
between touchdown and toe-off (0.0025 s per frame). Flight time was determined by counting the number of frames
between toe-off and touchdown. Stride rate was determined by dividing one stride by the time taken to complete it
(1/ground contact time + flight time). Velocity was determined by dividing the distance of the stride length by the time
taken to complete it (contact time and flight time). Reliability of sprinting kinematics was determined by calculating
Technical Error of Measurement (TEM) and Interclass Correlations (ICC) from two different trials. Strong reliability was
found for velocity (ICC=0.85-0.95, TEM=0.09-0.21 m/s), stride length (ICC=0.75-0.95, TEM=0.02-0.04 m), stride rate
(ICC=0.73-0.89, TEM=0.06-0.10 s/s), stride length (ICC=0.74-0.94, TEM=0.02-0.04 m), ground contact time (ICC=0.72-
0.98, TEM=0.002-0.004s) and flight time (ICC=0.71-0.77 s, TEM=0.003-0.005 s). Inter-rater reliability of the kinematic
analyses was determined by calculating TEM and ICC of the same videos assessed by two different individuals who
were experienced analysing sprinting kinematics. Strong inter-rater reliability for these kinematic assessment methods
were found for stride length (ICC=0.99, TEM=0.017 m), ground contact time (ICC=0.95, TEM=0.005 s), and flight time
(ICC=0.84, TEM=0.003 s).
Statistical Analysis
The average of the first three strides was taken for the 0m to 6m segment and the average of two strides were recorded
during each six meter segment between 6m and 48m. Of the two trials recorded for each segment, the one that had the
highest velocity was kept for analysis. In order to characterize changes in the sprinting kinematics over the 50m
distance, a one way ANOVA was used to determine differences in means between the different sections. If a significant
result was found (P<0.05), a Tukey’s post-hoc analysis was used to determine differences between the different
sections.
RESULTS
Mean results for each of the section of the 50 m sprints are displayed in Table 1 and Figure 1. Velocity peaked at either
the 33 m or 39 m mark for each athlete (Table 2) with the group average of 33 m. There were significant differences in
velocity between the 33 m mark and velocities at 3 m, 9 m and 15 m (P<0.05 - P<0.0001), yet differences in velocity at
the 21 m mark and any of the distance measured after were non-significant (P=0.886 – P=0.99). No significant
differences were found for stride rate between any of the different distances measured. Ground contact time at the 3 m
mark was significantly longer than at every other distance measured (P<0.0001), with ground contact time at 9 m
significantly different from every other section except for at the 15 m mark. Flight time at 3 m and 9 m was shorter than
every other distance (P<0.0001). Stride length was significantly shorter at the 3 m mark (P<0.0001) than every other
section. Stride length at 9 m was also significantly different than every other section (P<0.001) with the exception of 15
m (P=0.242).

DISCUSSION
A key finding of this study was that all players hit their maximal velocity between 30 m and 40 m. This is similar to
findings by Higham and colleagues (10) who found that international caliber 7s rugby players hit their top velocity during
a 40 m sprint in the last 10 m. The players achieved maximal velocity by maintaining stride rate (~4.4 m/s) and increasing
stride length (1.22 m to 2.06 m). Flight time and ground contact time were inversely proportional as the players
decreased ground contact time (0.174 s to 0.111 s) and increased flight time (0.061 s to 0.118 s) as they increased
velocity from the initial velocity at 3 m (5.22 m/s) up to maximal velocity (8.98 m/s) at 33 m.
An interesting aspect of the results was the change in kinematics that the players made transitioning from a standing
start up to maximal velocity. The first 3 m were significantly different than every other section of the 50 m sprints with
longer contact times, shorter stride lengths and shorter flight times. The kinematics measured at 9 m displayed shorter
contact times, longer flight times and longer stride lengths than at 3 m. They were, however, all significantly different
with those kinematics at maximal velocity. This supports the idea of considering acceleration as more than one separate
zone. The kinematics measured at 15 m would suggest that it was the transition phase into the maximal velocity phase
as it was not significantly different than 9 m or 21 m for key kinematic variables other than velocity. Despite that all of
the athletes hit their maximal velocity at either 33 m or 39 m (Table 2), it could be asserted that the players were in the
maximal velocity phase at 21 m. On average, the players were at 96% of the maximal velocity at 21 m and only small
and non-significant changes in ground contact time and stride length took place thereafter. It was not surprising though
that lowest ground contact times coincided with reaching maximal velocity. This supports the idea that when an athlete
cannot further decrease their ground contact time and still be able to develop the necessary impulse to further increase
velocity, they will have hit their maximal velocity (26).
The changes in kinematics of the present study would also lend credence to the notion that there are different sprint
qualities that need to be considered. Approximately the first 6 m of a sprint from a standing start could be considered
Initial Acceleration, 6 m to 12m could be considered Mid-Acceleration, 12 m to 18 m could be the Transition to Maximal
Velocity and after 18m could be considered the Maximal Velocity phase for this population of athletes. Data from elite
sprinters would suggest that they accelerate up to maximal velocities over longer distances and likely transition through
these phases at further distances than the rugby players in the current study. It is possible that with training, players
could change their acceleration profiles and achieve their maximal velocity later.
The different phases would suggest that different training methods and drills are needed for each phase based on their
unique sprinting kinematics. For instance, improving performance in Initial Acceleration would likely be achieved by
optimizing impulse through an increase in forward lean (12) and by developing force faster to decrease ground contact
time (13, 19). Mid-Acceleration is likely improved through a decrease in ground contact time (13, 14) or by increasing
horizontal propulsive impulse (11). Increasing Maximal Velocity is likely done by improving the ability to develop the
necessary impulse in a shorter period of time (5, 27). Ground contact time should be a key consideration when
considering strength or plyometric exercises used to improve different sprint qualities. Exercises that are effective for
improving Initial Acceleration might not be effective for improving Maximal Velocity based on the time to develop force
in the exercise. This may the case because of the differences in ground contact time (0.17 s vs 0.11 s) between the
different phases.
An individualized approach to training programs can be used for training programs by using high speed video cameras
and video analysis software. Exercises can then be selected based on individual weaknesses during the different phases
(Table 3). For example, if video analysis determined stride length of a player during Initial Acceleration or Mid-
Acceleration is a weakness, drills and exercises focusing on concentric strength and power of the hip and knee
extensors are likely most important (13). This can be accomplished through a combination of exercises such as sled
resisted sprints, squats (15) and variations of the Olympic lifts (24). On the other hand, if shortening ground contact
time during Maximal Velocity is determined to be an important training goal, exercises focusing on increasing the
eccentric rate of force development and concentric power of the hip and knee extensors would likely be beneficial (16).
Improving these qualities could lead to a decrease in ground contact time. This could be accomplished by using a
program emphasising downhill or towed sprints (21, 17), drop jumps (28) and other plyometric exercises such as
maximal speed bounding, hopping and stepping drills (18). For instance, the two wingers in the study had maximal
velocities of 9.8 m/s and 10 m/s. If the slower winger wanted to increase his maximal velocity to equal the faster winger,
he could do so by decreasing his average maximal velocity ground contact time by 0.07 s. This goal could be
accomplished by designing a training program built around some of the exercises from Table 3 that are specific to the
Maximal Velocity phase of sprinting.

Table 1 - Mean and standard deviation of kinematic parameters of elite rugby players (n=11) measured at 3m, 9m, 15m,
21m, 27m, 33m, 39m and 45m of 50m sprints. Significant differences between the different sections of the sprint,
calculated by an ANOVA and Tukey’s post hoc analysis, are listed below the means of each section. ***P<0.05,
**P<0.001, *P<0.0001.
3m 9m 15m 21m
x̄ s x̄ s x̄ s x̄ s
Velocity (m/s) 5.22 ±0.3 7.55 ±0.5 8.25 ±0.5 8.69 ±0.55
9m*,15m*, 21m*, 27m*, 3m*,15m***, 21m*, 3m*, 9m***, 33m***, 3m*, 9m*
33m*, 39m*, 45m* 27m*, 33m*, 39m*, 39m***
45m*
Stride Length 1.22 ±0.12 1.71 ±0.14 1.87 ±0.13 1.98 ±0.13
(m)
9m*, 15m*, 21m*, 27m*, 3m*, 21m**, 27m**, 3m*, 45m*** 3m*, 9m**
33m*, 39m*, 45m* 33m*, 39m*, 45m*
Stride Rate 4.24 ±0.43 4.43 ±0.33 4.43 ±0.28 4.39 ± 0.22
(Strides/s)
Ground Contact 0.174 ±0.02 0.135 0.01 0.122 ±0.01 0.117 ±0.01
Time (s) 9m*, 15m*, 21m*, 27m*, 3m*, 21m***, 27m**, 3m* 3m*, 9m***
33m*, 39m*, 45m* 33m**, 39m*, 45m**
Flight Time (s) 0.061 ±0.01 0.093 ±0.01 0.106 ±0.01 0.111 ±0.01
9m*, 15m*, 21m*, 27m*, 3m*, 15m*, 21m*, 27m*,
3m*, 9m* 3m*, 9m*
33m*, 39m*, 45m* 33m*, 39m*, 45m*
27m 33m 39m 45m

x̄ s x̄ s x̄ s x̄ s
Velocity (m/s) 8.70 ±0.51 8.98 ±0.52 8.97 ±0.61 8.82 ±0.59
3m*, 9m* 3m*, 9m*, 15m*** 3m*, 9m*, 15m*** 3m*, 9m*,
Stride Length
1.97 ±0.15 2.06 ±0.16 2.05 ±0.17 2.08 ±0.18
(m)
3m*, 9m** 3m*, 9m* 3m*, 9m* 3m*, 9m*, 15m***
Stride Rate 4.40 ±0.31 4.37 ±0.28 4.39 ±0.26 4.27 ±0.22
(Strides/s)
Ground Contact
0.112 ±0.01 0.111 ±0.01 0.113 ±0.01 0.115 ±0.01
Time (s)
3m*, 9m** 3m*, 9m** 3m*, 9m** 3m*, 9m**
Flight Time (s) 0.115 ±0.01 0.118 ±0.01 0.115 ±0.01 0.121 ±0.01
3m*, 9m* 3m*, 9m* 3m*, 9m* 3m*, 9m*

Table 2 - Individual maximal velocity characteristics of international rugby players.
Distance
Ground
Maximal Maximal Stride
Stride Rate Contact Flight Time
Position Velocity Velocity Length
(strides/s) Time (s)
(m/s) Achieved (m)
(s)
(m)
Winger 10.0 39m 2.16 4.62 0.104 0.111
Scrum half 9.2 33m 1.91 4.79 0.097 0.111
Open side Flanker 9.2 33m 1.99 4.49 0.107 0.111
Blindside Flanker 8.6 33m 1.83 4.60 0.108 0.109
Flyhalf 9.1 33m 2.00 4.53 0.106 0.114
Open side Flanker 9.3 33m 2.22 4.28 0.113 0.120
Lock 8.4 33m 2.17 3.86 0.127 0.132
Inside Center 9.2 33m 2.20 4.04 0.105 0.134
Winger 9.8 33m 2.23 4.38 0.107 0.121
Hooker 8.0 33m 1.76 4.55 0.126 0.093
Number 8 9.2 39m 2.28 4.00 0.123 0.127
Table 3 - Sample sprint specific, strength, power and plyometric exercises that are likely to be most beneficial for
improving performance during different phases of a sprint.
Transition to Maximal
Exercises Initial Acceleration Mid-Acceleration Velocity Maximal Velocity
(0-6 m) (6-12 m) (12-18 m) (18 m +)
Sprint Sled Sprints Sled Sprints Maximal Velocity Towed Sprinting

Specific Sprints
Uphill Sprints Uphill Sprints Weighted Vest Sprints Downhill Sprinting
Weighted Vest Sprints
Strength and Back Squats Power Clean Skips with a barbell Skips with a barbell
Power
Front Squat Power or Split Snatch Power Clean Power Clean
Split Squat Jump Squats Power or Split Snatch Power or Split Snatch
Power Clean Scissor Jumps Jump Squats Jump Squats
Power or Split Snatch Glute Ham Raise Scissor Jumps Scissor Jumps
Jump Squats Glute Ham Raise Glute Ham Raises
Medball Throws Split Jerk Split Jerk
Plyometric Broad Jump Multiple Broad Jumps Drop Jumps (>40cm) Drop Jumps (>80cm)
Multiple Broad Jumps Bounding Repeated Hurdle Repeated Hurdle
Jumps Jumps
Borzov Jumps Maximal Stepping Maximal Stepping
Maximal Hopping Maximal Hopping
Bounding Bounding
Straight Leg Bounding Straight Leg Bounding

Figure 1 - Kinematic parameters of elite rugby players (n=11) measured at 3 m, 9 m, 15 m, 21 m, 27 m, 33 m, 39 m

and 45 m of 50 m sprints. The mean and standard deviation are displayed below for velocity (A), stride length (B),
stride rate (C), ground contact time (D) and flight time (E).
Figure 2 - Sample pictures of a player at touchdown at different points of a 50m sprints. From left to right the pictures
are at 3 m, 9 m, 15 m, 21 m, 27 m, 33 m, 39 m and 45 m.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
Given the unique nature of each phase of a sprint, coaches working with athletes should test sprints by examining
different sections of a sprint rather than just recording the time taken to complete a relatively long pre-set distance. This
can be accomplished by assessing 10 m splits rather than just recording the time taken to complete a single 40 m or 50
m distance. Additionally, in recent years, high speed video cameras and software to analyse video have become
considerably less cost prohibitive, and as such an in depth assessment of sprinting kinematics can realistically be
performed in many settings. High speed video cameras can be used to record sprinting kinematics if metrics such as
stride length, frequency, and ground contact time are being monitored in response to specific training interventions.
Assessing sprint qualities in this manner will allow for training programs to be designed to address specific weak areas
in the overall sprint performance.
A key finding of this study is that elite rugby players achieve their top speed between 30 and 40 m and do so by
decreasing ground contact time and increasing stride length as they accelerate from a standing start. The maximal
velocity they attain also corresponds with the lowest ground contact time. Sprinting can be divided into several sections
based on kinematic differences between them. These sections are Initial Acceleration, Mid-Acceleration, Transition to
Maximal Velocity and Maximal Velocity. In a population of elite rugby players, Initial Acceleration is approximately the
first 6m, Mid-Acceleration is between 6 m and 12 m, Transition to Maximal Velocity is between 12 m and 18 m whilst
the Maximal Velocity phase takes place beyond 18 m.

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A progression of linear sprint training for rugby union players.

J. Aust. Strength Cond. 21(4)80-87. 2013 © ASCA
A PROGRESSION OF LINEAR SPRINT TRAINING FOR RUGBY UNION PLAYERS.
Ross Jeffs
ABSTRACT
Speed is one of the defining components of achievement in any sporting situation. Rugby Union is no different, irrelevant
of a player’s position at some point within a game they will be required to sprint maximal either with, or usually without,
the ball. Speed consistently influences game deciding situations. In order to train a players speed qualities strength and
conditioning coaches should have a periodically planned approach to maximise adaptions similar to how they plan to
improve strength and power in the gym or energy system development out on the field. The following article provides
suggestions of how a coach can do this with regard to exercise selection, training volume progressions and technical
coaching cues. The major concepts focused on are the necessity and importance of acceleration development, maximal
velocity development and technical mastery of sprint technique. When training speed, quality of work is always the most
important factor, if an athlete is running <95% effort and they are fatigued the chances are they are not training speed.
INTRODUCTION
Speed is one of the defining components of achievement in many sporting situations (8). In the sport of rugby union
speed is arguably the number one ability. Irrelevant of what position an individual plays, at some point they will be
required to sprint maximal either with, or most frequently without, the ball. Speed consistently influences game deciding
situations such as breaking a defensive line and then sprinting 40m to score a try. It also holds a number of indirect
benefits. Improved speed capabilities will improve a player’s speed into collisions as a result of bringing a greater level
of momentum into contact. Furthermore, a player with an improved maximum velocity will have an enhanced speed
reserve i.e. they can work at a given sub maximal velocity with a lower level of effort. Athletes who train at maximum
velocities can also reduce the risk of rear chain injuries occurring in a game. The velocity of the lower limb when sprinting
can reach up to 300 deg/sec and no gym based posterior chain exercise can come close to this (19). The purpose of
this report is to provide suggestions to the reader on how to structure a speed based preparation program for rugby
union athletes using scientific evidence and field based experience.
Research has suggested that speed can only be improved if the athlete (4):
1. Takes faster steps (increasing stride rate) without decreasing stride length;
2. Increases stride length without reducing stride rate;
3. Adopts appropriate biomechanics (technique);
4. Develops the necessary anaerobic (speed) endurance allowing repetitive short sprints at the same rate relatively
unaffected by fatigue.
The main aim of the training programme will be to improve the technical aspects of the players performance (point 3)
and to produce positive neuromuscular and structural adaptions from a variety of sprint training methods which will
consequently improve 1, 2 and 4.
There is compelling evidence that the following methods are most beneficial in improving speed performance (4);
1. Functional strength and power

2. Plyometric training
3. Resisted sprint training
4. Technique training
5. Speed endurance training
6. Sprint assisted training
TRAINING METHODS
Due to the nature of this report, the main focus will be on sprinting based movements. This will include using resisted
sprint training and technique training methods. Functional strength/power training and plyometrics will not be included

as they are not sprinting based movements. Speed endurance training is typically energy system training which has an
indirect benefit on improving speed, therefore it will not be included.
Although sprint assisted training has a wealth of evidence indicating its benefit in improving maximal velocity (5), it will
not be included in this progression for rugby union players as the risk-reward ratio is far too high. The increase in velocity
obtained from using assisted sprint training is correlated with an increased delayed hamstring involvement. This
demands extra braking forces prior to ground contact thus increasing the eccentric load on the hamstrings and
increasing the potential for injury (6).
UNRESISTED SPRINTING
The two methods of unresisted training will be split into acceleration work and maximum velocity work. Acceleration
work is particularly important for rugby union players. During most game situations, field sport athletes are required to
cover relatively short distances at high speed. Time-motion research (3, 12, 18) has shown that football players (of all
codes) are required to produce high intensity efforts for around 4-8s. The distance travelled in this time period is usually
up to 40m and has been referred to as the phase of max acceleration (19), where the majority of the time is spent
accelerating and a small portion of the time is spent at maximal running speed.
Although it has been explained that little time is spent at max running speed (19) it does not justify leaving this capacity
out of a training plan. For starters, players rarely begin from a standing start, they are typically moving at low velocities
either jogging or walking. Therefore, their acceleration profile becomes vastly different as high velocities are reached
sooner than first thought. Furthermore, even if rugby union players do not reach true maximal velocity in a game they
certainly do require efficient upright running mechanics which allows them to run at greater speed and expose
themselves to a lesser risk of injury. Training maximal velocity also yields many other additional benefits mentioned
previously such as an improved speed reserve i.e. if a player improves their maximal attainable velocity from 10 m/s to
10.2 they can work at 6.5 m/s with less maximum effort and/or work at a greater velocity with the same effort. Maximal
velocity also improves an athletes’ acceleration ability which, as previously mentioned, is a very important determinant
of game play.
Although not strictly a sprinting based movement, the use of technique drills should be heavily implemented in a sprint
based training program. The drills used consistently in the sprinting community are an adaption of the original Mach
drills. They are based on the A and B drill series. These drills originally were used to allow the athlete to break the sprint
stride into its components parts, knee lift, foreleg action and the push off through the drills. The “A” Drills were designed
to work the knee lift component. The “B” Drills were designed to work on foreleg reach or pawing action (see Video 1).
Utilising these movements in a skipping action were designed to develop the technique required for body lean, arm
action, high knee lift, leg extension, and keeping the center of mass high (COM) (11). This is extremely important for a
rugby player with poor sprinting technique or those who are very new to the concept of sprinting technique. Enforcing
correct foot placement and correct body positions under very slow velocities helps the athlete familiarise themselves to
the requirement of correct sprinting mechanics by improving an athlete’s coordination. These drills also act as an
excellent activation tool and allow the coach to identify any obscurities in an athlete’s movement profile which may lead
to injury.
Video 1 – Sprint drills.
RESISTED SPRINTING
Another component used to training acceleration is the use of resisted sprinting. This is mainly accomplished through
using a weighted sled. The goal of resisted sprint training is to increase the force required to overcome inertia during
the acceleration phase by developing the explosive concentric contractions of the extensors of the hip (gluteals and
hamstrings), knee (quadriceps) and ankle (gastrocnemius and soleus) (1, 17). These increases in strength and power
are transferred to an increased stride length which, when combined with an optimal stride rate, results in increased
horizontal velocity (2, 7, 9).

While this holds true, the use of sleds is also a very efficient tool for teaching technical aspects of sprinting, the increased
loads and slower velocities allows more time for the athlete to obtain the correct biomechanical positions. This improved
spatial awareness transfers fantastically to unresisted sprinting as the player can competently ‘feel’ the correct force
application positions which improves their acceleration and consequently, speed ability. When implementing weighted
sled towing it’s important to understand that the resultant strength may not directly transfer to sprint performance due to
a negative impact on movement kinematics (9, 13, 14, 16). Therefore, it has been recommended that the athlete's
training velocity be reduced by no more than 10% (9) to ensure that the athlete is able to run freely while towing the sled
(15) and to reduce negative impacts (increased trunk lean, feet 'hammered' to the ground, increased braking). This load
usually falls between 10-20% of an athlete’s bodyweight, the stronger athletes can typically work towards the 20% figure,
whilst weaker athletes work ~10%.
As well as sled running, inclined hill sprinting is an excellent tool which can be implemented in a rugby unions linear
speed preparation. Hill sprinting is aimed at increasing the stress on the hip extensors given that the athlete maximizes
stride length. This mode of training is also seen as assisting in the development of shorter ground contact time if there
is an emphasis on pushing off quickly to overcome the effects of the incline (10). Hills are also particularly useful for
those athletes who are rearside dominant and have trouble executing correct front side mechanics thus being at an
increasingly greater risk of a hamstring injury when running on a flat surface. The incline keeps the athlete in a position
of acceleration for the whole time indicating the movement dynamics are primarily quadriceps dominant, because of this
occurrence, distance is kept under 30m. Hill sprinting is also beneficial for the over striding athlete, the incline surface
forces the athlete to place their foot under, and not in front of, their COM. For rugby players a 5-10 degree incline
provides the best environment to work on these factors. The final resisted running tool will be push sleds. There is a
lack of literature on this method but its usefulness will be explained in depth shortly.
PLAYER REQUIREMENTS
The requirements of speed ability differ between each position in rugby. For the sake of this article players have been
split up into the following groups: tight 5 (front row and second row forwards) middle 5 (back row forwards and half
backs) and back 5 (centers, wingers and full back). The tight 5 players typically work over very short distances and
acceleration mechanics are of prime importance. Middle 5 players will be involved in sprinting over longer distances and
at higher velocities than tight 5 players, whilst the backs run at the highest velocities of all players and do this over an
extended distance. Therefore, middle 5 and tight 5 players require more maximal velocity development and a greater
focus on upright sprinting mechanics.
A typical pre-season preparation block for a rugby union team typically lasts anywhere between 10-15 weeks.
The following preparation block example will be split into 3 sets of 4 week blocks.
BLOCK 1
The goal of block 1 should be to introduce basic components of speed development. Acceleration mechanics should be
the main focus during this block, as players need to build a solid and efficient technical model of acceleration before
progressing to maximal velocity running. The core components of the sessions in this block should include sprint drills,
resisted and unresisted sprinting over 0-30m for all player positions.
The most basic sprint drills that focus on acceleration mechanics should be introduced as early as possible in a training
plan. These include the A skip, B skip and piston high knee action (see Video 1). These movements particularly
emphasize the acceleration action of punching the knee up and pushing it down behind the COM, whilst maintaining
correct upright body and arm position. These actions are not intended to be fast powerful movements but rather more
controlled and rhythmical.
Unresisted acceleration runs should be progressed from very short distances. Tight 5 players should spend the majority
of their time in block 1 running over 10m, as developing efficient technical model in this range of sprinting is the most
critical aspect of their game. Middle 5 and back 5 players will begin over a similar distance but they should extend
towards 20-30m earlier within the phase as they have greater demands to accelerate over extended distances. The
starting positions in this first block should be confined to those that will allow and promote correct acceleration
mechanics. For example, the standing, falling and push up start place the athlete in an efficient acceleration position.
Once these have been mastered, more challenging positions can be implemented for added variation within the training
plan when completing the unresisted runs. This is essential due to the fact that during a game rugby players will have
to often get up off the floor as quickly as possible from a variety of positions and sprint.
Resisted runs should follow a similar trend in terms of volume and distances, however, tight 5 and middle 5 players
should use both the push and pull sled whilst the backs will only use the pull sled. Due to the requirements of the game,
tight and middle 5 players run over shorter distances and enter contact particularly earlier than back 5 athletes therefore,
the position with which they accelerate in during the game is a posture that is preparing for contact. Using the push

sleds forces the athlete to get into a similar position to this. The effect is that, whilst sprinting in a posture that is preparing
for contact, they can still effectively apply force and maintain good acceleration mechanics. Some essential cues include,
‘but down’ head and chest up, back flat. The order will generally be push sled, pull sled and unresisted run, moving from
low velocity to high velocity on the speed continuum. Hill running is not suggested in the first block as it is important to
identify mechanics and technical issues over the flat initially.
Acceleration work using the sled and unresisted runs has particular guidelines. Athletes will sprint maximally using
distances between 0-40m. Volume should typically begin at around 150-180 m at the beginning of a preparation cycle
and will peak at around 350-400 m at the very end of the preparation phase with the most prepared top level athletes.
Training sessions typically employ 8-16 runs depending on distances used i.e if runs are shorter more repetitions are
used whereas with longer runs the repetitions are reduced. Rest periods use the rule that for every 10m is a minute
recovery. Complete recovery when sprinting maximally is important to ensure maximal recruitment of an individual’s
motor units and fast twitch fibers.
Block 1 example
Table 1 - Tight 5 progressions.
Week 1 Rest Week 2 Rest Week 3 Rest Week 4 Rest
Mach Sprint Drills: A skip 3x20m B skip 3x20m Piston high knee 3x20m
5x10m 60s 5x10m 60s 5x10m 60s 5x10m 60s

Push Sled Push Sled Push Sled Push Sled
5x10m 60s 4x10m, 1x15m 60s/90s 3x10m, 2x15m 60s/90s 3x10m, 2x15m 60s/90s
Pull Sled Pull Sled Pull Sled Pull Sled
5x10m 60s 4x10m, 1x15m 60s/90s 3x10m, 2x15m 60s/90s 3x10m, 2x20m 60s/120s
No Resistance No resistance No Resistance No resistance
Volume: 150m Volume: 160m Volume: 170m Volume: 180m
Table 2 - Middle 5 progressions.
5x10m 60s 3x10m, 2x15m 60s 3x10m, 2x15m 60s/60s 3x10m 60s
Push Sled Push Sled Push Sled Push Sled
5x10m 60s 2x10m, 2x15m 60s/90s 2x10m, 2x20m 60s/120s 1x20m,2x30m 120s/180s
5x10m 60s 2x10m, 2x15m 60s/90s 2x10m, 2x20m 60s/120s 1x20m,2x30m 120s/180s

Table 3 - Back 5 progressions.
5x15m 90s 4x20m 120s 2x20m, 2x30m 120s/180s 4x30m 180s

5x10m 90s 4x20m 120s 2x20m, 2x30m 120s/180s 4x30m 180s

BLOCK 2
A very similar structure should be utilized in block 2. Now the athlete has some form of acceleration model, this can be
built upon, through the increase in volume of the runs to around 200-300m and an increase in the length of the runs.
Tight 5 will now push towards 20-30m in distance for pull sled and unresisted runs. Push sled runs are kept in the 0-
15m range, as the athlete is in a constant acceleration position. Therefore, there is no transition from a lean to upright
so adding extra distance is unwanted volume that could be time spent developing other qualities. Push sleds are still
retained in block 2 for middle 5 players, but should take a lesser role as extending acceleration in preparation for a max
velocity block becomes more important. Middle and back 5 should prolong distances out to 20-40m with back 5 spending
a little more time at the extended distance. Some athletes running these distances may be upright and in full mechanics
and therefore it’s important to spend time at shorter distances with these athletes ensuring they have a gradual
acceleration pattern and ‘stand up’ straight away. Hill runs can be added instead of sled runs for added variation and
for those with problems such as: overstriding, poor shin angles and rear side mechanical issues. Using an 8-10% incline
is important to ensure high velocities are still obtained and the gastroc-soleous complex is not placed under too much
stress. Hill running typically uses similar rest protocols to characteristic acceleration development.
Sprint drills can now be progressed to add more challenging movements which enhance the athletes’ ability to
coordinate sprint based cues which, through experience, has been a very good transfer to their maximal sprint
mechanics. These include single leg a skip, single leg high knee (see Video 1).
Block 2 example

Mach Sprint Drills Variations: A skip 2x20m Single leg A skip 2x20m B Skip 3x20m Piston high knee 2x20m Single
leg high knee 2x20m
4x15m 90s 4x15m 90s 4x15m 90s 4x15m 90s

Push sled Push Sled Push sled Push Sled
4x15m 90s 4x15m 90s 4x20m 120s 4x20m 120s

Pull sled or hills Pull Sled or hills Pull sled or hills Pull sled or hills
3x15m, 2x20m 90s/ 5x20m 120s 5x20m 120s 3x20m,2x30m 120s/

No resistance 120s No resistance No resistance No resistance 180s


leg high knee 2x20m
3x10m 60s 3x15m 90s 3x15m 90s 3x10m 90s

Push sled Push Sled Push sled Push Sled
2x20m,2x30m 120s/ 1x20m,3x30m 120s/ 4x30m 180s 4x30m 180s

Pull sled or hills 180s Pull Sled or hills 180s Pull sled or hills Pull sled or hills
2x20m,2x30 60s/ 1x20m,3x30m 120s/ 4x30m 180s 2x30m,2x40m 180s/

No resistance 90s No resistance 180s No resistance No resistance 240s

leg high knee 2x20m
2x20m,2x30m 120s/ 2x20m,2x30m 120s/ 1x20m,3x30m 120s/ 1x20m,4x30m 120s/

Pull sled or hills 180s Pull sled or hills 180s Pull sled or hills 180s Pull sled or hills 180s
5x30m 180s 3x30m,2x40m 180s/2 2x30m,3x40m 180s/ 4x40m 240s

No resistance No resistance 40s No resistance 240s No resistance
BLOCK 3
In this final block the tight 5 players should now have a very solid technical model of acceleration over distances of 0-
30 m. Distance could now be extended out to the end range of acceleration (30-40 m) in order to understand and feel
what it is like to run upright without having reached true max velocity, which tends to have a poor risk reward ratio for
heavier players. Volume of acceleration will be pushed towards the end range of 300-400m. Middle and back 5 players
should now begin maximum velocity work whilst still maintaining some acceleration development work at a lower
volume. A few methods are frequently used, including flying runs, sprint float sprint methods and or max efforts over 50-
60m.
A recommendation with rugby union players is that it is more advantageous to use flying runs and or sprint float sprint
methods. By offering a sub-maximally initiated approach run or a float zone, the athlete limits the breath of exposure to
high speed movements and the athlete enters the zone with correct mechanics and in a relaxed manner. This supports
the goal of the run which is to enforce correct upright sprinting posture. Rugby union players running maximally from 0-
60m are undoubtedly going to reach maximal velocity and hold it for a longer period of time which, based on my
experience, is where most injuries occur, as rugby players often have poor mechanics to start with and cannot run
relaxed while upright, so although this could be an eventual progression it is out of the scope of this periodization plan.
When structuring sprint float sprint methods, the sprint and float zone can be anywhere between 15-30m. Beginners
can typically begin with 15m sprint, 15m float, 15m sprint section. Maintaining speed is essential in the float zone as it
teaches the athlete to run relaxed whilst maintained upright efficient running mechanics. Rest needs to ensure full
recovery of the athlete therefore around 5+ minutes is sufficient. The other common method used is fly runs. The coach
can modify the build-up period depending on the weight and speed preparation of the athlete, so large and slower
athletes tend to have shorter zones, whilst the leaner, faster individuals have a longer build-up. A typical session would
use a 15-30m build up with a 10-30m flying section. With regards to volumes, coaches typically use the amount of runs
to gauge volume in maximal velocity development, as the float and build up periods are not full effort. 3-6 efforts is
sufficient, depending on how much acceleration volume the coach wants to include. Push and pull sleds are still existent
in the tight and middle 5 programme, but take a lesser role to ensure quality of the longer distance and maximal velocity
runs. The same holds true with regards to pull sleds or hills in the back 5 program, while maximal velocity development
remains the main goal, acceleration development should still be trained.

As all 3 groups should indulge in some form of upright running, it is important to implement cues in the drills. The two
main cues for upright running are ‘step over the opposite knee’ and ‘push down’. The first cue describes the movement
of the stance leg from the full extension on the ground to the point at which the thigh is parallel to the ground in front of
the body. Stepping over the knee ensures high heel recovery and a reduction in rearside mechanics. The push down
cue focuses on the movement of the swing leg into the ground. This prompt ensures full extension and the prevention
of over striding or pegging into the ground. Pegging can be explained by a lack of extension and a bent leg at contact.
This ultimately results in more time spent on the ground, which is certainly undesirable in sprinting. These tend to be
the main issues of upright running with individuals who have no experience training upright running posture. These cues
are emphasised well in the ankle and cycle high knee drills (see Video 1).
Block 3 example

Mach Sprint Drill Variations: A skip 2x20m 2x20m B skip 2x20m ankle dribble 2x20m knee dribble 2x20m cycle
high knee 2x20m
3x15m 90s 3x15m 90s 3x15m 90s 2x15m 90s

Push sled Push sled Push sled Push sled
4x20m 120s 3x20m 120s 3x20m 120s 2x30m 120s

Pull sled or hills Pull sled or hills Pull sled or hills Pull sled or hills
6x30m 180s 4x30m,2x40m 180s 3x30m,3x40m 180s/ 2x30m,4x40m 180s/

No resistance No resistance No resistance 240s No resistance 240s

high knee 2x20m
3x10m 60s 3x10m 60s 3x10m 60s 3x10m 60s

Push sled Push sled Push sled Push sled
3x30m 180s 3x30m 180s 3x30m 180s 3x30m 180s

4xSprint-float- 300s+ 3xSprint-float- 300s+ 4xSprint-float- 300s+ 4xSprint-float- 300s+

sprint sprint sprint sprint
15m-15m-15m 20m-20m-20m 20m-20m-20m 30m-20m-20m
Or Or Or Or
4xFlying 10m 300s+ 4xFlying 15m 300s+ 4xFlying 20m 300s+ 4xFlying 20m 300s+
20m build up 20m build up 20m build up 30m build up
Acc. Volume: 120m Acc. Volume: 120m Acc. Volume: 120m Acc. Volume: 120m


high knee 2x20m
3x30m 180s 3x30m 180s 3x30m 180s 3x30m 180s

3xSprint-float- 300s+ 4xSprint-float- 300s+ 4xSprint-float- 300s+ 4xSprint-float- 300s+

sprint sprint sprint sprint
20m-20m-20m 20m-20m-20m 30m-20m-20m 30m-20m-30m
Or Or Or Or
4xFlying 10m 300s+ 4xFlying 15m 300s+ 4xFlying 20m 300s+ 4xFlying 30m 300s+
20m build up 20m build up 20m build up 20m build up
Acc. Volume: 90m Acc. Volume: 90m Acc. Volume: 90m Acc. Volume: 90m
CONCLUSION
The above gives a suggested example of how to structure a speed program for rugby union players based on scientific
evidence and experience. It is important that the whole weekly setup of training is taken into account. Typically, rugby
teams will train speed once a week but this can be increased to twice a week if programmed efficiently into the program.
Speed training typically fits best on central nervous system intensive days which includes intense energy system training
and heavy or dynamic weight sessions. Although the above provides a week by week structure, it is important for the
coach to take the ideas and adapt them to suit their own players.
REFERENCES
1. Blazevich, A. J. Optimizing hip musculature for greater sprint running 10. Kunz, H., & Kaufmann, D.A. Biomechanics of hill sprinting. Track
speed. Strength and Conditioning Journal. 22: 22-27. 2000. Technique, 82, 2603-2605. 1981a.
2. Costello, F. Training for speed using resisted and assisted methods. 11. Mach, G, Sprinting & Hurdling school. CTFA. 6. 1977.
National Strength and Conditioning Association Journal. 7, 74- 12. Mayhew, S.R., & Wenger, H.A. Time-motion analysis of professional
75. 1985. soccer. Journal of Human Movement Studies. 11: 49-52. 1985.
3. Deutsch, M.U., Kearney, G.A., & Rehrer, N.J. A comparison of 13. Pauletto, B. Maximising speed with the speed chute. Scholastic
competition work rates in elite club and Super 12 rugby. In W.L. Coach. 60, 50-51. 1991a.
Spinks, T.Reilly and A. Murphy (Eds.) Science. 2002. 14. Pauletto, B. The speed chute. National Strength and Conditioning
4. Dintiman, G.B. Acceleration and speed. In B. Foran (Ed.). High Association Journal. 13: 47-48. 1991b.
performance sports conditioning (pp. 167-192), Champaign IL: 15. Pauletto, B. Speed-power training: how to get that last 10% effort to
Human Kinetics. 2001. assure a good speed workout. Scholastic Coach. 63: 54-55. 1993.
5. Faccioni, A Resisted and assisted methods of speed development. 16. Tabachnik, B. The speed chute. National Strength and
www.faccioni.com/Reviews/reass.htm . 2001. Conditioning Association Journal, 14, 75-80. 1992.
6. Faccioni, A. Assisted and resisted methods for speed development: 17. Van Ingen Schenau, G.J., de Konig, J.J., & de Groot. G. Optimisation
part 1. Modern Athlete and Coach. 32: 3-6. 1994a. of sprinting performance in running, cycling and speed skating.
7. Faccioni, A. Assisted and resisted methods for speed development: Sports Medicine. 17: 259-275. 1994.
part 2. Modern Athlete and Coach. 32: 8-12. 1994b. 18. Withers, R.T., Maricic, Z., Wasilewski, S., & Kelly, L. Match analyses
8. Harland, M.J., & Steele, J.R. Biomechanics of the sprint start. Sports of Australian professional soccer players. Journal of Human
Medicine. 23: 11-20. 1997. Movement Studies. 8: 159-176. 1982.
9. Jakalski, K. The pros and cons of using resisted and assisted training 19. Young, W., McLean, B., & Ardagna, J. Relationship between strength
methods with high school sprinters: Parachutes, tubing and towing. qualities and sprinting performance. Journal of Sports Medicine
Track Coach. 144, 4585-4589, 4612. 1998. and Physical Fitness, 35,13-19. 1995.

“Change of direction deficit” measurement in division I American football players.

J. Aust. Strength Cond. 21(S2)115-117. 2013 © ASCA.
“CHANGE OF DIRECTION DEFICIT” MEASUREMENT IN DIVISION I AMERICAN

FOOTBALL PLAYERS
Sophia Nimphius1, Grant Geib2, Tania Spiteri1 and Duane Carlisle2

1 Edith Cowan University – Centre for Exercise and Sports Science Research, Perth,
Australia
2 Purdue University – Purdue Sports Performance, West Lafayette, USA
INTRODUCTION
Change of direction (COD) ability is an important physical fitness capacity required in conjunction with cognitive-
perceptual ability to perform effective and efficient agility manoeuvres in many sports (4). Although, the physical capacity
to change direction is often measured by strength and conditioning professionals, the ability of these common COD
tests (presented as time to complete a running task) to truly measure one’s ability to decelerate and subsequently
reaccelerate in a new direction is often tangled within one’s ability to perform straight line running. This has been
demonstrated with large to very large correlations found between COD tests and straight-line sprint speed in various
studies (1, 3, 5). The reason for continuing to use these common COD tests, such as the T-test, 505 and pro-agility is
often due to existing data to compare athlete performances and ease of data collection. Some researchers have used
the velocity of the centre of mass as a true measure of COD ability (6). Although assessing COD ability by measuring
athlete COM out of a COD step provides a direct measure of COD ability, the scope for strength and conditioning
professionals to be able to use this type of assessment is small due to time and equipment constraints. A proposed
method, termed “change of direction deficit”, to assess COD ability was calculated to assess if this measure could better
isolate COD ability independent of one’s straight-line sprint ability.
METHODS
Participants
Sixty-six Collegiate Division I American football players (n = 66) between the ages of 18 and 22; body mass: 107.7 ±
20.5; relative 1-RM Squat: 2.0 ± 0.3; relative 1-RM Hang Clean: 1.2 ± 0.2) performed the pro-agility COD test and 40
yard (36.6. metre) sprint test (with 10 yard split times) as part of their standard testing for sport performance athlete
profiling at their University. Athletes were cleared for physical performance testing and an ethics declaration for use of
the collected data was obtained.
Experimental Design
Participants performed a 40-yard sprint test through timing gates (Speedlight Timing System; Swift, Australia) with a 10-
yard split. Further, pro-agility COD performance was assessed with timing lights, allowing for a split time during the first
10 yards of the test which includes a single 180 degree COD (Figure 1). “Change of direction deficit” was calculated as
the difference between the 10-yard split time during the 40-yard sprint and the 10-yard split with a 180-degree COD (as
assessed during the first half of the pro-agility).
Figure 1 - Pro-Agility COD test.
SPSS Version 21.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, USA) was used to assess the relationship between pro-agility COD
performance, straight-line sprint speed (10 yd split) and COD deficit using Pearson product-moment correlations (r) with
explained variance (r2). Significance set at an alpha level of 0.05. Magnitude of the effect was based on the following

scale: trivial: <0.10, small ≤0.10-0.29, moderate 0.30-0.49, large 0.50-0.69, very large: 0.70-0.89, and nearly perfect
≥0.90 (2). Further, to ensure the COD deficit is actually a different measure than total time to perform pro-agility and is
a separate quality than straight-line sprint speed, partial correlation was assessed with sprint time over 10 yards as the
controlled (removed) variable. All data is presented as means ± SD.
RESULTS
The mean ± SD of pro-agility, 10 yard sprint time and COD deficit are presented in Table 1. Further, the correlations
between pro-agility time (including the pro-agility 10 yd split time), sprint time and COD deficit are presented in Table 2.
Finally, in Table 3, the relationship between pro-agility and COD deficit is presented when the variable of sprint time is
controlled for using a partial correlation analysis.
Table 1 - Mean ± SD values for all variables.

Mean SD
Pro-agility (s) 4.53 ± 0.33
Pro-agility (10 yd split) (s) 2.29 ± 0.17
10 yd Sprint time (s) 1.57 ± 0.15
COD Deficit (s) 0.72 ± 0.08
Table 2 - Correlation and (explained variance) between COD deficit, Pro-agility time, Pro-agility 10 yd split and 10 yd
sprint time with and without sprint speed controlled.
COD Deficit Pro Agility Pro Agility (10 yd)
Pro Agility (s) 0.54 (29%) **

Pro Agility (10 yd) (s) 0.61 (37%) ** 0.98 (96%) **
Sprint time (10 yd) (s) 0.19 (4%) 0.91 (83%) ** 0.89 (79%) **
** p ≤ 0.001
Table 3 - Correlation and (explained variance) between COD deficit, Pro-agility time and Pro-agility 10 yd split when
sprint time (10 yd) variable is controlled.
COD Deficit
Pro Agility (s) 0.89 (79%) **

Pro Agility (10 yd) (s) 0.89 (79%) **
** p ≤ 0.001
DISCUSSION
When assessing the COD ability of an athlete, it is important understand the implications of the design of the test on
ability to isolate COD ability when using “time” to complete the entire test. The calculation of COD deficit (0.72 ± 0.08 s)
during the first half of a pro-agility test (2.29 ± 0.17 s) revealed that approximately 31% of the time spent during that test
is actually spent changing direction or is the amount of time required to add a single change of direction within a 10 yard
distance in comparison to a straight line 10 yard sprint. With this understood, it is logical the results demonstrate a
relationship between COD deficit and pro-agility time and pro-agility time (10 yd), that although significant, only explains
29% and 37% of the score respectively. The other percentage of this explained variance would be a function of one’s
straight-line sprint ability and underpinning physical attributes such as strength and explosiveness. The small and non-
significant relationship between COD deficit and sprint time indicates that COD deficit represents a unique measure of
physical performance. This differs from the typical large to very large significant correlations between COD tests and
sprint time in this study (Table 2) and those reported in previous studies (1, 3, 5).
Therefore, it would appear that COD deficit relates significantly to COD times measured by a typical COD test such as
pro-agility, but with the explained variance only being between 29-37% is representing possibly a more specific isolation
of just COD ability, independent of straight-line sprint ability. To confirm that COD deficit is a function of COD ability as
measured by the pro-agility test, the relationship between pro-agility time and COD deficit was assessed with sprint time
controlled for using a partial correlation. The result was a significant and very large relationship between COD deficit
and pro-agility time (Table 2) that explained 79% of the variance. This ensures that this measure reflects the intention
of the COD test, to measure only COD capacity independent of straight-line sprint ability.
The results of this research were intended for and directly applicable to strength and conditioning professionals
interested in isolating COD ability in athletes using tests the are probably already using in their current athlete
performance profiling. The potential to use the COD deficit to assess COD ability independent of sprint speed could

allow practitioners to more effectively identify if COD ability is lacking in an athlete independent of their need to merely
improve sprint ability. Therefore, with additional testing, normative data and a standardised protocol the COD deficit has
potential to improve specificity of COD ability characterisation without need for additional testing, time or equipment.
REFERNCES
1. Gabbett, T.J., Kelly, J.N., and Sheppard, J.M. Speed, change of 4. Sheppard, J.M. and Young, W. Agility literature review:
direction speed, and reactive agility of rugby league players. Journal Classifications, training and testing. Journal of Sports Sciences 24:
of Strength and Conditioning Research 22: 174-181, 2008. 919-932, 2006.
2. Hopkins, W.G. A scale of magnitudes for effect statistics A new 5. Sheppard, J.M., Young, W.B., Doyle, T.L., Sheppard, T.A., and
view of statistics, 2002. Newton, R.U. An evaluation of a new test of reactive agility and its
3. Nimphius, S., McGuigan, M.R., and Newton, R.U. Relationship relationship to sprint speed and change of direction speed. Journal
between strength, power, speed, and change of direction of Science and Medicine in Sport 9: 342-349, 2006.
performance of female softball players. Journal of Strength and 6. Spiteri, T., Cochrane, J.L., Hart, N.H., Haff, G.G., and Nimphius, S.
Conditioning Research 24: 885-895, 2010. Effect of strength on plant foot kinetics and kinematics during a
change of direction task. European Journal of Sport Science: 1-7,
2013.

Effects of traditional vs. game situational sprint training in rugby league players.
EFFECTS OF TRADITIONAL VS. GAME SITUATIONAL SPRINT TRAINING IN RUGBY

LEAGUE PLAYERS
Laurent Seitz1,2
1 FrenchRugby League Academy, Toulouse, France
2 Centre
for Exercise and Sport Science Research, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup,
Western Australia
ABSTRACT
The aim of the present study was to compare the effects of 7 weeks of traditional vs. game-situational sprint training on
sprint performance, with and without a ball in hand, of junior elite rugby league players.
Twenty players were randomly allocated to either a traditional sprint-training group (n=10) or a game-situational sprint
training group (n=10). Both groups performed identical sprint exercises (i.e., similar distances, number of sprints/sets
per session, rest between sprints/sets and patterns), however, the traditional sprint training group performed the sprints
without a ball in hand whereas the players of the game-situational sprint training group were required to catch and carry
the ball under one arm during each sprint. To assess sprint performance, three 20-m sprints were performed with and
without the ball in a randomized order, three days before and after the training intervention. Results show that following
the training intervention, the traditional and game-situational sprint training groups experienced similar improvements in
20-m sprint time regardless of the condition under which the sprints were performed.
In conclusion, game-situational sprint training (i.e. sprinting with a ball under one arm), together with regular technical
and tactical training, is as effective as traditional sprint training (i.e. sprinting without a ball under one arm) for improving
the 20-m sprint performance, with and without the ball, of elite rugby league players.
Strength and conditioning coaches can use game-situational sprint training to improve the sprint performance of elite
rugby league players to the same magnitude as traditional sprint training. This is particularly of interest during congested
training and playing schedules as the sprint performance of the players can be improved using game-situational
exercises that occur during a game.
INTRODUCTION
Enhancing sprint performance is an important component of performance required for success in rugby league (3, 7).
Sprint performance has been shown to discriminate between elite and sub-elite players (2, 7) and, starters and non-
starters (7). In addition, rugby league players perform up to 39 sprints during a professional game (5). Collectively, these
findings emphasize the importance of including speed training in the conditioning programs of rugby league players.
There is a large volume of published studies advocating the use of game-situational training in order to closely replicate
conditions that occur during the competitive environment within training (1, 8, 9). Such training is of practical interest for
coaches and the strength and conditioning professionals as it should promote an effective transfer to the athletes’
competitive environment. With respect to rugby league, a game-situational training exercise would be one in which
sprints were performed while carrying a ball in hand, due to a recent study showing that players perform up to 30% of
their sprints with the ball in hand during a professional game (5).
To the best of our knowledge, however, no studies have compared the effects of traditional vs. game situational sprint
training on the sprint performance of rugby league players. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to compare the
effects of 7 weeks of traditional vs. game situational sprint training on sprint performance, with and without a ball in
hand, of junior elite rugby league players.
METHODS

To assess the effects of traditional vs. game-situational sprint training on sprint performance, with and without the ball
in hand, twenty elite junior rugby league players were randomly allocated to either a traditional sprint-training group
(n=10) or a game-situational sprint training group (n=10). In order to asses sprint performance, all players performed
three 20-m sprints with and without the ball (six sprints in total), in a randomized order, three days before (baseline) and
after (post-training) the training intervention. The training intervention took place during the pre-season and consisted
of one session per week.

Subjects
Twenty elite junior rugby league players (18.4 ± 0.9 y, 182.3 ± 7.4 cm, 81.6 ± 11.7 kg) from the French rugby league
academy took part in this investigation. All players signed an informed consent form and all procedures in this study
were approved by the Ethics Committee of the Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Australia.
Procedures
Training intervention: Through the training intervention, both groups performed identical sprint exercises (i.e., similar
distances, number of sprints and sets per session, rest between sprints and sets, and patterns), however, the traditional
sprint training group performed the sprints without a ball in hand whereas the players of the game-situational sprint
training group were required to catch and carry the ball under one arm during each sprint.
Sprint testing: Sprint time was measured using electronic timing gates (Microgate Photocell, Bolzano, Italy) positioned
at 20 m from the start line. All participants initiated the sprint in their own time from a semi-crouched position with the
front foot 10 cm from the start line. This starting position has been previously used with these athletes to assess sprint
performance and has been shown to be highly reliable (ICC= 0.90-0.91) (10). The interclass correlation coefficients for
the 20-m sprint in the present study was 0.92. The fastest sprint from each condition at baseline and post-training was
used for further analysis. During baseline testing session, the players were allowed to choose the arm under which they
carried the ball, which remained the same in post-training testing.
Statistical Analyses
A three-way (group × time × condition) factorial ANOVA was performed to compare changes in sprint performance with
and without the ball, and before and after the training intervention for both traditional and game-situational sprint training
groups. Pairwise comparisons with Bonferroni corrections were performed when significant interaction effect was
detected. All the statistical analyses were performed on STATA 9.1 for Windows (Stata Corp. College Station, TX, USA)
and the level of significance was set at p  0.05.
RESULTS
Following the 7 weeks training intervention, the traditional and game-situational sprint training groups experienced
similar improvements in 20-m sprint time regardless of the condition under which the sprints were performed (Tables 1,
2 and 3).
Table 1 - 20-m sprint time performance of the traditional training group before and after the training intervention.
Traditional group (n=10)

Pre Post p value ES
With ball 3.12 ± 0.12 3.03 ± 0.11 0.003 -0.74
Without ball 3.09 ± 0.11 3.00 ± 0.10 0.009 -0.79
Table 2 - 20-m sprint time performance of the game-situational training group before and after the training
intervention.
Game-situational group (n=10)

Pre Post p value ES
With ball 3.17 ± 0.12 3.08 ± 0.09 0.001 -0.76
Without ball 3.13 ± 0.12 3.04 ± 0.09 0.003 -0.75
Table 3 - Percentage improvement in 20-m sprint time following the training intervention.
Traditional group Game-situational group p value eta2

With ball -2.84 -2.89 0.661 0.032
Without ball -2.79 -2.85 0.618 0.038
p value 0.523 0.574
DISCUSSION
The purpose of the present study was to compare the effects of 7 weeks of traditional vs. game-situational sprint training
on sprint performance, with and without a ball in hand, of junior elite rugby league players. The main finding of this study
indicates that the traditional and game-situational sprint training methods were equally effective at improving 20-m sprint
time regardless of the condition under which the sprints were performed. This finding contrasts that of Gabbett (4), who
observed greater improvement in 20-m sprint time without ball in hand following 9 weeks of skill-based conditioning
game (-3.2%) in comparison to traditional sprint training (-0.0%). This discrepancy might be due to the fact that the
training volume of the traditional and skill-based conditioning game groups could not be equated in the study of Gabbett
(4) due to the different nature of these training methods. Therefore, it is possible that these training methods induced

different adaptations resulting in different improvements in sprint performance. Conversely, in the present study, the
training volume was equated between the traditional and game-situational sprint training groups.
The present finding also indicates that the game-situational sprint training method is of interest for coaches as it closely
replicates conditions occurring during technical and tactical training or game, and is as effective as traditional sprint
training for improving sprint performance. This is particularly interesting as previous research acknowledge that the
most effective mode of training is that which closely replicate conditions occurring during competition or game-play (1,
8, 9). The rationale behind this is that performing game-situational exercises promotes an effective transfer to the
athletes’ competitive environment, as technical and tactical skills are involved and trained in conditions similar to actual
competition or match-play (4, 6).
In conclusion, game-situational sprint training (i.e. sprinting with a ball under one arm), together with regular technical
and tactical training, is as effective as traditional sprint training (i.e. sprinting without a ball under one arm) for improving
the sprint performance, with and without the ball, of elite rugby league players. Future research should investigate
whether performing game-situational sprint training can also improve the technical and tactical skills of the players and
whether non-rugby league players exhibit a similar percentage reduction in sprint time while carrying the ball in hand.
This control comparison to experienced rugby league players would detail the extent to which this task (sprinting with a
ball in hand) is learned.
PRATICAL APPLICATIONS
Coaches and strength and conditioning coaches can use game-situational sprint training (i.e. sprinting with a ball under
one arm) to improve the sprint performance of elite rugby league players to the same magnitude as traditional sprint
training. This is particularly of interest during congested training and playing schedules as the sprint performance of the
players can be improved using game-situational exercises that occur during a game.
REFERENCES
1. Chamari, K. Hachana Y. Kaouech F. Jeddi R. Moussa-Chamari I. & International Journal of Sports Science and Coaching 4: 273-
Wisløff U. Endurance training and testing with the ball in young elite 283. 2009.
soccer players. British Journal of Sports Medicine 39: 24-28. 7. Gabbett, T.J. Kelly J. Ralph S. & Driscoll D. Physiological and
2005. anthropometric characteristics of junior elite and sub-elite rugby
2. Gabbett, T.J. Physiological and anthropometric characteristics of league players, with special reference to starters and non-starters.
amateur rugby league players. British Journal of Sports Medicine Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport 12: 215-222. 2009.
34: 303-307. 2000. 8. Hoff, J. Wisløff U. Engen L. Kemi O. & Helgerud J. Soccer specific
3. Gabbett, T.J. Physiological characteristics of junior and senior rugby aerobic endurance training. British Journal of Sports Medicine 36:
league players. British Journal of Sports Medicine 36: 334-339. 218-221. 2002.
2002. 9. McMillan, K. Helgerud J. Macdonald R. & Hoff J. Physiological
4. Gabbett, T.J. Skill-based conditioning games as an alternative to adaptations to soccer specific endurance training in professional
traditional conditioning for rugby league players. Journal of youth soccer players. British Journal of Sports Medicine 39: 273-
Strength and Conditioning Research 20: 309-315. 2006. 277. 2005.
5. Gabbett, T.J. Sprinting patterns of national rugby league competition. 10. Seitz, L.B. Rivière M. Sáez de Villarreal E. & Haff G.G. The athletic
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 26: 121-130. performance of elite rugby league players is improved after an 8-
2012. week small-sided game training intervention. Journal of Strength
6. Gabbett, T.J. Jenkins D. & Abernethy B. Game-based training for and Conditioning Research Published Ahead of Print, July 2013.
improving skill and physical fitness in team sport athletes. 2013.

Ball inclusion into the AFL agility test can improve change of direction performance.
BALL INCLUSION INTO THE AFL AGILITY TEST CAN IMPROVE CHANGE OF
DIRECTION PERFORMANCE
Tania Spiteri 1,2 and Nicolas H. Hart 1,3

1 Centre for Exercise & Sport Science Research - Edith Cowan University, Perth, Australia
2 West Coast Waves, Perth, Australia
3 Fremantle Dockers Football Club, Perth, Australia
INTRODUCTION
The Australian Football League (AFL) agility test is a pre-planned change-of-direction (COD) protocol used during talent
identification and national draft combine programs, in addition to other anthropometric and performance-based
measures, to identify Australian Footballers for club recruitment purposes (1). While the AFL agility test provides a
standardised measure of an athlete’s manoeuvrability in multiple directions; including sport-specific equipment (e.g.:
adding a ball) to the test may improve differentiation of higher-level performers by increasing task complexity and
specificity. While movements involving a ball carrying element in AFL only occur during attacking situations, the inclusion
of a ball may help to further distinguish COD performance in AFL athletes compared to the traditional AFL agility test.
This has been demonstrated in other team-sports incorporating objects requiring manipulation into their COD protocols,
including soccer balls, basketballs and hockey sticks/balls (2-4) to further separate playing levels due to the increased
perceptual skill required (5). This is particularly useful as increased perceptual skill and technical ability, displayed by
elite athletes, enables more attention to be focused on the secondary task (bouncing a ball whilst changing direction),
without compromising performance outcomes. The purpose of this study was to therefore determine if differences
existed between AFL agility times with a ball included versus traditional standardised trials.
METHODS
Participants
Sixty (n = 60) sub-elite, male junior Australian Footballers (age = 18 ± 0.7 yrs.; height = 189.3 ± 4.9 cm; weight: 83.1 ±
5.7 kg) were recruited from the Colts division of the Western Australia Football League (WAFL) as part of a simulated
Australian Football draft combine testing protocol. Athletes were free from injury at the time of testing, and provided
written informed consent with parent and guardian permission. Ethics approval was provided by the University’s Human
Research Ethics Committee.
Experimental Design
Athletes completed six trials of the AFL agility test: three with a ball and three without a ball. The agility test was
performed in accordance with standardised dimensions and equipment described by the AFL (Figure 1). For trials with
a ball, subjects were instructed to change direction around the poles while carrying the football in a position comfortable
for them, with no further instruction provided. Performance time was measured by dual beam infra-red timing lights
(Speedlight, Swift Performance Equipment, NSW, Australia), with gates positioned at the start and finish line. To capture
technique adopted during left and right directional changes, two high-speed video cameras (Sony HDD Camcorder
HDRXR550V, Sony Australia) sampling at 240 Hz were positioned 2.5 metres parallel to the agility circuit, in line with
the centre pole (Figure 1).
2.5m
2.5m
2D camera
Figure 1 - A schematic view of the AFL Agility circuit adapted from (6), illustrating the location of the video cameras.

Figure 2 - Example illustrations of an inside ball carry trial (left) and outside ball carry trial (right).
The average of the three trials for each condition was recorded and used for analysis. Following data analysis, two
different ball carrying techniques were identified between athletes: 1) an inside ball carry, where athletes positioned the
ball closer to the pole when changing direction; and 2) an outside ball carry, where athletes positioned the ball further
away from the pole when changing direction (Figure 2). Athletes self-selected one of these two ball carrying techniques,
with athletes who selected the outside ball carrying technique swapping the ball to the outside of their body during each
directional change. All athletes self-selected a preferred strategy to use, with 22 athletes choosing an inside ball-carry
technique and 38 athletes choosing an outside ball-carry technique. To determine the different ball carrying techniques
utilized, footage recorded from the two high-speed video cameras were exported to silicon coach (Version 6.1.5.1,
SiliconCOACH Ltd), where frame by frame analysis was used to determine the ball carrying technique utilised by each
athlete for every trial.
To compare performance times between the tradition AFL agility test and the inside and outside ball carry trials
respectively, a repeated measures ANOVA (p ≤ 0.05) with sequential Bonferonni’s corrections was performed. To
compare differences in performance times between inside and outside ball carry trials an independent T-test (p ≤ 0.05)
was performed. Effect size (ES) statistics were also calculated to establish a measure of magnitude between conditions.
RESULTS
Significant differences (p = 0.001, ES = 1.2 – 1.6), were observed between the inside ball-carry condition in comparison
to all other agility conditions (Figure 3), demonstrating significantly slower circuit completion times with an inside ball-
carry. While no significant differences were observed between traditional trials (no ball) and outside ball-carry conditions,
a moderate effect was observed (p = 0.065, ES = 0.8), illustrating moderately faster completion times when using an
outside ball-carry technique.
10.0
*
9.5
9.0
Time (s)
8.5
8.0
7.5
7.0
Without Ball Inside Carry Outside Carry
Figure 3 - Total running time (s) during AFL agility test (mean ± SD).

DISCUSSION
Athletes who selected an outside ball-carry technique were faster in comparison to traditional trials and significantly
faster compared to inside ball carry trials. Athletes who self-selected the outside ball carry technique were able to
regularly switch the ball to the outside of their body during each directional change, whereas athletes who opted to use
the inside ball carry technique required a wider turning circle, with greater rates of repeat trials due to erroneous trials
by inadvertently striking the pole when changing direction. It can therefore be assumed that utilising an outside ball carry
technique can enable athletes to obtain a mechanical advantage, aiding their ability to efficiently lower their centre of
mass while widening their base of support to achieve a better body position. This body position has been observed
throughout the literature in elite and/or faster athletes to achieve a faster COD performance (7). Further, as we provided
no specific technical instruction during the ball carry condition, we can assume athletes who self-selected the outside
ball carry technique had greater awareness of body positioning, greater ball control and greater task adaptability versus
those athletes who self-selected the inside ball carry technique. This decision-making element placed on athletes during
the ball carry condition, can potentially differentiate between higher-level performers, as these athletes self-selected a
more advantageous ball carrying technique, which resulted in a faster AFL agility performance.
The inclusion of a ball in addition to the standard AFL agility test can provide coaches with information regarding an
athlete’s ability to simultaneously coordinate and adjust body positioning and ball placement whilst changing direction
to further distinguish COD performance under different conditions. In addition to the traditional COD assessment, this
may provide player recruitment officials with another performance indicator of athletes preferred performance strategy
reflective of game scenarios where directional changes with a ball are evident. Further, strength and conditioning
practitioners responsible for coaching COD performance in Australian Football when using the AFL Agility Test may
wish to include a ball-carry in order to assist athletes to develop a low centre-of-gravity and balance when changing
direction.
REFERENCES
1. Pyne, D.B., Gardner, A.S., Sheehan, K. & Hopkins, W.G. Positional identification in female field hockey. Canadian Journal of Applied
differences in fitness and anthropometric characteristics in Australian Physiology, 28(3):397-409, 2003.
football. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 9:143-150, 2006. 5. Baker, J., Cote, J., & Abernethy, B. Sport Specific Practice and the
2. Reilly, T., Williams, A. M., Nevill, A., & Franks, A. A multidisciplinary Development of Expert Decision Making in Team Ball Sports. Journal
approach to talent identification in soccer. Journal of Sports Science, of Applied Sports Psychology, 15:12-25, 2003.
18(9):695-702, 2000. 6. Burgess, D., Naughton, G., & Hopkins, W.G. Draft-camp predictors of
3. Erculj, F., Blas, M., & Barcia, M. Physical demands on young elite subsequent career success in the Australian Football League. Journal
European female basketball players with special reference to speed, of Science and Medicine in Sport 15(6):561-567, 2012.
agility, explosive strength and take-off power. Journal of Strength & 7. Spiteri, T., Cochrane, J.L., Hart, N.H., Haff, G.G., & Nimphius, S. Effect
Conditioning Research, 24(11): 2970-2978, 2010. of strength on plant foot kinetics and kinematics during a change of
4. Keogh, J. W., Weber, C. L., & Dalton, C. T. Evaluation of direction task. European Journal of Sport Science, 0(0):1-7, 2013
anthropometric, physiological, and skill-related tests for talent

Comparison of the sprint paddling performance between competitive male and female
surfers.
COMPARISON OF THE SPRINT PADDLING PERFORMANCE BETWEEN COMPETITIVE

MALE AND FEMALE SURFERS
Josh L. Secomb1,2, Oliver R. L. Farley1,2, Lina Lundgren1,2, Tai T. Tran1,2, Sophia

Nimphius2 and Jeremy M. Sheppard1,2
1Surfing Australia High Performance Centre, Casurina Beach, Australia,

2Centre for Exercise and Sport Science Research, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup,
Australia
INTRODUCTION
Surfboard riding (surfing) is a popular sport that is performed competitively at both recreational and elite levels (8).
Successful surfing requires a high level of both technical proficiency and physiological fitness, of which the latter is
utilised to provide propulsion through the water, in order to be correctly positioned to catch the most appropriate waves.
This propulsion occurs prior to the surfer standing up from a prone position and riding the wave, through paddling. Whilst
riding the wave, the surfing athlete uses dynamic balance and lower-body power to remain on the board and perform
manoeuvres (4, 9).
The current judging criteria, as noted in the “Association of Surfing Professionals Rule Book”, states that “surfers must
perform a variety of innovative and progressive manoeuvres, with a high degree of difficulty and commitment” (1, 7). To
be successful, surfers must perform major manoeuvres whilst maintaining speed, power, and flow of the surfboard
(1).Competitive surfing is scored solely on technical ability and skills on a wave, however, the peak velocity that can be
attained during a sprint paddling effort to catch a wave will likely determine the speed and power of the surfer’s initial
manoeuvre. This is the result of a surfer that possesses a greater sprint paddling peak velocity, demonstrating the
associated capability to take-off closer to the curl of a wave, and therefore, perform a scoring manoeuvre with greater
speed and power sooner after entering the wave, which increasingly adheres to the scoring criteria. Further, during
surfing training female surfers have to compete with males for waves in the line-up. Any deficit in a female surfers sprint
paddling ability, compared to males, will limit their ability to sit as close as possible to the curl of the wave, and therefore,
their opportunity to catch a high number of waves during a training session will be limited. If a female surfer does not
have the opportunity to catch a sufficient number of waves in a training session, there will be an associated reduction
in their ability to acquire new skills and refine their technique of already learnt manoeuvres.
Sheppard et al. (11) identified a significant association between relative upper-body pulling strength and peak paddling
velocity (r = 0.66). As it has previously been reported that significant differences exist between the upper-body strength
of males and females (2, 6, 10), it may be proposed that competitive female surfers possess lower sprint paddling peak
velocities when compared to males, and hence, entry speed in to caught waves will be reduced. A surfer’s maximal
sprint paddling velocity likely underpins scoring potential in competitive events, as well as their opportunity to catch a
higher frequency of waves during surfing practice. However, no research to date has investigated the differences
between competitive male and female surfers’ sprint paddling performance. As such, this study aims to establish if any
differences - exist in the sprint paddling capabilities between male and female competitive surfers.
METHODS
Experimental Approach
The current study involved a comparative analysis of differences between the sprint paddling performance of competitive
male and female surfers, with subjects matched for age and competitive level.
Subjects
Thirty-six competitive male (n=18, 18.2 ± 4.6 years) and female (n=18, 17.6 ± 3.6 years) surfers’ 15m sprint paddling
data were analysed for this study. All subjects were matched for age and competitive level, with no significant difference
identified between the mean male and female age (p=0.70).
Procedures
All sprint paddle trials for this study were performed in the same outdoor 25 m swimming pool. The benefits of this
location, as previously outlined by Sheppard et al. (11), being that it allows for ease of marking out set distances,
provides control against potential effects of tides and currents experienced by most other waterways, allows for
professional supervision by lifeguards, and eliminates potential hazards from marine creatures. Prior to performing the
15 m sprint paddle tests, each subject was required to perform a progressive warm-up, consisting of 200 m low-intensity

paddling, followed by a sprint specific warm-up of 4x15 m sprint paddling efforts at 60, 70, 80, and 90% volitional effort
on ~2 minute intervals (3, 11).
All sprint paddle trials were performed with the use of a purpose-built horizontal position transducer
(iRex, Southport, Australia) attached to the top of each subject’s board shorts or bikini (3, 5, 11). Subjects performed
three trials of the 15 m sprint paddle, with the trial that was the fastest to 15 m used for analysis. The kinematic data
was obtained and stored for analysis on a personal computer, with the transducer recording a time-stamp at every 0.01
m of displacement. This allowed for determination of the time taken to complete each split
(5 m, 10 m, 15 m) from the start (0 m), as well as, the maximum achieved velocity, through differentiation (3, 11). The
ICC for time to; 5 m, 10 m, and 15 m, and maximum velocity has previously been reported as; 0.82, 0.91, 0.95, and
0.99, respectively (3).
All statistical analyses were performed using SPSS (Version 21.0; Chicago, IL). One-way analysis of variance was
performed to compare the means of the time taken from 0 m to; 5 m, 10 m, 15 m, as well as the maximum recorded
velocity of the 15 m sprint paddle test between males and females. Cohen’s d was used to calculate effect size (ES)
using the following criteria; <0.2 (trivial), 0.2-0.5 (small), 0.5-0.8 (moderate), and >0.8 (large). Statistical significance
was set at p≤0.05.
RESULTS
Large significant differences were identified between males and females for time to; 5m (p<0.001, ES=-1.4), 10m
(p<0.001, ES=-1.3), and 15m (p<0.001, ES=-1.3), as well as for the maximum recorded velocity (p<0.001, ES=1.3)
(Table 1).
Table 1 - Comparison of the mean (±SD) time to 5m, 10m, and 15m, and maximum recorded velocity for males and
females.
Males Females
Time to 5m (s) 3.74 ± 0.35 4.34 ± 0.31*,a
Time to 10m (s) 6.65 ± 0.56 7.65 ± 0.56*,a
Time to 15m (s) 9.59 ± 0.78 11.01 ± 0.81*,a
Maximum Velocity (m·s-1) 1.77 ± 0.13 1.55 ± 0.12*,a
*p<0.001, a = Large ES
DISCUSSION
The purpose of this study was to provide the first comparison between competitive male and female surfers sprint
paddling performance. Any deficit in sprint paddling ability will reduce the athlete’s ability to take-off close to the curl of
the wave, and perform a major manoeuvre with speed and power, sooner after entering the wave. If the athlete cannot
enter the wave with sufficient velocity, their scoring potential in competitive events will be limited, and their opportunity
for technical practice during training sessions will be reduced. The results of this study indicate that when performing a
15m sprint paddle, females are significantly slower to 5m, 10m, and 15m, as well as demonstrating a significantly
reduced maximal sprint paddling velocity. This indicates that when compared to their male counterparts, female surfers
have a competitive disadvantage as their ability to adhere to the scoring criteria may be limited by their sprint paddling
performance. In addition, their opportunity to catch waves during surfing training will be limited.
Sheppard et al. (11) previously reported a strong association between relative upper-body pulling strength and; time to
5 m (r=-0.93), time to 10 m (r=-0.93), and maximum paddling velocity (r=0.66). As a result, it is recommended that
training prescription for competitive female surfers focuses on increasing upper-body pulling strength, as this physical
quality likely limits their sprint paddling ability. Provided that increases are made in a female surfer’s upper-body pulling
strength, there will likely be an associated improvement in maximal sprint paddling velocity. Improvement of a
competitive female surfer’s sprint paddling performance will likely ensure that when competing against fellow female
surfers, they will enter the wave with greater entry speed. This may allow them to perform a major manoeuvre sooner
after entering the wave, which will provide a significant competitive scoring advantage. Additionally, by reducing the
sprint paddling performance gap between males and females, the female surfers will be able to compete with males for
the best waves during surfing training sessions, and ensure they catch an increased number of waves, which will greatly
benefit skill acquisition and technical practice.

Strength and conditioning coaches working with female surfing athletes should ensure that there is a strong focus on
developing relative upper-body pulling strength. As a result of the reported association between relative upper-body
pull-up strength and sprint paddling ability, it is proposed that increases in this strength quality should lead to associated
improvements in sprint paddling performance (11). Provided that gains are made in a competitive female surfer’s sprint
paddling performance they should also possess the ability to take-off closer to the curl of the wave, and perform a major
manoeuvre sooner after entering the wave, which will likely improve their scoring potential during competitive events,
and skill acquisition and technical practice during training sessions.
REFERENCES
1. Association of Surfing Professionals (ASP). ASP Rule Book 2013. 7. Mendez-Villanueva, A. & Bishop, D. Physiological aspects of
Available at: www.aspworldtour.com. Accessed March 28 2013. surfboard riding performance. Sports Medicine. 35: 55-70. 2005.
2. Boyce R. W., Jones G. R., Schendt K. E., Lloyd C. L. & Boone, E. L. 8. Mendez-Villanueva A., Bishop D. & Hamer P. Activity profile of world-
Longitudinal changes in strength of police officers with gender class professional surfers during competition: A case study. Journal
comparisons. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. of Strength and Conditioning Research. 20(3):477-482. 2006.
23(8):2411-2418. 2009. 9. Mendez-Villanueva, A., Perez-Landaluce, J., Bishop, D., Fernandez-
3. Coyne, J. & Sheppard, J. Assessing sprint paddling ability in Garcia, B., Ortolano, R., Leibar, X. & Terrados, N. Upper body
competitive surfers. Journal of Australian Strength and aerobic fitness comparison between two groups of competitive
Conditioning. 20: Supp 1. 2012. surfboard riders. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport. 8:43-
4. Everline C. Shortboard performance surfing: A qualitative 51. 2005.
assessment of maneuvers and a sample periodized strength and 10. Ratamess N. A., Chiarello C. M., Sacco A. J., Hoffman J. R.,
conditioning program in and out of the water. Strength and Faigenbaum A. D., Ross R. E. & Kang J. The effects of rest interval
Conditioning Journal. 29(3):32-40. 2007. length on acute bench press performance: The influence of gender
5. Loveless, D. J. & Minahan, C. Two reliable protocols for assessing and muscle strength. Journal of Strength and Conditioning
maximal-paddling performance in surfboard riders. Journal of Sport Research. 26(7):1817-1826. 2012.
Sciences. 28:797-803. 2010. 11. Sheppard, J. M., McNamara, P., Osborne, M., Andrews, M., Borges,
6. Mayhew J. L., Brechue W. F., Smith A. E., Kemmler W., Lauber D. & T. O., Walshe, P. & Chapman, D. W. Association between
Koch A. J. Impact of testing strategy on expression of upper- anthropometry and upper-body strength qualities with sprint paddling
bodywork capacity and one-repetition maximum prediction after performance in competitive wave surfers. Journal of Strength and
resistance training in college-aged men and women. Journal of Conditioning Research. 26(12):3345-3348. 2012.
Strength and Conditioning Research. 25(10):2796-2807. 2011.

Broadening the View of Agility – A Scientific Review of the Literature.

Journal of Australian Strength & Conditioning. 2014. 22(3) © ASCA
BROADENING THE VIEW OF AGILITY – A SCIENTIFIC REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Suggested additional ASCA DVD for purchase
ELITE SPEED DEVELOPMENT. 2013 ASCA CONFERENCE

ASCA 2013 International Conference on Applied
Strength & Conditioning
www.strengthandconditioning.org Nick Winkelman.
DVD13-01 | Nick Winkelman | Workshop

‘Elite Speed Development’
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Additional Reading
Non-running, high-intensity energy-system conditioning cross-training workouts for injured athletes.

NON-RUNNING, HIGH-INTENSITY ENERGY-SYSTEM CONDITIONING WORKOUTS FOR

INJURED ATHLETES
Daniel Baker PhD
INTRODUCTION
The football codes are characterized by a somewhat stop-start nature, varying movement speeds, multiple changes of
direction and the execution of decisions and individual skills under conditions of game pressure and/or fatigue. The
nature of the movements in these sports requires the utilization, and therefore training, of all three energy systems (ATP-
PC, Glycolitic/Lactic acid and Aerobic systems). Despite the often stop-start nature of these sports, which heralds an
increase in anaerobic energy contributions (5), high-intensity aerobic power and conditioning can be critical for success
in all football codes (5, 6, 7).
RECENT APPLIED RESEARCH IN AEROBIC TRAINING
Most research is now focused on Maximal Aerobic Speed (MAS). Outside of a laboratory, the MAS is simply the speed
attained in the final leg of the Montreal Beep test (around a track or oval) or if using the more common Multistage Beep
test, use this equation (MAS=1.34*MSST final speed - 2.86) (3). These two tests give results expressed as km/hr,
which will then need to be converted to m/s so that training distances can be easily calculated. For example, Level 12
Multistage Beep, = 14 km/hr * 1.34 = 18.86, minus 2.86 then equals 15.9 km/hr or 4.4m/s. Or perhaps more simply,
you can implement a 5-min time running trial and work out the average speed (eg. 1320 meters divided by 300 s = 4.4
m/s).
The most recent research shows that the amount of time spent at or above the 100% Maximal Aerobic Speed
(MAS) appears to be the critical factor for improving aerobic power (2, 4-8, 10).
It has been determined that performing a number of short intervals at > 100% MAS was a more effective method of
building aerobic power than the more traditional Long Slow Distance (LSD) training (10) (ie. going for long road runs
etc) or than attempting to train only one interval continuously at 100% MAS (8).
Specifically, an intensity of 120% MAS was determined to be the best single speed for short intervals that are followed
by a short respite (passive rest) interval, based upon the fact that this intensity allowed the greatest supra-maximal
training impulse (intensity x volume), in comparison to 90, 100, and 140% MAS (8). Especially intervals of 120% MAS
for 15-30 seconds followed by an equal respite interval of passive rest and continuing on for 5-10 minutes.
A Japanese researcher called Tabata (10) also found that athletes working at > 100% MAS (actually 170% VO2 Max.
but the % MAS was not reported) for 20 seconds followed by 10 seconds passive rest and continuing on this manner
for 4-minutes produced excellent changes in aerobic and anaerobic power, far better than did performing LSD training
sessions of 60-minutes at 70% MAS. This type of training is typically known as the Tabata method.
The basis of all this recent research is that high intensity intervals of 15-30+ seconds, interspersed with 10-30 seconds
of either low intensity active recovery (eg. < 40-70% MAS) or passive rest, continued in this manner for total set times
of 4-10 minutes and repeated for 2 or more sets greatly enhances aerobic power and capacity. It didn’t matter much if
it was 20 seconds work, 10 seconds recovery, 30:15, 15:15, the research has kept pointing to the fact that training at
or above 100% MAS was the key intensity parameter and how long you spent there was the driving volume
parameter under-pinning improvements in aerobic power.
Consequently high-intensity interval training at 100% MAS (Maximal) or at 120%+ (Supramaximal) now appear to be
the increasingly used for training elite or lower-level football athletes (eg. 1-12). The practical implementation of three
of these methods will be detailed below.
#1. The Maximal Aerobic “grids” method (also termed the 100% MAS:70% MAS method).

Based upon French research, coaches have developed a system called (among other names) the Maximal Aerobic
Grids method. This entailed training initially with short intervals of 15-30 seconds at 100-110% MAS interspersed with
15-30 seconds of active recovery at 50-70% MAS, continuing on for 5-10 or more minutes.
For running training, implementing this method basically entails devising rectangular concentric grids of various
dimensions that equal 100% MAS along the long side of the rectangle and 70% MAS along the short side (see Figure
1). The fastest group are on the outside grid or running channel, with the slowest group along the inside grid. The
coach can stand in the middle of the rectangle, but if two staff are available, one would monitor the finish point of each
long side of the rectangle.
< --------------------------------------- Group 1 = 72 m ----------------------------------------- >
< --------------------------------- Group 2 = 69 m ----------------------------------------- >
<------------------------------ Group 3 = 66m--------------------------------- >
< -------------------------- Group 4 = 63 m ----------------------------- >
Figure 1 - A schematic example of the Maximal Aerobic Grids method consisting of concentric rectangular grids, with
the long side at 100% MAS and the short side at 70% MAS for each running group. Each side takes 15 seconds to
complete, with the full rectangle taking 1-minute. The distances (Long, horizontal sides: Short vertical sides) for four
theoretical groups of footballers are Group 1 = 72m:50m, Group 2 = 69m:48m, Group 3 = 66m:46m, Group 4 = 63m:44m.
Groups can start at different corners to allow for better spacing and less congestion. Nonetheless all athletes hit a
corner at the same time, every 15 seconds. A single conditioning coach can stand in the middle to ensure that the
athletes make it to their corners at the same time or with multiple coaches, a coach can be stationed on each corner.
It can be seen from Figure 1 that theoretical Group 1 runs 72 m in 15-s along the long side of the rectangle followed by
50 m along the short side and so forth. It takes 1 minute to complete one lap of the rectangular grid and this is completed
without pause for 5-minutes and can be done for 2-4 sets with a 2-3 minute rest in between sets. The key point here is
that each group has their grid based upon their own MAS capabilities ~ however, despite differences in MAS capabilities
among large groups, each group should be at their respective corner of the rectangular grid each 15-s, which makes
training compliance easy to monitor. The athletes are not allowed to speed up during the 70% sides to get a head-start
on the harder sides – this just makes the grid an anaerobic threshold grid, something to avoid! This is enforced by
making the athletes momentarily stop and hold the start position on the start of each long side of the grid.
When performing the running versions, it is more practical to build up to 6, then 8-minutes and repeating for 2-4 sets (or
build up to 10 minutes and performing 1-2 sets) rather than increasing the length of each 100% repetition to 30 s or
more. It is difficult to do the running grids for 30s each side because you can physically run out of room to make a
rectangle (eg. 30 s x 4.6 m/s means the long, 100% MAS side would have to be 138 m long, a distance which is hard
to find on typical football fields).

Every 3-4 weeks it may be necessary to retest MAS or more simply to advance each group up to the next grid (which
would be about 105% of their original or previous MAS). For example, the group that were running 60 m on their long
100% MAS side are sent up to the 63 m grid and so forth. This method is now used by many professional footballers
in Australia with excellent results.
#2. The supramaximal Eurofit method.

This method was developed by the French researchers and has been validated with professional soccer players,
resulting in large increases in MAS during the pre-season (11) or mid-season, (7), as well as in school children (2-3). It
is very simple to use. Again every athletes 100% MAS is determined and then increased by either 20% (ie. 120% MAS)
or 30% (130% MAS). The athletes are lined up along a line and then run to the marker cone that represents their 120%
MAS distance in 15 seconds. They rest there for 15 seconds and then run back to the start line. This process is repeated
for 5-minutes, building up to 8- or 10-minutes, with only 1-2 sets being performed. Intensity can be increased up to
130% MAS after 3-4 weeks. Figure 2 provides a depiction of the simple set-up. Again, this is easily coached ~ all
athletes must get to their cone on the 15 second mark, wait 15 seconds and on the return, they all hit the start line at
the same time, despite different distances being covered.
Eurofit Method with 1:1 work:rest ratio

Start line Marker cones for the different Groups
*----------------------------------------------------* 76m = 120% MAS, GR 4
*-------------------------------------------------------* 79 m = 120% MAS, GR 3
*-------------------------------------------------------------* 83m =120%MAS, GR 2
*-------------------------------------------------------------------* 86m = 120% MAS, GR 1
Figure 2. A schematic example of the Supra-maximal aerobic Eurofit method. Each group runs to their respective
marker cones in 15 s, rests for 15 s, runs back to the line in 15 s, rests 15 s and repeats till the end of the set, typically
6-10 minutes.
#3. Implementing the Tabata method

The original Tabata method is quite exhausting (at 170% VO2 max) and is typically only performed for one 4-minute
set. As athletes typically must compete for longer time durations or multiple rounds (eg. in mixed martial arts fighting
there are three or five, 5-minute rounds), the Tabata protocol has been modified by coaches to be performed at a “lower”
intensity of 120-140% MAS. This allows the set duration to be increased up to 5-, 6- or even 8-minutes and be performed
for 2-5 sets, allowing for more time to be spent at or above the critical 100% MAS intensity.
Figure 3 details how this modified Tabata method can be implemented in a smaller area by implementing turns. In this
example, the Tabata method is performed as 20 seconds at 120% MAS, done as 5 seconds out, 5 seconds to return,
done twice (eg. 17 meters out and 17 meters back x 2), rest 10 seconds and repeat till 4 or more minutes are completed.
The turns that occur in the run makes this speed quite difficult to maintain and more sport specific for football sports.
Turns also increase the anaerobic energy contribution (5).
Group 4 - 19 m out & then 19 m back x 2 in each 20 s rep

* -------------------------------------------------- >*
< -------------------------------------------------
Group 3 - 20 m out & then 20 m back x 2 in each 20 s rep
*----------------------------------------------------------- >*
< ----------------------------------------------------------
Group 2 – 20.5 m out & then 20.5 m back x 2 in each 20 s rep
*--------------------------------------------------------------- >*
< --------------------------------------------------------------
Group 1 – 21.5 m out & then 21.5 m back x 2 in each 20 s rep

*------------------------------------------------------------------- >*
< -----------------------------------------------------------------
Figure 3. A schematic example of the Modified Tabata protocol. The athletes must run twice out and back to their
respective marker cones in each repetition (20 seconds), rest 10-seconds and then repeat till four or more minutes have
elapsed. This method also increases the anaerobic energy
There may appear to be little difference between the Eurofit and Tabata methods, but the critical difference is the Eurofit
is based upon a 1:1 (15s:15s) work ratio, whereas the Tabata method utilizes a 2:1 ratio (20s:10s). This apparently
minor differential has a pronounced effect upon the accumulation of fatigue when multiple repetitions or sets are
performed.
Another variation of the Tabata method is to maintain the 2:1 work/rest ratio and > 120 MAS but alter the length of the
intervals to 8:4, 12:6, 16:8 etc. One of the limitations of all the above conditioning methods is that there are
predictable work periods. Athletes quickly adapt to some sort of pacing strategy or know when they are about

to start their next effort. With this second Tabata method the coach can set different coloured cones for each
time/distance interval for each group. Upon the “Go” command, the athletes start their effort but not till about 2 seconds
later are they given the command which will designate which cone they run to and return from. They do not know until
that point will they be running to the cone designating 6s out and back, 8s out and back, 16s out and back and so on
(see Figure 4). This strategy disrupts running rhythm and recovery strategies, entails reaction to situational commands
and causes repeat high-intensity efforts to occur at less predictable times more than any of the other above high-intensity
methods.
out & back 20 m in 8 s *30 m out & back in 12 s* 40 m out & back in 16 s
*--------------------------------- >------------------------------> ------------------------- >
< --------------------------------- <---------------------------- < --------------------------
Figure 4. A schematic example of the Modified Tabata protocol with variable interval lengths using ONLY GROUP 4
(Group 4’s 120% MAS equals 5m/s.) Any interval length can used, but a 2:1 ratio should be maintained. The athletes
do not know which cone to run to until after each repetition has started. Set lengths are typically 4-minutes.
PERIODIZATION AND PROGRESSION OF TRAINING
The three training methods above have an inbuilt intensity progression as athletes work from 100% MAS in the Grids
method to 120 and 130% MAS in the EuroFit and Japanese Tabata methods. The other variable for difficulty progression
is the choice between the active recovery (at 60-70% MAS in the Grids method) versus the passive rest inherent in the
EuroFit and Tabata methods. Furthermore the Tabata method’s work:rest ratio of 2:1 may prove even more difficult as
compared to the 1:1 EuroFit method. The second Tabata method with variable interval lengths may prove more even
difficult for athletes but this may be due to reasons other than just physiological reasons. Introducing turns in the Tabata,
or any method, will also cause an increase in difficulty as this increases the anaerobic contribtion (5).
Training can be progressed via the systematic use of all of these different methods, starting with the 100%:70% grids
method, moving to the EuroFit 120% MAS method and finishing with the Japanese Tabata methods within a training
cycle. Each method can be implemented for 2-3 weeks before progressing to the next method. Within each 2-3 week
mini-cycle, the typical volume progressions would also occur (5-minute sets building up to 8- or even 10-minute sets
and/or 2 sets building up to 3 or 4 sets). Consequently when a progression to the new method occurs after 3-weeks,
there is a marked decrease in volume, but an increase in intensity ~ this week serves as a “volume un-load” week.
Therefore as intensity initially increases with the introduction of the new method, volume is lowest, but builds up over 3-
weeks before implementing the next intensity progression, again with a lower volume.
Once an athlete has attained some training experience with these methods, weekly undulating periodization is also
possible with one aerobic training day emphasizing increasing the time spent at 100% MAS (and possibly also the time
of each repetition spent at 100% MAS) via the grids method and the other training day spent emphasizing the time spent
well above 100% MAS (ie. The Supra-maximal aerobic Eurofit or Tabata methods). This methodology is based around
the Supramax methods DEVELOPING new aerobic power and the Maximal method, conditioning the body to SUSTAIN
the current 100% MAS for longer periods (or to be able repeat it more often). This within-week alternation of methods
allows the athlete to toggle between milder active recovery (eg. 15 s @ 70% MAS) and passive recovery (15 s rest).
An example of this is depicted in Table 3, which outlines the rowing ergometer training performed twice per week by
female surfboat rowers.
INTEGRATING HIGH-INTENSITY AEROBIC TRAINING WITH SPORTS TRAINING AND SMALL-SIDED GAMES
The limitation of the above methods is that there is still some ‘predictability” about them. Football sports often require
intense efforts at unpredictable times and hence some researchers and coaches have advocated small sided games as
a better alternative to traditional conditioning due to the “unpredictability” of games and the fact that games also develop
sports skills and game sense. However the overload delivered by games is also unpredictable and depends upon
the structure and rules of the games etc.
Practical experience has shown that the alternating of 4-8 minute sets of the above conditioning drills with 3-8 mins of
small-sided games is an effective conditioning and sports skill development tool in football sports. Typically skills are
coached in relatively low stress situations (low heart rate, minimal fatigue, less than full speed or full-force opposition)
which is fine for the initial skill development and tactical learning situations, but does this type of training enhance the
skill or tactical sports performance of advanced athletes? The authors’ experience is that the fatigue resulting from the
performance of the above conditioning drills allows the head skill/sports coach to see fatigue related breakdowns in 1)
individual skill technique, 2) decision-making or 3) inability to match the game speed, resulting in the effective
dismantling of the teams’ defensive or offensive structure/patterns/formation during the during ensuing skill- and small-
sided games. Typically these three types of “breakdown” occur in the most fatiguing parts of real competition games
but are not so well illuminated to the athlete or coach during “normal” skill or tactical training sessions which are practised
in less stressful situations. Thus the head skill/sports coach can develop and implement intense small-sided games

that challenge or illustrate which of these types of breakdowns occur (and to which athletes) for different critical sports
situations. It has been the authors experience that, for example, an 8-minute supra-maximal 120% MAS EuroFit set,
immediately followed by a 3 to 6-minute small sided game, backed up by a 3-minute semi-passive recovery (stationary
passing and catching of balls) and followed by a 5 to 8-minute 100%:70% grid set and another small-sided game has
been quiet challenging not only to an athletes aerobic and anaerobic conditioning but also to the athletes’ ability to
maintain individual skill levels, decision making and team structure during the second small sided game. Accordingly,
high-intensity aerobic conditioning can be seen as part of an integrated and coherent sports performance
enhancement program.
CONCLUSIONS
Experienced football athletes gain little in terms of enhancing their aerobic power from LSD training such as road runs
etc. Training at or above their 100% MAS has been shown to be more effective. Three methods have been presented,
two of which use supra-maximal intensities (>120% MAS) interspersed with 10-15 seconds of passive respite and the
other method using the maximal 100% intensity for 15-30 seconds interspersed with either equal time periods of active
lower intensity of 60-70% MAS or a 2:1 or 3:1 work:lower-intensity recovery period (eg. 30 s: @ 100% MAS: 15 s @
50% MAS). The two supra-maximal methods are believed to be best for developing new levels of high-intensity aerobic
power. The maximal method outlined is thought to best condition athletes to be able to sustain high-intensity aerobic
power for longer periods or to be able to repeat their high-intensity efforts, such as is the case with many intermittent
sports. Despite total training duration being quite short ~ (eg. 1-3 sets of 4-10-minutes duration) ~ this training is quite
effective in improving aerobic power not only for intermittent field sport athletes but also for athletes competing in events
of 4-10 minutes duration (eg. Kayaking, Rowing, MMA, wrestling). Integration of this type of training with challenging
small-sided games is also highly recommended for football athletes to complement their skill and tactical development
under stressful situations akin to the real competitive environment.
REFERENCES
1. Baker D. Large group aerobic conditioning. Strength and an intermittent Futsal-oriented high-intensity test. J. Strength
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intensity aerobic training during a 10-week one-hour physical high-intensity interval training in soccer players. J. Strength Cond.
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3. Berthoin S, Manteca F, Gerbeaux M and Lensel-Corbeil G. Effect and time spent at a high level of O2 for short intermittent runs at
of a 12-week training program on maximal aerobic speed (MAS) supramaximal velocities. Can. J.Appl. Physiol. 27:103–115.2002.
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aged 14 to 17 years. J. Sports Med. Phys. Fitness. 35:251–256. Speed test and structure an aerobic interval training session based
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5. Billat, V and Koralsztein. JP. Significance of the velocity at O2max Yamamoto K. Effects of moderate-intensity endurance and high
and time to exhaustion at this velocity. Sports Med. 22:90–108. intensity intermittent training on anaerobic capacity and VO2 max.
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6. Buchheit, M. The 30-15 Intermittent Fitness Test: Accuracy for 12. Wong, P-L, Chaouachi, A, Chamari, K, Dellal, A, and Wisloff, U.
individualizing interval training of young intermittent sport players. Effect of preseason concurrent muscular strength and high-
J. Strength Cond. Res 22(2):365-374. 2008. intensity interval training in professional soccer players. J Strength
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The efficacy of utilising the anaerobic speed reserve to prescribe supramaximal high intensity
interval training with elite female hockey players.
Winner Best Senior Investigator.
THE EFFICACY OF UTILISING THE ANAEROBIC SPEED RESERVE TO PRESCRIBE

SUPRAMAXIMAL HIGH INTENSITY INTERVAL TRAINING WITH ELITE FEMALE
HOCKEY PLAYERS
Nathan E. Heaney1 & Ben J. Wiley1
1Victorian Institute of Sport, Melbourne, Australia
INTRODUCTION
The anaerobic speed reserve (ASR) has been investigated extensively for the purpose of high-speed running
performance prediction and has been defined as:
ASR (kmh) = Maximum sprinting speed (MSS) – Velocity at VO2max ( vVO 2 max )(10).
Studies have found that high speed running performance can be accurately predicted from measurement of the
maximum speeds supported by the anaerobic and aerobic energy systems in a wide variety of track athletes (3,13).
However, it wasn’t until a recent study examined the impact of oxygen kinetics on the tolerance to high-intensity
intermittent exercise that the ASR concept was investigated with team sport athletes (1). Although the abovementioned
study utilised team sport athletes as subjects, they did not use the ASR to prescribe supramaximal high intensity training
(HIIT); instead focusing on the impact of the ASR for HIIT tolerance.
To the best of the author’s knowledge, there is a lack of literature pertaining to the practical application of the ASR when
prescribing supramaximal high intensity interval training for team sport athletes.
As such, the aim of this study is to provide a practical example of how the application of the ASR can potentially augment
the effectiveness of supramaximal HIIT sessions as well as determine what percentage of ASR should be prescribed to
provide the most effective aerobic fitness stimulus.
METHODS
Participants
Eighteen state institute hockey players who were injury free (11) participated in the testing as part of the Victorian Vipers
squad. All testing was performed during the Australian Hockey League preparation.
Data Collection
Due to time constraints and scheduling the data was collected during one testing session. As part of the warm-up for
the YOYO Intermittent Recovery Test – Level (YOYO IR1) the participants were prescribed 40m sprints. A speedlight
sports timing system (Swift Sports Performance Equipment, Lismore, Australia) consisting of dual-beam retro reflective
timing gates was used to record the 40m sprints times. The 40m sprints were administered on an indoor running track
at the Victorian Institute of Sport (VIS) with each of the participants completing the sprints in conventional runners. The
YOYO IR1 was completed on a sprung floor at the Victorian Institute of Sport and was scheduled in as part of the aerobic
conditioning program. The protocol for these tests is outlined below
40m sprint testing protocol

Each participant adhered to a standardised warm-up consisting of light aerobic exercise, technique drills, dynamic
stretching and familiarisation with the sprint protocol. Each sprint was started from 50cm behind the first timing light with
a standing start technique utilised (6). In their own time, the participants started their sprint with the timing commencing
when the first timing light was broken. Each participant was instructed to sprint maximally to a cone placed 5m beyond
the last timing light so as to ensure that they didn’t decelerate between the 30 and 40m timing light. Maximum sprinting
speed was determined as the average speed between the 30m and 40m timing lights. Each participant rested for
approximately 3 min between each 40m sprint.
Anaerobic Speed Reserve

For this study, the anaerobic speed reserve is defined as per the Mendez-Villanueva et al (2012) study:
ASR (kmh) = Maximum sprinting speed (MSS) – YOYO IR1 MAS

YOYO IR1 protocol

The YOYO IR1 consisted of repeated 2x20m shuttle runs at increasing speeds, with a 10-second active recovery period
between every 2x20m (12). The speeds, changes in direction and active recovery periods have been shown to more
closely replicate the movement patterns of team sports than other continuous tests (12). Participants were eliminated
from the test when they failed to reach either 20m line before the audio pacing signals on two occasions. Level and
shuttle and total distance in metres were recorded as the performance outcome and the speed at the last completed
shuttle recorded as their maximal aerobic speed (YOYO IR1 MAS). Both the YOYO IR1 (12) and 30-40m split (8) have
been reported to be reliable field sport measures.
Supramaximal High Intensity Interval Training

As part of their preparation, the participants were required to complete supramaximal HIIT sessions. The supramaximal
HIIT session consisted of repeated 15 sec runs at an intensity greater than YOYO IR1 MAS interspersed with 15 sec
passive recovery (see figure 1 below). The HIIT session was devised to improve aerobic fitness, with the rationale being
to maximise the amount of time spent at or above 95% maximum heart rate in order to improve VO 2 max.
15s @ 120% YOYO IR1 MAS
15s @ 120% YOYO IR1 MAS
Figure 1 - Supramaximal HIIT session example.
RESULTS
Table 1 - Physiological test results for each of the participants in the hockey squad. Participants are ranked fittest to
least fit according to their YOYO IR1 result.
Participant YOYO IR1 YOYO IR1 YOYO IR1 Maximum Sprinting Anaerobic Speed
(level & shuttle) (m) MAS Speed (kmh) Reserve* (kmh)
(kmh)
1 19.2 2120 17.0 27.7 10.7
2 19.1 2080 17.0 27.1 10.1
3 19.1 2080 17.0 25.4 8.4
4 18.7 2000 16.5 27.5 11.0
5 18.5 1920 16.5 27.7 11.2
6 18.3 1840 16.5 27.1 10.6
7 18.2 1800 16.5 26.9 10.4
8 18.1 1760 16.5 26.1 9.6
9 17.8 1720 16.0 27.5 11.5
10 17.6 1640 16.0 28.8 12.8
11 17.4 1560 16.0 27.3 11.3
12 17.4 1560 16.0 25.9 9.9
13 17.1 1440 16.0 27.7 11.7
14 17.1 1440 16.0 27.3 11.3
15 16.4 1240 15.5 26.5 11.0
16 16.4 1240 15.5 26.3 10.8
17 15.4 920 15.0 29.5 14.5
18 15.3 880 15.0 24.3 9.3
Mean 17.6 1624 16.1 27.0 10.9
St Dev 1.2 377 1.2 1.2 1.4
*ASR = MSS – YOYO IR1 MAS
When the mean YOYO IR1 total distance of 1624m is compared to other available literature investigating female team
sport athletes (9), the squad average can be considered elite.

COMPARISON OF SUPRAMAXIMAL HIIT PRESCRIPTION
87.0
85.0
83.0
81.0
79.0
DISTANCE (m)
120% YOYO IR1 MAS

77.0
MAS + 20% ASR
75.0
73.0 MAS + 30% ASR
71.0
69.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112131415161718
PARTICIPANT
Figure 2 - Comparison of the squad’s supramaximal HIIT prescription using the three different intensities.
Interestingly, Figure 2 highlights that using MAS + 20% ASR to prescribe supramaximal HIIT doesn’t equate to 120%
YOYO IR1 MAS. On average MAS + 20% ASR underestimates supramaximal HIIT prescription by 4.4m (LCI 3.67 UCI
5.13) (d 1.65). Thus, refuting the recommendation of utilising MAS + 20% ASR (personal communication) for
supramaximal HIIT prescription, as 120% vVO 2 max has been found to be the most effective intensity for supramaximal
HIIT prescription (5). Rather, it is evident that MAS + 30% ASR more closely replicates 120% YOYO IR1 MAS.
MEAN COMPARISON OF SUPRAMAXIMAL HIIT PRESCRIPTION

82.0
80.7 (3.0) 80.8 (2.3)
80.0
DISTANCE (m)
120% YOYO IR1 MAS

78.0
MAS + 20% ASR
76.3 (2.3)
MAS + 30% ASR
76.0
74.0
SQUAD MEAN
Figure 3 - Comparison of the squad mean supramaximal HIIT prescription using the three different methods.
Figure 3 depicts the findings from Figure 1 by showing a 0.1m difference between supramaximal HIIT prescription using
120% YOYO IR1 MAS and MAS + 30% ASR. When expressed as a percentage, this difference equates to 0.2% (d
0.037)
Stemming from the fact that there is only a trivial difference (7) between prescription utilising 120% YOYO IR1 MAS and
MAS + 30% ASR, one could potentially refute the application of the ASR for the purpose of improving the accuracy of
supramaximal HIIT prescription. However, the ASR may have more practical relevance for prescribing supramaximal
HIIT with individuals identified as being fast or slow when compared to the squad mean.
Table 2 - The percentage difference in supramaximal HIIT prescription between 120% YOYO IR1 and MAS + 30% ASR
in fast and slow participants.
Maximum Sprinting Speed Participant % Difference between Supramaximal 120% YOYO

Classification IR1 & MAS + 30% ASR
Slow* 3 4.4
Slow* 18 1.2
Fast* 10 3.3
Fast* 17 7.0
Mean 3.9
St Dev 2.4
*Slow & fast participants were determined as one standard deviation below or above the mean for the squads MSS.

As expected, table 3 highlights that there is a much larger difference between supramaximal HIIT prescription utilising
120% YOYO IR1 and MAS + 30% ASR in participants identified as being either fast or slow (3.9%) when compared to
the squad difference (0.2%). As such, using the ASR to prescribe supramaximal HIIT with participants at either end of
the speed continuum has merit as it will potentially result in a more accurate and effective aerobic fitness stimulus.
DISCUSSION
The aims of this study were to identify if the application of the ASR increases the sensitivity and accuracy of
supramaximal HIIT prescription and also identify what percentage of ASR is equivalent to supramaximal HIIT
prescription at 120% vVO 2 max or 120% MAS. The findings of this study demonstrate that MAS + 30% ASR more closely
replicates 120% YOYO IR1 MAS, which disproves the general and vague recommendation of MAS + 20% ASR
(personal communication) for supramaximal HIIT prescription.
In addition, it is evident that the application of the ASR is more meaningful and worthwhile in participants that are
identified as being either fast or slow when compared to the squad mean as it will potentially result in a more effective
aerobic fitness stimulus. However, in order to validate the abovementioned claim, future investigations should look at
the acute physiological responses to supramaximal HIIT comparing 120% YOYO IR1 MAS or 120% vVO 2 max and MAS
+ 30% ASR.
The application of the ASR provides the strength and conditioning coach with a method in which to improve the accuracy
and effectiveness of their supramaximal HIIT prescription. However, stemming from the findings of this study the
application of the ASR is more useful for participants that are identified as being fast or slow when compared to the
squad mean. Lastly, it is apparent from the results of this study that MAS + 30% ASR more closely resembles 120%
YOYO IR1 MAS, which highlights that the recommendation of MAS + 20% ASR (personal communication) for
supramaximal HIIT prescription would provide a sub-optimal stimulus for the purpose of maximising time spent at or
near VO 2 max.
REFERENCES
1. Buchheit M, Hader K, Mendez-Villanueva A. Tolerance to high- 7. Hopkins WG. A new view of statistics. A scale of magnitudes for
intensity intermittent running exercise: do oxygen uptake kinetics effect statistics [Internet]. 2002 [cited 2013 September 26].
really matter? Frontiers in Physiology. 3. 2012. pp:406. Available from http://www.sportsci.org/resource/stats/.
2. Buchheit M, LaursenPB. High-intensity interval training, solutions 8. Kolsky DC, Williams M, Lorenzen C, Kemp J. Reliability of a 40m
to the programming puzzle – Part 1. Sports Medicine. 43(5). 2013. sprint in recreationally and moderately trained male and female
pp:315-338. groups. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport. 2(0):e65.
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performance: a new approach to assessment and prediction. 9. Krustrup P, Mohr M, Ellingsgaard H, Bangsbo J. Physical demands
Journal of Applied Physiology. 95(5). 2003. pp:1955-1962. during an elite female soccer game – Importance of training status.
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pp:1449-1457. Journal of Sports Medicine. 34(2). 2012. pp:101-110.
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time spent at a high level of VO2 for short intermittent runs at determines an athletic injury (definition)? Who determines an injury
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reliability of ten-meter sprint time using different starting and Association with a 20-m Shuttle Run and VO2max.
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13. Weyand PG, Bundle MW. Energetics of high-speed running:
integrating classical theory and contemporary observations.

Comparison of the 400 metre timed endurance surf paddle between elite competitive surfers,
competitive surfers and recreational surfers.
COMPARISON OF THE 400 METRE TIMED ENDURANCE SURF PADDLE BETWEEN

ELITE COMPETITIVE SURFERS, COMPETITIVE SURFERS AND RECREATIONAL
SURFERS
Oliver R. L. Farley1,2, Joseph Coyne1,2,3, Josh L. Secomb1,2, Lina Lundgren1,2, Tai T.

Tran1,2, Jeremy M. Sheppard1,2 and Chris Abbiss1
1 Centre for Exercise and Sport Science Research, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA,
Australia
2 Hurley Surfing Australia High Performance Centre, Casuarina Beach, NSW, Australia
3 Coyne Sports Injury & Performance Clinic
INTRODUCTION
Surfing is an intermittent, high performance sport requiring the athlete to perform multiple endurance paddling bouts
and explosive paddling bursts to catch the wave (1-3). Due to these demands surfing has been documented as a sport
requiring high muscular endurance and power of the upper torso, excellent cardio-respiratory fitness and the ability to
rapidly recover (4-6). In addition, surf competitions demand that athletes possess the ability to out paddle the opposition
to gain an optimal position for wave take offs, and also need to gain enough momentum to catch waves (1-4). Those
who can out paddle a heat opponent, and catch waves at the most critical point when breaking, are likely to maximize
their scoring potential.
Given the high metabolic demands of surfing (1-3), literature on surfers’ aerobic characteristics is surprisingly limited.
Previous studies have utilized laboratory-based ergometers as an alternative to swimming pool-based testing to
investigate peak or maximal aerobic capacity (VO 2peak or VO2max) (1, 5-8). These studies reported no correlations
between a surfer’s season rank and VO2Peak recorded from land based ergometery testing. Furthermore, from the current
studies (6, 7), it is still uncertain how the peak power outputs measured on the ergometer correlates with power
generated when paddling on-water during surfing. Currently appropriate and valid testing protocols evaluating the
physiological fitness of surfing athletes are not well established. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine
whether the testing procedure of a pool based, 400m endurance time trial (9) is more appropriate given the nature of
the sport, and provide a test that is a better discriminator of performance.
METHODS
Experimental Approach
The aim of study was to compare various on-water measurement of aerobic performance between surfers of varying
competitive ability (elite, comp, recreational) in order to ascertain if such tests could be used to discriminate differences
in paddle and physiological characteristics of surfers. The 400m paddle times and average aerobic speed
(400/completion time) of elite adult surfers i) World Championship Tour (WCT), and ii) World Qualifying Series (WQS),
elite junior surfers iii) National selection team, competitive surfers iv) competitive club board riders, and v) junior high
school competitors, and vi) recreational surfers were compared.
Subjects
A total of 59 subjects were analysed for this study. This cohort was made up from; WCT surfers (n=2, 29.3 yrs. ± 1.34),
WQS surfers (n=12, 22.1 yrs. ± 3.09), national selection team n=10, 16.5 yrs. ± 1.02), competitive club board riders
n=11, 25.6 yrs. ± 5.84), junior high school competitors (n=7, 16.1 yrs. ± 1.23), and recreational surfers (n=17, 32.6 yrs.
± 6.8).
Procedures
All endurance paddle trials for this study were performed in the same outdoor 25m swimming pool. The timed 400m
endurance paddle test was based over a 20m up and back course, with two buoys placed 2.5m in from each end of the
pool to provide the 20m distance. To complete the total of 400m the subjects were required to lie prone on their surfboard
and paddle the 10 laps (up and back) as fast as possible. Prior to testing all participants performed as standardised
warm-up consisting of a 100m paddle dived into 25m bouts at 50, 60, 70 and 80% of maximal paddling speed. All
participants were required give consent for the testing and to be free from illness/injuries, hydrated and follow their
normal structured training week, with no different in between weeks or heavy training periods prior to testing. All trials
were recorded with a digital stopwatch and were compiled between 12:00 and 16:00 hrs. All data was recorded as total
time (seconds) and average aerobic speed was derived by dividing the distance covered by the total time. From two
trials, the Intra-class Correlation Coefficient (ICC), Typical Error (TE) and Percentage Co-variance (%CV) were
calculated for the 400m to determine the reliability and reproducibility of the testing. The ICC was 0.988, TE between
two trials was 2.72, and %CV was 2.01.

To determine whether any significant differences were present between the groups a one-way analysis of variance was
performed. Where a significant main difference was found a LSD post-hoc test was used to identify individual statistical
differences. All statistical analyses were performed using the statistical analysis package SPSS (Version 21.0; Chicago,
IL) with statistical significance set at p<0.05.
RESULTS
400m endurance paddle

The 400m paddle times of recreational surfers were significantly slower than all other groups (WCT; p=0.004, WQS;
p<0.001, Junior National Selection; p<0.001, Competitive adult club board-riders; p=0.001, Junior high school
competitors; p=0.001). Significant differences were also identified between the competitive adult club board-riders and
both the WQS (p=0.019) and Junior National Selection surfers (p=0.037). The mean performance times of the groups
of athletes are presented in Figure 1.
Figure 1 - 400m mean paddle times of surfers from varying competitive ability.
Significant differences (p<0.05) between groups: a=WCT, b=WQS, c=Jr Nation team, d=Comp club board-
riders, e=Jr Comp high school, f=Recreational
Average Aerobic Speed

Significant differences were identified for average aerobic speed between recreational surfers and WCT (p<0.001),
WQS (p<0.001), Junior National Selection (p<0.001), Competitive adult club board-riders (p<0.001), and Junior high
school competitors (p<0.001). Additionally, significant differences were observed between the competitive adult club
board-riders and; WCT (p =0.046), WQS (p<0.001), Junior National Selection (p<0.001). The junior high school
competitors also had significantly slower speed compared to same aged junior high school competitors and junior
national selection surfers (p =.029) and WQS (p =.012). The mean performance times of the groups of athletes are
presented in Figure 2.
Figure 2 - Mean average aerobic paddle speed of surfers from varying competitive ability.
Significant differences (p<0.05) between groups: a=WCT, b=WQS, c=Jr Nation team, d=Comp club board-
riders, e=Jr Comp high school, f=Recreational
DISCUSSION
It is believed that a certain level of aerobic capacity is an important requisite for surfing due to the intermittent repeated
paddling efforts and is prolonged in nature (1, 3, 10). Yet, a number of previous studies have not observed a significant
correlation between peak oxygen uptake and season rank in surfers (1, 5-8), indicating that peak oxygen uptake may
not be a defining measure of surfing ability. However, these previous investigations have used primarily stationary
paddle ergometers (i.e. open kinetic chain) to examine aerobic capacity, which have produced inconsistent results when
discriminating between higher and lower levels of surfers (1, 7-8). In contrast, surfboard paddling is considered a closed
kinetic chain activity, (i.e. the surfer ‘pulls’ their body over the water surface) rather than pulling the water surface toward
them and remaining stationary (as with ergometer testing). As such, it is possible that endurance paddling ability is a
highly relevant physical quality for surfers (8), but the uses of previous stationary paddle tests are not valid.
Supporting this, the data from the present study indicates that the 400m endurance surf paddle test may be a better
discriminator of athletic surfing performance over ergometry testing. Indeed, 400m paddling times and the average
aerobic speeds were significantly better in higher level competitive surfers (WCT, WQS and elite junior national team)
compared with lower level (Competitive board-riders, high school competitors) and recreational surfers. No difference
in 400m paddling times and the average aerobic speeds were observed between higher level competitors.

From the results it can be suggested that younger athletes who reach the sub-elite/elite level of competitive ability are
likely to maintain, and potentially increase this level of performance with appropriate training. Training muscular and
metabolic systems would put these athletes at an advantage over those who have not yet reached that level of
performance, therefore increasing changes of winning and furthering their professional career. In addition, those who
are at the elite stage are more likely to out paddle opponents, and catch waves sooner/at the most critical point
potentially maximizing scoring chances.
CONCLUSIONS
According to this study, assessing endurance paddling ability in the water (400m time trial) with surfers will provide
greater context validity and along with being more practical, has been shown to effectively discriminate between higher
and lower performing surfers. The professional surfing athletes have a greater ability to cover 400m and generate a
higher average aerobic speed compared to lower competitive surfers and recreational surfers. The study also suggests
that the 400m paddle test is a better discriminator of athletic performance over ‘traditional’ ergometry testing previously
used in studies to date. The significant average aerobic speed differences between higher and lower level competitive
surfers appears to highlight the importance of training to improve changes to out paddle opponents and set themselves
up to catch waves at the most critical point to maximize point scoring.
The 400m endurance surf paddle test is a reliable test, proving discriminatory performance measures that can be easily
recorded and replicated in the pool. Given that out paddling your opponent to a wave/gaining priority and withstanding
the demands of constant paddling are of upmost importance, training that enhances upper body muscular endurance
and power should be implemented in a competitive surfer’s training program.
REFERENCES
1. Meir, R. A., Lowdon, B. J. & Davie, A. J. Heart rates and estimated 7. Loveless, D. & Minahan, C. Peak aerobic power and paddling
energy expenditure during recreational surfing. Australian Journal efficiency inrecreational and competitive junior male surfers'.
of Science and Medicine in Sport. 23:70–74. 1991. European Journal of Sport Science. 10(6):407-415. 2010.
2. Mendez-Villanueva, A., Bishop, D. & Hamer. P. Activity profile of 8. Mendez-Villanueva, A., Perez-Landalunce, J., Bishop, D.,
world-class professional surfers during competition: A case study. Fernandez-Garcia, B., Ortolano, R., Leibar, X. & Terrados, N. Upper
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 20:477–482. body fitness comparisons between two groups of competitive
2006. surfboard riders. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport. 8:
3. Farley, O., Harris, N. & Kilding, A. Physiological Demands of 43–51. 2005.
Competitive Surfing. Journal of Strength and Conditioning 9. Sheppard, J. M., McNamara, P., Osborne, M., Andrews, M., Borges,
Research. 26(7):1887–1896. 2012. T. O., Walshe, P. & Chapman, D. W. Association between
4. Lowdon, B. J. Fitness requirements for surfing. Sports Coach. anthropometry and upper-body strength qualities with sprint
6(4):35-38. 1983. paddling performance in competitive wave surfers. Journal of
5. Lowdon, B. J., Bedi, J. F. & Horvath, S. M. Specificity of aerobic Strength and Conditioning Research. 26(12):3345-3348. 2012.
fitness testing of surfers. Australian Journal of Science and 10. Mendez-Villanueva, A. & Bishop, D. Physiological aspects of
Medicine in Sport. 21:7–10. 1989 surfboard riding performance. Sports Medicine 35:55–70. 2005.
6. Farley, O., Harris, N. & Kilding A. Anaerobic and Aerobic Fitness
Profiling of Competitive Surfers. Journal of Strength and
Conditioning Research. 8(26):2243–2248. 2012.

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Additional Reading
A comparison of three warm-up protocols on elite sprint cycling performance.

A COMPARISON OF THREE WARM-UP PROTOCOLS ON ELITE SPRINT CYCLING

PERFORMANCE
Ryan Worn1, Warren Young1
¹ School of Health Sciences, University of Ballarat, Ballarat, Australia
INTRODUCTION
The warm-up is a component of competition preparation which has been documented to enhance subsequent sporting
performance (3). Some of the purported gains include an increase in muscle temperature (20), increased oxygen uptake
(10), increased anaerobic metabolism (8) and post-activation potentiation (18). Although the warm-up is a common
practice and there are many potential benefits from performing a warm-up, little is known of the optimal procedure in
which to prepare athletes for a specific event. Studies investigating warm-up procedures have frequently recognised
the importance of optimally preparing the athlete for competition; whilst trying to minimise the deleterious effects of
fatigue, but to date this has not been perfected.
Although there have been various attempts (3, 6, 22), no universally accepted warm-up guidelines exist and many of
the warm-up methods employed by coaches have been developed through trial and error with varying success. A key
challenge in the design of a suitable warm up is how to manage the complex interplay between fatigue and post-
activation potentiation. Post-activation potentiation (PAP) refers to a short-term enhancement of the neuromuscular
system dependant on contractile history (18) and may potentially increase performance if properly exploited, particularly
for strength trained athletes who compete in explosive sports (5, 11, 16, 29). However, it has proven difficult to exploit
PAP given that the conditioning contractions necessary to evoke PAP also lead to fatigue, which seems to counteract
any possible benefits that might be gained from a heightened PAP response (18). Consequently, there are equivocal
results regarding the effectiveness of warm-up based interventions designed to exploit PAP, thus no ideal conditioning
protocol or warm-ups exists.
Studies attempting to exploit the phenomenon of PAP have utilised protocols consisting of either heavy concentric
activities such as squats or bench presses (16, 17, 21); or isometric activities including the mid-thigh pull, smith-machine
squat, single-leg press and unilateral isometric knee extensions (1, 9,11, 17, 21). Various contraction times, repetitions
and rest periods have been trialled with some proving more successful than others (5, 9, 11, 17, 21). It is generally
agreed that the optimal conditioning contraction whether isometric or concentric, should last between 3 to 5 seconds,
be performed 2 to 5 times at intensities between 70-100 percent and be followed by 2 to 4 minutes rest (5, 9, 11, 17,21).
These conditioning contractions are deigned to create a heightened PAP response and as such, are always performed
prior to explosive sports-related movements such as sprinting, loaded counter movement jumps or bench presses. The
possible mechanisms underlying the PAP response are associated with phosphorylation of myosin regulatory light
chains, an increase in motor unit recruitment, and possibly a change in pennation angle (11, 26).
The sport of sprint cycling may benefit from a short warm-up that incorporates a protocol designed to evoke PAP given
its nature as an explosive maximal intensity sport with a requirement for athletes to possess great strength and power
and to perform in a non-fatigued state (15). Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine whether the
introduction of a warm-up protocol designed to exploit the phenomenon of PAP would increase sprint cycling power
output and reduce the time taken to complete a 250 metre timed trial. A further aim of this study was to assess whether
a reduction in volume and intensity in a typical warm-up used by a high performance coach would affect sprint cycling
performance by either reducing fatigue or allowing the benefits of PAP to be realised to a greater extent.
METHODS
After gaining consent from the University of Ballarat Ethics Committee, ten national level sprint cyclists (Male n= 7;
Female n= 3, 21.1 ± 7.35 years and 72.90 ± 8.17 Kg) who were all members of a state institute or academy of sport
chose to participate in the present study. All participants had performed at least two years of consistent strength training
immediately prior to the study and were proficient in the squat, deadlift and power-clean exercises. Participants were
tested across three separate sessions, one week apart over a 250 metre maximal intensity timed trial after performing
one of three warm-ups (Table 1) in a counterbalanced design.

Table 1 - A comparison of the three warm-ups.
Time Warm Up 1 Warm Up 2 Time Warm Up 3

(Control) (Control + MVIC) (Reduced + MVIC)
Rollers 0 minutes • 5 minutes easy • 5 minutes easy 0 minutes • 4 minutes easy
pedalling pedalling pedalling
• 5 minutes moderate • 5 minutes moderate • 3 minutes moderate
pedalling pedalling pedalling
• 5 minutes hard • 5 minutes hard • minute easy pedalling
pedalling pedalling • 1x10 second sprint @
• 15 second sprint. • 15 second sprint 80% of max effort
• 5 minute rest • 5 minute rest • minute easy pedalling
• 1x7 second sprint @
20 minutes (all on 82 inch gear) (all on 82 inch gear)
90% of max effort
• minutes easy pedalling
• 1x5 second
sprint@100% max effort
• minutes easy pedalling
• 1x5 second sprint
@100% max effort
• minutes rest
18 minutes (all on self-determines
race gear)
Track • Power jump • Power Jump • 30 metre standing start
• 8 minutes rest • 8 minutes rest • 4 minutes rest
• Entry + 100m • Entry + 100m • 3x5 second MVIC’s per
• 20 minutes rest • 20 minutes rest leg, 30 seconds rest
• (change to race • (Change to race between each
gear) gear) contraction
• Entry + 150m • Entry + 150m • 4 minutes rest
• 8 minutes rest • 8 minute rest 28 minutes • 250 Metre time trial
• 40 metre standing • 40 metre standing
start start
• 3 minute rest • 3 minutes rest
65 minutes • 250 metre time trial • 3x5 second MVIC’s
per leg, 30 seconds
rest between each
contraction
• 4 minutes rest
70 minutes • 250 metre time trial
Warm-up one was used as the control warm-up and was developed with an elite cycling coach, and was believed to
reflect a typical pre-competition sprint cycling warm up. Warm-up two was identical except that it contained three 5
second Maximal Voluntary Isometric contractions (MVIC) with a 2 second lead-in performed on each leg, separated by
30 seconds rest whilst on the participants bicycle. The MVIC’s were followed by 4 minutes rest before commencement
of the timed trial. Warm up three was designed to reduce fatigue and was of less duration and intensity, but contained
the same MVIC’s. Short duration, unilateral MVIC’s were chosen as a result of prior successful studies (9, 11) and for
the ease of administration whilst participants were positioned on their bicycles. All three warm-ups began on a stationary
warm-up device known as rollers, which allowed the participant to warm-up on their own bicycle before commencing
the final part of the warm-up which involved sprint cycling specific drills performed on the indoor 250 meter velodrome
which was used for the test. Gear restrictions were enforced for the first part of warm-ups one and two which is typical
for this type of warm-up before participants were allowed to change to their self-determined optimal ‘race gear’ for the
timed trial. Timing data was collected through the use of a Kinematic Measurement System, which was placed at the
start/finish area of the velodrome and was triggered by the bicycle wheels passing through the beam. Power was
measured using a PowerTap® hub which had been built into a track cycling wheel and was able to tolerate the high
forces of sprint cycling. The PowerTap® hub has been repeatedly shown to be a reliable measure of power during
submaximal and maximal cycling (2, 7).
STATISTICAL ANALYSES
A repeated-measures ANOVA was performed on time to completion, maximum and average power with a level of
significance set at 0.05 and was used to determine any significant differences between warm-up conditions. Simple
contrast tests were performed to determine any inter warm-up differences; while effect size (ES) statistics were

performed to determine the magnitude of difference between warm-up conditions and were described using Hopkins
(12) thresholds, where trivial= <019, Small = 0.20-0.59, moderate= 0.6-1.19, large= 1.20-1.99 and very large = 2.0-4.0.
RESULTS
Small and significant improvements in time to completion and average power were observed following warm up three
when compared to the control warm-up (warm-up 1) (p=0.009; ES=0.43, p=0.01; ES=0.30), with 2.2% and 5.7%
improvements noted for time and average power respectively. Small but non-significant improvements in time to
completion, average and maximum power were observed following warm-up two, when compared to the control warm-
up (p=0.454; ES= 0.11, p=0.863; ES= 0.01, p=0.456; ES= 0.08), with 3.5% and 4.7% increases observed in maximum
and average power respectively which can be seen in Table 2.
Table 2 - A comparison of the 3 warm-ups and their effect on time to completion, average power and maximum power.
Warm Up 1 Warm Up 2 Warm Up 3 Warm Up 2 Warm Up 3 Warm Up 3

Compared to Compared to Compared to
Warm Up 1 Warm Up 1 Warm Up 2
% p ES % p ES % p ES
250 metre 21.02 ± 1.57 20.85 ± 1.51 20.4 ± 1.28 0.8 0.454 2.9 0.009 2.2 0.027
Time Trial 0.00(trivial) 0.43(small) 0.32(small)
(s)
Peak 1354.1 ± 1357.2 ±355 1395.6 ± 0.2 0.863 3.5 0.15 3.3 0.06
Power 334 330 0.01(trivial) 0.13(trivial) 0.11(trivial)
Average 952.2 ± 175 967.4 ± 211 1007.9 ± 1 0.456 4.77 0.01 5.7 0.06
Power 196 0.08(trivial) 0.30(small) 0.22(small)
DISCUSSION
When compared to the control warm-up (warm-up 1), slight improvements in power output and time to completion were
noted following warm up two; yet significant improvements in power output and a shorter time to completion were
observed following warm up three. This contrast in performance following the third warm-up may be a result of the
reduced intensity and duration, which may have allowed the athlete to perform in a non-fatigued state. Research has
highlighted the importance of managing fatigue during the pre-competition warm up in an attempt to optimally prime the
athlete for competition without limiting performance gains (4, 27). There is mounting evidence that many typical warm-
up routines may be too intense and could possibly limit performance as a result of undue fatigue incurred during the
warm-up (4, 27).
Research by Tomaras and Macintosh (27) may substantiate the claim that the typical pre-competition warm-up is too
fatiguing and may diminish performance. The researchers compared the effects of a shortened experimental warm up
against a longer and more intense traditional warm-up on ten highly trained male track cyclists across a maximal 30
second Wingate test and observed significant improvements in peak power (p <0.01) and total work (p <0.01), following
the experimental warm up but not the traditional warm-up. Tomaras and Macintosh (27) explain that this improvement
is likely due to the attenuation of fatigue observed following the shortened warm-up. The above findings are supported
by Bishop, Bonetti and Spencer (4) from their research into the warm up of seven elite 500 metre kayakers, who found
significant (p<0.05) improvements in both peak and average power when tested over an all-out two minute kayak
ergometer test following a shortened intermittent warm-up when compared to a longer and harder ‘traditional’ warm up.
Furthermore, research by Smith, Fry, Weiss, Li and Kizney (24) indicates that a non-conventional and possibly less
fatiguing warm-up may have the potential to enhance sprint cycling performance by exploiting the phenomenon of PAP.
Nine recreationally trained men who could all squat at least 1.5 times their body weight performed two separate warm-
ups on alternate days and after full recovery. Warm-up one was a traditional sprint cycling warm-up which contained
progressively harder sprints, whilst warm-up 2 consisted of squats gradually increasing in intensity and decreasing in
repetitions. Both warm-ups were performed prior to an all-out 10 second cycle sprint. Following the squat warm-up and
after five minutes rest, participants performed 10 x 1 at 90% 1RM squats, followed by five additional minutes of rest
before commencing the 10 second cycle sprint. Significant increases were observed in both maximum (p<0.05) and
average power (p<0.05) following the squat warm-up protocol, but not the traditional sprint cycling warm-up, with the
researchers indicating the possibility for this improvement to transfer into competition when following a similar warm-up
(24).
Although, the successful exploitation of a heightened PAP response may improve subsequent performance, there is
evidence to suggest that those performance benefits may only be realised in strong athletes with a well-established
strength training history (5, 23, 29), such as those in the present study. Previous research investigating protocols
designed to exploit PAP have shown no increase in performance in weaker individuals (23) or a greater performance in
stronger individuals (5, 11, 29). It is possible that stronger athletes tend to perform better from a result of more type 2

fast twitch fibres, which are said to undergo greater phosphorylation of regulatory myosin light chains in response to
conditioning activity (25).
The reason for improvement in performance described in the above studies (4, 24, 27) may lie in the complex interplay
between fatigue and PAP which can be seen in Figure 1 (below), particularly at the metabolic level, where fatigue
appears to be related to either a reduction in calcium production, or as a result of attenuated calcium uptake. This fatigue
may result from an accumulation in inorganic phosphates often associated with prolonged high intensity activity such
as that observed during most ‘traditional’ warm-ups (14). In contrast, PAP when not supressed by fatigue, may enhance
performance by either increasing the release of calcium or from increased calcium sensitivity, particularly in stronger
individuals (5, 11, 26, 29). The opposing metabolic mechanisms behind PAP and fatigue during the warm-up seem to
suggest that the ideal warm-up would be one of short duration and high intensity, with optimal recovery periods designed
to prevent adverse metabolite accumulation and thus limit fatigue and exploit PAP. Ideally, acidemia would have been
tested for via blood samples in the present study; however inferences can be made that given the long and intense
nature of warm-up one and two, and the findings of previous studies, (4, 27) metabolite concentration was probably high
and may have led to fatigue and a supressed PAP response.
Figure 1 - The relationship between fatigue, recovery and PAP following conditioning contractions.
When considering the interplay between fatigue and PAP and the results of other studies (4, 23, 27) it is of little surprise
that the greatest and significant improvements in performance were observed following the shortened and less intense
third warm-up. This is likely a result of reduced fatigue and possibly a heightened PAP response following the MVIC’s.
Interestingly, slight but not significant improvements in time to completion, peak and average power were recorded
following warm-up two, which may suggest that a PAP effect was taking place but fatigue was too great for a
performance benefit to be realised. A rest protocol of four minutes post MVIC’s was decided upon based on previous
research (5,11, 29); however, none of the mentioned studies contained a warm-up so long and intense prior to the
performance measure. A longer rest period between 6 to 8 minutes following completion of the final MVIC and the
commencement of the 250 meter timed trial may have allowed for partial recovery whilst still maintaining a heightened
PAP response and may have improved results (5, 13, 27). Ideally a fourth warm-up protocol identical to warm-up three
minus the MVIC’s would have been included in this study and may have confirmed whether an enhanced PAP effect
was taking place following warm-up three and that the improvements in performance were not entirely attributed to a
reduced volume alone. Nevertheless, this study provides evidence that a shortened warm up containing 3x5 second
MVIC’s has the potential to significantly improve sprint cycling performance over a 250 meter timed trial.
This study provides evidence that the long-held belief “more is better” where warm-ups are concerned may be incorrect
and may encourage coaches to re-design their pre-competition warm-ups. Excessive fatigue incurred during the warm-
up will likely hinder subsequent performance and may negate any attempt exploit the phenomenon of PAP. The
relationship between fatigue and PAP presents a challenge for coaches when designing warm-ups, in particular, to the
length and intensity of the warm-up, the strength of the athletes and what conditioning protocols should be implemented.
More research is required to determine the optimal warm-up and the best strategies in which to minimise fatigue.
Furthermore, the optimal methods in which to exploit the phenomenon of PAP during the warm-up have not yet been
established and research needs to explore the conditioning type and optimal rest periods between and after contractions
with individual athletic differences kept in mind. The optimal pre-competition warm-up will more than likely differ for each
athlete and sport, may vary in length, and require different sports-specific conditioning contractions if the benefits of
reduced volume and an enhanced PAP response are to be realised.

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Tricoli, V. Intermittent exercise as a conditioning activity to induce & Conditioning Journal, 32(5): 63-68, 2010.
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and reliability of the powertap mobile cycling powermeter when 17. Rixon, K. P., Lamont, H. S., & Bemben, M. G. Influence of type of
compared with the SRM device. International Journal of Sports muscle contraction, gender, and lifting experience on postactivation
Medicine, 26(10): 868-873, 2005. potentiation performance. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning
3. Bishop, D. Warm up II: Performance changes following active warm Research, 21(2): 500-505, 2007.
up and how to structure the warm up.Sports Medicine, 33(7): 483- 18. Sale, D. G. Postactivation potentiation: Role in performance. British
498, 2003. Journal of Sports Medicine, 38(4): 386-387, 2004.
4. Bishop, D., Bonetti, D., & Spencer, M. The effect of an intermittent, 19. Sale, D. G. Postactivation potentiation: Role in human performance.
high-intensity warm-up on supramaximal kayak ergometer Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews, 30(3): 138, 2002.
performance. Journal of sports sciences, 21(1): 13-20, 2003. 20. Sargeant. A.J. Effects of muscle temperature on leg extension force
5. Chiu, L. Z. F., Fry, A. C., Weiss, L. W., Schilling, B. K., Brown, L. E., and short-term power output in humans. European Journal of
& Smith, S. L. Postactivation potentiation response in athletic and Applied Physiology, 56(6): 693-698, 1987.
recreationally trained individuals. The Journal of Strength & 21. Scott, S. L., & Docherty, D. Acute effects of heavy preloading on
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journal of applied physiology, 27(1): 42-55, 2002.

Specific Warm-up and Movement Screen for Weightlifting.

Exercise Highlight
SPECIFIC WARM-UP AND MOVEMENT SCREEN FOR WEIGHTLIFTING
Timothy Gabriel, CSCS, USAW1 and Jay Dawes PhD, CSCS.
Before participating in weightlifting a general active warm-up or general dynamic warm-up is important to perform, for
several reasons. It can be effective in elevating body temperature, warming body tissues, and producing a variety of
improvements in physiological function. Performing a general dynamic warm-up prior to training has been shown to
improve performance via improved range of motion, and improving neuromuscular communication through improved
proprioceptive input and kinesthetic awareness (1,3). This does not, however, necessarily focus on the specific areas
that will be used during the workout. That is why a specific dynamic warm-up, meaning specific to the activity, needs to
be conducted. This specific warm-up is performed to insure that joints and body segments that will be utilized have
adequate mobility and flexibility which adds together for overall increased range of motion. The following is a specific
warm-up when preparing to perform the Olympic lifts.
This series of seven exercises should be performed for 1-2 sets of five to ten repetitions, using a 122-152 centimetre
dowel rod or PVC pipe. During these movements the athlete should pretend as if they are lifting a heavy weight in order
to ensure proper focus and effort on the specific muscle(s) being stretched/activated.
Video 1 - Series of seven exercises.
1. Good Morning- This exercise is performed with the dowel rod placed on the back of the shoulders as if preparing
to perform a back squat and feet hip to shoulder width apart. The athlete should then “hinge” at the hips leaning the
torso forward while keeping a slight bend in the knees and arch in the lower back. The main focus of this exercise is
to target the hamstrings. Also, ensure that the athlete does not round the back, tuck the hips, or hyperextend the
knees as these are common errors that should be corrected. Some cues that might help to correct these issues are
tight back, butt back, and relaxed knees.
2. Deep Squat- This movement is used to warm-up the muscles of the lower-body and increase ankle, knee, and hip
mobility. This is a very important position in weightlifting because it allows for the athlete to achieve the deep squat
position to receive the bar during the snatch or the clean. With scapula’s retracted and shoulders elevated, forming
a shelf for the bar, the athlete will adjust the feet to shoulder width or greater, depending on their preference. Keeping
an upright torso the athlete will descend into a deep squat position, hold for a second or two and return to a standing
position. As stated before the deep squat is a critical position to achieve in weightlifting. There are certain body
positions that should be looked for while the athlete squats (2).
a. Head- held in a neutral position

b. Thoracic Spine- slightly extended, maintain torso and shin angle
c. Lumber Spine- neutral, some slight curvature inward
d. Hip Joint- flexed
e. Knees- aligned with feet
f. Feet/ankles- flat not rolling in or lifting up
3. Pass Through- The pass through is performed in a standing position holding the dowel with a snatch grip or wider.
At a slow pace, keeping the arms straight with elbows locked out the athlete will move the bar away from the body
until it is outstretched overhead and then continue moving it backwards till the dowel is touching the lower back or
buttocks, depending on grip width. To elicit more deltoid and latissimus dorsi activation the athlete should push the

hands apart as the dowel moves through the ROM. Athletes should start with a wide hand placement. To further
challenge mobility the athlete can progressively move their hands closer together.
4. Around the world- The around the world exercise is another shoulder flexibility/activation exercise. Again holding
the dowel with a snatch width grip the athlete will keep one arm straight while taking the other, while still holding the
dowel, attempt to make a halo, or circle, around their head until the bar is behind them. Then taking the other arm
they will move the bar around the head till the bar is positioned in front of them again. This exercise should be
performed clockwise then counterclockwise. Common errors that can be seen with this movement are arms not being
kept straight while moving through the ROM. A correction for this would be to use the cue “arms straight” or adjust
to a wider grip width. Again, like the pass through, this movement can be made more challenging by adjusting the
grip width.
5. Muscle Snatch- The muscle snatch can be used as a shoulder activation exercise and can help with patterning of
the bars flight path during the snatch. While standing upright and hands in a snatch grip width the athlete will pull the
bar up keeping it as close to the body as possible and extending upward to the overhead position. This exercise is
performed at a slow pace and there should be a focus on elbow and shoulder elevation before turning the bar over.
If the athlete drops the elbows before turning the bar over then they may have tight latissimus dorsi or poor shoulder
ROM. Stretching the latissimus dorsi and increasing shoulder ROM may be needed in order to properly perform the
movement.
6. Overhead Squat- The overhead squat is used to activate the muscles used during the squat, but also to activate
those utilised in keeping the bar overhead during the exercise. The athlete will stand with feet shoulder width apart
and with a snatch width grip extend the bar overhead, making sure to keep the arms locked out at all times as the
athlete descends into a squat position. This exercise should be performed at a slow pace to place emphasis on the
muscles being used. Just as with the deep squat the same general body position should be maintained with the
addition of the arms overhead. Some of the limiting factors for the overhead squat and not being able to maintain the
bar overhead could be tight latissimus dorsi, shoulder ROM, inflexible hips causing anterior tilt of the torso, and
inflexible ankles. In order to correct these issues remedial exercises will need to be prescribed.
7. Snatch Balance- The snatch balance is performed in a standing position with feet hip width apart and the dowel
resting on the back and hands in a snatch grip. The athlete will then quickly drop into a squat position while
simultaneously pressing the bar up overhead, imitating the catch position for the snatch. This exercise requires the
athlete to move the body quickly in preparation for the speed of the lifts. Also, it is important to observe the body
during this movement to see if the athlete possesses the prerequisite strength to maintain proper positioning. Such
as, preventing valgus collapse of the knees, maintain an upright torso, and keeping straight arms while the bar is
extended overhead. Many of the requirements for proper squat technique can also be used to assess this exercise.
Not only can these movements be used for a specific dynamic warm-up but they can also be used as a movement
screen for the athlete. Just as warming up properly can help increase performance so to can solving faulty movement
patterns and limited ROM. Part of the job of a strength and conditioning coach is to constantly assess movement patterns
in everything that their athletes do.
REFERENCES
1. Bird, S. P., & Stuart, W. Integrated balance and postural stability 2. Kritz, M., Cronin, J., & Hume, P. The bodyweight squat: A movement
exercises into the functional warm-up for youth athletes. Strength & screen for the squat pattern. Strength & Conditining Journal. 1:76-
Conditioning Journal. 3:73-79. 2012. 85. 2009.
3. Swanson, J. A functional approach to warm-up and flexibility.
Strength & Conditioning Journal. 5:30-36. 2012

Recommended Reading (Non-ASCA)
BECOMING A SUPPLE LEOPARD.
Dr. Kelly Starrett















The effects of different recovery interventions following a repeated rugby union (sevens) game
simulated protocol.
Peer Review
THE EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT RECOVERY INTERVENTIONS FOLLOWING A REPEATED
RUGBY UNION (SEVENS) GAME SIMULATED PROTOCOL.
Benjamin Jones, MS, CSCS, Jeffrey Lander, PhD, FASCM and Deloss Brubaker, EdD,
ATC.
ABSTRACT
Rugby places extremely high physiological stresses upon players. Additionally recovery methods within rugby have
been under-researched, especially when compared to other sports. The need for effective recovery interventions is
essential to facilitate player revival and safety. The purpose of this study was to compare the effectiveness of four
different recovery interventions following a rugby 7’s game simulated protocol and to determine whether any, or all, of
the four recovery interventions were effective.
Ten undergraduate Premiership Level Rugby Union players completed a Wingate anaerobic cycle test (WAnT),
Countermovement Jump test (CMJ), the Total Quality Recovery Questionnaire (TQR) and muscle soreness diagrams.
Testing sessions were separated by one week. Subject’s completed the England Anaerobic Fitness Test (E-set), then
received one of four different recovery interventions; Passive recovery (PR), Active Recovery (AR), Cold Water
Immersion (CWI) or Combined Recovery (COMB). 24hours later subjects repeated the pre-test assessments. A fully
within groups’ factorial ANOVA was used to compare results.
Perceptual responses revealed that PR was perceived to provide significantly lower levels of recovery compared to
AR/CWI/COMB (14.0 vs. 15.4, 15.4, 15.6): (p < .05). Performance variables; CMJ displayed no significant differences
between PR vs. AR/CWI/COMB (p > .05). WAnT analysis produced no significant difference between PR vs.
AR/CWI/COMB (p > .05).
This study supports previous research that CWI provides an improved perceptual response of recovery compared to
PR. The study also supports previous studies in that no significant differences were found between PR, AR, CWI and
COMB recovery protocols for performance measures. It is recommended that CWI recovery be applied to athletes who
request it and believe its aids in their recovery.
Keywords - Rugby Sevens, recovery, cold water immersion, muscle damage, E-set.
INTRODUCTION
The popularity of rugby (7's) as a global sport was strengthened when it was chosen for the 2016 Olympic Games.
While the rules remain the same as the established fifteen-aside game (15's), rugby sevens involves shorter games,
usually consisting of two seven minute halves. The seven players on each team will play repeatedly on the same day,
with most tournaments taking place over two or three days. International competitions require players to play 3-4 games
over two days, with a 1-2 hr. gap between games. National level competitions are one day events, consisting of 6 games
with anywhere between 30 minutes to 2 hours between matches.
The exhaustive and stressful nature of repetitive rugby 7’s is characterized by intense all out sprinting (power);
aggressive physical impacts (strength); and the need for incredibly high anaerobic capacities for all players (6, 8, 19,
21).
It has been established that rugby places extremely high physiological and psychological stresses upon players. It has
also been demonstrated that the incidence of injury within rugby matches is higher than other contact sports (9, 21, 22).
Compared to football, soccer and basketball, recovery methods within rugby union -15’s and 7’s - have been
demonstrably under-researched (21).
To date, many different recovery interventions are employed (26). A qualitative study carried out by Venter showed that
ice-water immersions, active recovery and re-hydration modalities are the most commonly carried out interventions used

by rugby players following training and competition (25). Even though the theories behind these protocols are very
plausible and anecdotally there use is warranted, very little scientific evidence supports their use (2, 24). The need for
effective and aggressive recovery interventions following matches and training is now a necessity (11). The purpose of
this study was to compare the effectiveness of four different recovery interventions following a rugby 7’s game simulated
protocol and to determine whether any, or all, of the four recovery interventions were effective.
METHODS

This study was designed to evaluate the effectiveness of four different recovery interventions active recovery (AR),
passive recovery (PR), cold water immersion (CWI) and combined recovery (COMB) [AR + CWI] and their ability to
enhance recovery, following a rugby 7’s game simulated protocol. Through a repeated measures design each subject
completed four sessions of identical procedures separated by one week. Only the type of recovery protocol performed
after the game simulated protocol differed. Consequently, the difference in pre and post-test and within group scores
could be compared for each recovery intervention.
Twenty countermovement jump (CMJ) and thirty second Wingate cycle ergometer tests were used to assess
physiological recovery. Muscle soreness diagrams and total quality recovery questionnaires (TQR) were self-assessed
by players to evaluate psychological levels of recovery. PR was used to act as a control during the experiment.
Subjects
Twelve undergraduate Premiership Level Rugby Union players were chosen, through participation in the Life University
Collegiate rugby program, a program ranked 3rd nationally within the United States, two subjects however dropped out,
due to scheduling conflicts (Table 1). Subjects had been playing competitive rugby and involved in high level strength
and conditioning between 4-6 years. Participants were screened for anti-inflammatory medications and nutritional
supplements and were free from known injury and illness at the start of the study. Subjects were asked to refrain from
any physical exercise for twenty-four hours before testing. Alcohol consumption was banned throughout the testing
period. Before participation in the study, each subject signed a written consent form in accordance with the Life
University’s Institutional Review Board (IRB) policies. All players were fully habituated and familiarized with data
collection systems.
Table 1 - Subject descriptive statistics.
Height (cm) 179.9 (8.2)

Weight (kg) 87.03 (10.1)
Age (yrs) 20 (2)
BF (%) 9.1 (3.3)
BMI (kg·m-2) 27.05 (1.98)
VO2max (ml/kg/min) 53.0 (2.7)
E-set (sec) 268.2 (17.5)
Values displayed are means + standard deviations.
Procedures
On day one subjects reported to the Life University Sport Health Science laboratory and filled out the Total Quality
Recovery Questionnaire (TQR) and indicated on the muscle soreness diagrams their current state of recovery (Figure
1). Subjects then completed a standardized warm up protocol (Table 2).
Table 2 - Warm up protocol.
Time (minutes) Exercise Performed

3 Light Jogging (multi-direction)
3 Sport-specific ROM mobility
4 6x20m increasing sprints
2 Dynamic stretching
2 3x15m sprints @100%

1= No soreness
2= Slight soreness
3= Mild soreness
4= Average soreness
5= Above average soreness
6= Very Sore
7= Very very sore
8= Extremely sore
Figure 1 - A schematic representation of muscle soreness diagrams shaded by subjects.
Following the warm-up subjects completed two pre-test performance tests; counter movement jump (CMJ) performed
on a jump mat (Probiotics INC, AL, USA) and a wingate anaerobic cycle test (WAnT) using a pan loaded Monark cycle
(Ergomedic 894E, Boras, Sweden). Subjects performed 3, submaximal CMJ before the measurement trials; subjects
were required to perform 20 repeated maximal CMJ efforts, with a pause (1-2 seconds) and re-set in between each
effort. Technique instructions were very specific; a self-selected countermovement depth was chosen, subjects were
required to perform the CMJ with hands held in place on the hips as per Cormack (5). Subjects were told to jump as
high as possible. Subjects were also informed for consistent landing technique to keep legs and hips extended until
contact was made with the mat (5). Jump height (cm) and hang time (sec) were measured and averaged. Subjects then
completed the WAnT. The prescribed load at the start of the WAnT was calculated using the equation below. A
standardized WAnT program was administered with cycle revolutions counted every 5 seconds.
(Leg Force (N) = BM (N) x 0.090)
Calculations were then made to derive Relative peak anaerobic power (Rel-pk-AnP), Relative work (Rel-w), and fatigue
index (FI %).
Subjects then proceeded to the Life University outdoor rugby field and completed the game simulated protocol; England
Anaerobic Endurance Fitness Test (E-set) (Figure 2), had a two minute rest, and then repeated the E-set protocol.
The England Anaerobic Endurance Test (E-set) (Figure 2), is designed to measure rugby specific anaerobic
performance (in terms of distances and times of work) – the ability to repeat bouts of high intensity activity with short
recovery periods. The E-set is thought to mimic the movement patterns, work: rest ratios, sprint distances and total time
requirements of a rugby sevens game. The repeated down up movement, back pedalling, and change of direction
elements are considered to be sport specific to rugby sevens. The E-set obviously lacks the impact stress of a rugby
tackle. However, during rugby sevens matches this element of the game is greatly reduced compared to 15-a side.
Additionally, the manifestation of muscle damage caused by an impact can be considered to be different from the
metabolic and mechanical muscle damage caused during games.
The test criteria are:

• Total time take to complete the test

• The fatigue index between first and last repetitions
Players with higher levels of anaerobic endurance will show faster overall completion times for the test.
Players with excellent speed will show good times for the first repetitions but may show slower times overall and a higher
fatigue index. It is hoped that the time for the first repetition is quicker than the last. This test is all about starting with
100% intensity, rather than saving energy through the test and putting in a sprint finish.
Sevens Test
Procedure
• One tester per player with a stopwatch.

• Each player in an allocated lane.
• Each set of the test is a single or multiple combination of the same basic repetition.
Course is:
Figure 2 - A diagram of the floor layout of the England anaerobic fitness test.
The basic repetition is as follows:
• Player starts on his front with his chest in contact with the floor with head on starting line.
• He gets up and sprints out and around the pole at 5m, and runs backwards to the start line – behind the start pole
where he goes down to contact his chest with the floor.
• He then gets up and sprints again around the 5m pole, and runs backwards to the start line – behind the start pole
where he goes down to contact his chest with the floor.
• He then gets up and sprints out and around the outside of the 10m pole, on to and around the outside of the 20m
pole, on again to the 30m pole, runs around this and then sprints straight back to the start line.
Video 1 - Displays a single repetition of the E-set test.
The test format for 7’s is as follows:
• 1 x 1 repetition
• 1 x 2 consecutive repetitions
The recovery time between repetitions is dictated by the time taken to complete the required repetition(s) i.e. the start
of each section is fixed on a running clock so that the faster the completion time, the more rest the player receives.
The table below indicates the times for the running clock and the estimated range of times for each section of the test
for the sevens test.
Table 3 - Timing for the E-set test.

Running Estimated Duration Estimated End of

Event Average Rest Time
Clock Time of Repetition Event Time
Start of 1 x 1
0 20 – 22 Seconds 20 – 22 Seconds 28 – 30 Seconds
Repetition
Start of 2nd 1 x 1
50 20 – 23 Seconds 1:10 – 1:13 Minutes 27 – 30 Seconds
Repetition
Start of 1 x 2
1:40 45 – 55 Seconds 2:25 – 2:35 Minutes 45 – 55 Seconds
Consecutive Repetitions
Start of 2nd 1 x 2
Start of 3rd 1 x 2
Start of 1 x 1
6:30 20 – 25 Seconds 6:50 – 6:55 Minutes -
Repetition
• The time for each repetition is recorded on the sheet for the individual being measured.
• One person should be made responsible for administering the running clock and for informing the players and testers
of the content of the next set and the rest time to go. This person should also give all of the ‘start’ commands for the
whole group.
Subjects were timed for each sprint and encouraged to give a maximal effort on each repetition. The total distance
covered during testing was 1.44km.
Immediately following the second E-set subjects completed an active recovery (AR), consisting of three slow laps of the
rugby field. Subjects were allowed to ingest water ad libitum throughout the testing period.
Subjects then passively rested for ninety minutes (indoors) and were provided with a variety of food snacks to provide
energy over the day. Snacks consisted of bananas, granola bars and a variety of chewy sweets. The foods chosen
were consistent with food provided during rugby 7’s competitions. Following the rest period, subjects repeated the
standardized warm up procedure (Table 2) and then repeated the E-set protocol. Immediately following the E-set
subjects then began the recovery intervention that they were previously randomly selected (PR, AR, CWI, or COMB).
Passive Recovery (PR): required the subjects to sit passively for fifteen minutes at the cessation of the second E-set
(indoors).
Active Recovery (AR): consisted of subjects alternating seven minutes’ walk/jog (<35% VO 2max), three minute leg
drain (raised above heart level), five minutes sport specific range of motion mobility. Heart rate monitoring was used
for subjects performing the active recovery protocol, to maintain an active recovery intensity of < 35% VO 2max (63-
73bpm).
Cold Water Immersion (CWI): required subjects strip to their undergarments and slowly lower their lower body to the
level of the iliac crest into portable baths for a10 minute immersion (Rubbermaid Commercial Products, Australia).
Water temperature was 10ºC (+/- 1); temperature was monitored using a thermometer and addition of crushed ice. Toe
Covers (Pro Orthopaedic INC, AZ, USA) were worn to protect the dorsum of the feet from cold hypersensitivity.
Combined Recovery (COMB): involved CWI being administered first, followed by active recovery.
Following recovery subjects were told to go home and continue their post ‘match’ activities as normal. The following
morning (day two, post-test), subjects again reported to the laboratory and initially completed the TQR and muscle
soreness diagram. Subjects were required to again complete the standardized warm up (Table 2) and repeat the
performance tests (CMJ and WAnT). Subjects then completed a week’s normal training before repeating the procedures,
with an alternate recovery method. An experimental protocol timeline is presented in Table 4.

Table 4 - Experimental protocol timeline.
Timeline Experimental Protocol

Day 1
1.00pm • Questionnaire
1.15pm • Warm-up
1.30pm • CMJ
1.40pm • WAnT
2.00pm E-set x2
2.30pm Active recovery + 90min passive rest
4.00pm
4.00pm • Warm-up
4.15pm • E-set x2
4.30pm Recovery Modality (PR/AR/CWI/COMB)
Day 2
11am • Questionnaire
11.15am • Warm-up
11.30am • CMJ
11.40am • WAnT
12am Finish
Day 3 Weight Training

Day 4 Speed + Conditioning
Day 5 Weights + Conditioning
Day 6 Weight Training
Day 7 Rest Day
Day 1 Repeat Testing
This timeline sequence was repeated for a four week period, so that all subjects could complete each recovery measure
(repeated measures) following the game simulated protocol.
n= 10 for PR/AR/CWI/COMB groups.
Statistical Analyses
The results of each measurement are presented as mean and SD (). Data analysis was conducted using a statistical
analysis package (SPSS 19.0). A within group’s factorial ANOVA was used to examine the impact of different forms of
recovery (group), time and any interaction between them. Additional ‘Helmert’ planned comparisons were performed for
post-recovery scores. Further ‘repeated’ pairwise planned comparisons were performed on post-recovery scores.
Differences were considered to be significant at p<0.05.
RESULTS
The TQR asked subjects to rate their current level of recovery, current level of leg heaviness and level of sleep quality.
Table 5 shows that a significant difference was found for current level of recovery (14.0 vs. 15.4, 15.4, 15.6): (p < .05).
This indicates that PR results in significantly lower perceived recovery than the other forms of recovery when considered
collectively. No significant differences were observed for leg heaviness or sleep quality.
Table 5 - Total quality recovery scores for all four recovery measures.
TQR Pre-PR Post-PR Pre-AR Post-AR Pre-CWI Post-CWI Pre-COM Post-COM

TR 15.1 (3.07) 14 (1.63)* 16.4 (1.58) 15.4 (1.43) 16.3 (2.21) 15.4 (1.71) 15.6 (1.96) 15.6 (2.91)
LH 3.4 (.97) 3.5 (.53) 2.8 (.92) 3.7 (.67) 2.5 (.97) 3.1 (.88) 3.2 (1.03) 2.9 (1.10)
SQ 6.1 (.99) 5.8 (1.23) 5.7 (1.25) 5.2 (2.10) 5.5 (1.58) 5.8 (1.40) 4.8 (1.69) 5.8 (1.55)
Values displayed are means + standard deviation displayed for: TR=Total Recovery (6-20 scale) LH=Leg Heaviness
(1-5 scale) SQ=Sleep Quality (1-7 scale) = Significant difference *(p < .05).
Pre-PR= Pre-test Passive Recovery Pre-AR= Pre-test Active Recovery Pre-CWI= Pre-test Cold Water Immersion Pre-
COM= Pre-test Combined Recovery .
n = 10 for all groups.

Qualitative analyses of muscle soreness were assessed through shaded diagrams. Subjects used a pencil to label a
shaded scale diagram of the body’s musculature to indicate exactly where they experienced soreness. All subjects
reported a predominance of lower body muscle soreness following testing. Subjects indicated that PR had little effect
upon muscle soreness, AR slightly increased muscle soreness. Both CWI and COMB largely reduced muscle soreness
for most subjects.
Figure 3 shows CMJ values for average jump scores. Post jump values for PR and CWI were supported as recovery
measures compared to AR and COMB (55.30 cm & 57.08c m vs. 55.27cm & 54.93cm): (p <0.05). Figure 4 shows CMJ
values for maximal jump scores. Post jump values for PR and CWI were supported as recovery measures compared to
AR and CWI (59.71cm & 60.53 vs. 58.17cm & 57.93cm) : (p <0.05).
Average Jump Height Scores Post Recovery

70.00
65.00
Jump Values (cm)
60.00
55.00
Mean
50.00
45.00
40.00
PR Post AR Post CWI Post COMB Post
Recovery
Figure 3 - Values are mean and SD. A graphic representation of post-recovery average jump values in (cm). A significant
difference was observed between AR and CWI and CWI and COMB recovery (p < .05).
Maximal Jump Height Post-Recovery

80.00
70.00
Jump Height (cm)
60.00
50.00
40.00
Mean
30.00
20.00
10.00
PR Post AR Post CWI Post COMB Post
Recovery
Figure 4 - Values are mean and SD . A graphic representation of post-recovery maximal jump values in (cm). A
significant difference was observed between AR and CWI and CWI and COMB recovery (p < .05).
WAnT analysis revealed that there was no significant difference between all recovery measures when observing
measurements of Relative peak anaerobic power (Rel-pk-AnP), Relative work (Rel-w), and fatigue index (FI %).

DISCUSSION
Perceptual Responses
Subjects’ perceptual responses to recovery were assessed through self-reported muscle soreness diagrams and the
total quality recovery questionnaire (TQR). PR was hypothesized to have the least effect upon subject’s perceptual
feelings of recovery. This was found to be the case. Subjects predominately reported increased muscle soreness
following PR. Subjects TQR responses revealed a significantly lower perceived perception of recovery following PR
compared to all other recovery interventions, this finding is also consistent with previous research (1, 12, 14, 16, 20,
23). Whether this perceived response is something tangible that subjects can actually feel or purely placebo in nature
is debatable. Subjects did not however report any difference in terms of leg heaviness or sleep quality.
Perceptual responses also revealed that subjects reported slightly increased muscle soreness following AR. TQR
responses revealed that subjects perceived AR to increase perceived recovery compared to PR, but no differently than
CWI or COMB recovery. Interestingly, AR was found to elicit significantly higher levels of leg soreness than COMB
recovery. AR has also been proposed to promote sleep through a gradual decline in central nervous system activity
(10, 18). However, no significant differences in sleep quality were reported by subjects.
CWI recovery was reported by subjects to reduce muscle soreness levels. Additionally, TQR CWI responses were
perceived by subjects to increase recovery levels compared to PR, but not significantly different when compared to AR
or COMB recovery. CWI had no significant effect upon feelings of leg heaviness or sleep quality compared to PR.
COMB recovery was also reported to reduce muscle soreness. COMB TQR responses also displayed that subjects
perceived their recovery levels to increase compared to PR recovery, but no differently than CWI or AR.
Performance Measures
Subject’s performance responses to recovery were assessed through the use of repeated counter-movement jump
(CMJ) and a Wingate anaerobic cycle test (WAnT). Results showed PR to be no different when compared to all other
recovery interventions during countermovement jumps (CMJ) and Wingate anaerobic cycle testing (WAnT). The results
found were not unexpected as previous research has shown PR to be comparable to other recovery protocols (4).
Further analysis between AR, CWI and COMB recovery interventions revealed some significant differences. Average
jump height and maximal jump height demonstrated that CWI was supported as a recovery intervention compared to
both AR and COMB (small effects size). This difference was not entirely unexpected as CWI has been suggested as a
form of AR that facilitates the same physiological responses such as increased blood flow, metabolite removal, and
nutrient transportation without the need to expend additional energy; this simply may have been the difference between
the two protocols (15, 26). It should be noted that the COMB modality employed in this study incorporated both CWI
followed by AR. It is possible that the AR recovery protocol forced subjects to spend additional time on their feet in an
already fatigued state. It may have been that the combination of two protocols lasting 30 minutes instead of 15 minutes
(all other recoveries) produced a negative response to the recovery measure (11). In general, AR had either a negligible
or a negative response to facilitating recovery. This response may have been due to subjects unfamiliarity with the AR
procedure employed or simply from the increased time period subjects spent on their feet following the fatiguing protocol,
even though strict measures were set in place to keep the AR intensity (<35% VO 2max) sufficiently low. The uses of
AR or COMB as effective recovery interventions based upon the outcome of this study remain equivocal.
Collectively, these results imply that CWI has merit as a recovery measure compared to AR and COMB in terms of
performance measures. CWI also had advantages perceptually compared to PR. The current findings are in support
of previous work where CWI has shown indications of support for its use as a recovery tool (14, 17). However, CWI use
as a recovery measure is far from conclusive, with the current studies results demonstrating CWI having no more effect
than PR during performance tests.
The outcomes of the current study support the findings of previous research that CWI recovery interventions provide an
improved perceptual response specifically, athlete reported reduced muscle soreness and an increased perception of
perceived recovery compared to passive recovery (medium effects size) (1, 12 14, 16, 20, 23). The current study also
supports the findings of previous research that no significant differences were found between PR, AR, CWI and COMB
recovery protocols in terms of subsequent performance measures (7, 12, 13).
Possible explanations for this study’s lack of findings may stem from the small sample size used (n = 10) and therefore
lack of statistical power. In addition to a small sample group, there is the factor of individual variability and the terms
“responders’ and “non-responders”. A study by Bosak (3) found that CWI had different effects on a group of distance
runners on 5km running performance separated by 24 hours. Within a group of 12 runners, 9 runners responded
negatively to ice treatments and 3 runners responded positively to ice, producing faster race times. It is important to
remember that what may work for one athlete may not work for another (3).
The current study lends support to the majority of recovery literature presently available, and despite the popularity of
CWI, active recovery and combined recovery as recovery interventions, when compared to passive recovery their use

remains unsubstantiated. During competition, turnaround times between games can be very short. The recovery
intervention employed must be effective. Many coaches believe that something is better than nothing, however placing
a greater demand upon the athlete’s time while implementing a non-effective recovery measure, may prove to be
detrimental (25).
Practical Applications
• The use of CWI is perceived by rugby players to reduce muscle soreness and improve recovery levels, this may
be reason enough to employ CWI as a recovery intervention.
• Recovery strategies must be individualised to the player as individual responses to recovery methods vary.
• Ineffective recovery protocols can consume valuable ‘down time’ for players during competition and lead to
fatigue. It may be more beneficial to allow players to simply relax.
REFERENCES
1. Bailey, DM, Erith, SJ, Griffin, PJ, et al. Influence of cold-water 14. Lane, KN, Wegner HA. Effects of selected recovery conditions on
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The use of post-game recovery modalities following team contact sport: A review.
THE USE OF POST-GAME RECOVERY MODALITIES FOLLOWING TEAM CONTACT

SPORT: A REVIEW
Nicholas P Webb 1, 2.
1Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, AUT University.
ABSTRACT
It is the aim of this review to provide coaches and practitioners with current scientific and evidence based information in
the area of post contact sport exercise recovery and elite athletic performance in terms of recovery modality usage. The
following review examines evidence available regarding the efficacy of popular recovery modalities following contact
sport interventions. Practical recommendations and the direction of future research will be briefly discussed. A literature
search was performed using Sport Discus, Medline and Web of Science using the key words in English; recovery,
cryotherapy, hydrotherapy, cold water immersion, contrast water therapy, thermotherapy, hot water immersion,
massage, compression, active recovery, stretching, post exercise and rugby. The use of ACT, CG, CWI, and CWT for
post contact sport recovery purposes have all been investigated with varying results. No studies have assessed the
efficacy of MAS, and HWT following a contact sport competition match and their effect on the rate and magnitude of
ensuing fatigue and structural damage. As research on post contact sport recovery is in its infancy, it is important to
consider the scientific evidence presented and to not dismiss anecdotal reports by elite athletes on current recovery
modalities.
The implementation of hydrotherapy modalities, specifically CWI (10-15°c for 10-15 minutes in duration), and CWT (10-
15°C cold [30sec-120sec blocks] and 38-42°C hot [60sec-180sec] for 3-10 rotations) following team collision sports
would be beneficial in enhancing athlete recovery. The inclusion of ACT (cycling, walking, jogging, active movements in
a pool, surfing, and swimming for 15-30min) and the donning of CG (12-15 hours or as long as possible) within 24 hours
post match will also promote athlete recovery. Investigations assessing the efficacy of MAS and HWI following contact
sports are non-existent. However, while scientific evidence for certain recovery modalities post contact sport is lacking,
it is important not to discard anecdotal reports. It would also be inappropriate to suggest that certain recovery modalities
are not effective simply due to a lack of scientific evidence.
INTRODUCTION
Optimal recovery has been shown to result in the restoration of both physiological and psychological mechanisms (1).
Athlete recovery following training and competition is very complex and is dependent on the application of numerous
factors, typically dependent on the nature of the exercise performed and any other external factors outside of training
and competition. Recovery strategies will vary among athletes depending upon the type of fatigue, current levels of
training and non-training stress, and capacity to cope with the stressors. Contact sport is combative in nature and is
characterized by its forceful collisions (16) hence the associated muscular trauma and damage is substantial (31, 33)
thus prompt post-match recovery strategies are of particular and unique imperative.
Consequently, expediting the rate and quality of muscle repair and mitigating the symptoms of soft tissue injury is of
meaningful benefit to an athlete wanting to return promptly to training in an optimal state of readiness. For the purposes
of this review, only post-exercise recovery modalities were included. A literature search was performed using Sport
Discus, Medline and Web of Science using the key words in English; recovery, cryotherapy, hydrotherapy, cold water
immersion (CWI), contrast water therapy (CWT), thermotherapy, hot water immersion (HWI), massage (MAS),
compression (CG), active recovery (ACT), stretching, post exercise and rugby. It is the purpose of this review to provide
coaches and practitioners with current scientific and evidence based information in the area of post contact sport
exercise recovery and elite athletic performance in terms of recovery modality usage.
RECOVERY MEASURES
Physiological markers used to assess recovery response usually are determined by the type of resultant fatigue induced
by the exercise intervention (33). Typical methods employed to monitor recovery include the use of subjective muscle
soreness ratings (22, 23, 32, 36, 41), strength and power measures to assess neuromuscular fatigue (23, 36, 41), limb
range of movement (32), blood lactate (Bla) (10, 11, 19, 28) and serum creatine kinase (CK) (18, 35) which is used to
monitor the rate and magnitude of change of muscle damage.

RECOVERY MODALITIES
Effect of active recovery following contact sport
ACT is a form of low intensity exercise commonly used by athletes, coaches and trainers post training and competition,
and is believed to be an integral component of physical recovery (6) post team contact sport. It is usually completed at
a sub-maximal intensity in the form of cross-training type exercises such as walking, jogging, cycling, or swimming.
A number of studies have investigated the post-match effect of ACT following team contact sports. Gill et al (18)
examined recovery in CK (forearm transdermal exudates samples) as a marker of muscle damage over an 84 hour
period post-match in 23 professional rugby union players. Subjects were monitored over four competition matches (four
weeks) where they were randomly assigned to one of four recovery intervention groups (ACT, CWT, CG (25) and
passive recovery {PAS}). ACT (7 minute exercycle 80-100rpm ̴ 150W), CWT (alternating between one minute in cold
water [8–10°C] and two minutes in hot water [40–42°C] for approximately 9 minutes), and lower-body CG (lower body
compression garment [Skins®] for 12 hours) resulted in 88.2%, 85.0% and 84.4% CK recovery 84 hours post match
respectively. CK recovery was significantly less (p<0.05) for the PAS group than all other recovery interventions at both
36 and 84 hour time points. There were no significant differences in CK recovery between ACT, CWI, and lower-body
CG at any testing time point post match. On the contrary, Suzuki et al (35) reported no difference in CK recovery between
an ACT (one hour aquatic exercise consisting of 50 m of slow breaststroke, 100 m of walking gently forwards, 50 m of
running gently backwards, and 50 m of gentle side stepping) and a PAS (no recovery) recovery group following an 80
minute rugby match. Even so, a perceptual increase in psychological state was noted following the ACT intervention
compared to the PAS group. In contrast to the study by Gill et al (18) where the recovery intervention was immediately
post-match only, the active recovery group carried out one hour of low intensity exercise in water once a day for two
days.
A form of ACT almost all professional rugby and football codes utilize is pool recovery sessions, usually performed the
day after competition in an attempt to alleviate muscle soreness and stiffness and assist in recovering from the brutal
and highly forceful contacts endured during competition. Dawson et al (14) investigated whether or not immediate post-
game pool walking was an effective recovery strategy following an Australian Rules Football competition match. Pool
walking (moving forwards, backwards and sideways in the shallow end of a 28°C swimming pool) was compared to
CWT (alternating between two minutes in a hot shower [45°C] and 1 minute in waist deep icy water [12°C] until five hot
and four cold exposures had been completed), stretching (15 minutes of gentle static stretching of the legs and back
involving 2-3 repeats of 30s held stretches across several muscle groups and joints) and no recovery (control) protocols
for their ability to enhance the rate of recovery in the 48 hours after a match. Subjective ratings of muscle soreness,
flexibility (sit and reach), power (6 second cycling sprint and vertical jumps), were measured 15 and 48 hours post game.
Across all four recovery strategies, subjective muscle soreness was increased at 15 hours post game, though only pool
walking resulted in a significant reduction in subjective soreness from 15 to 48 hours post game (but still significantly
higher than baseline ratings). Lower flexibility and power scores at 15 hours post game were reported in the control trial.
While there were no differences between all three recovery strategies in terms of flexibility and power, players
subjectively reported pool walking as the most effective and preferable. The authors hypothesized that the active, low
intensity exercise with minimal weight bearing and impact stress, in conjunction with the hydrostatic pressure, were the
reasons why pool walking enhanced recovery.
Research on the efficacy of ACT post contact sport remains equivocal. The role and type of ACT in reducing delayed
onset muscle soreness (DOMS), enhancing range of motion and the effect it has on neuromuscular regeneration
following high intensity contact sport competition warrants further investigation.

Table 1 - Contact sport Interventions using active recovery.
Outcomes
Recovery Summary of main
Author Intervention Subjects Protocol measures
Modes findings
and timings
Suzuki, Elite male rugby 15 male 1. Passive Low Blood Immediately after the
et al (35) players were Japanese Recovery 2. intensity samples match, muscle damage,
monitored rugby ACT exercises (CK, decreases in neutrophil
following one players in water for leucocyte functions, and mental
competition rugby 60min and fatigue were observed
game (80min) neutrophil in both groups. Muscle
where players counts, damage and neutrophil
were then GOT, GPT, functions recovered in
randomly divided and LDH) equal time in both
into 1 of 2 recovery groups. POMS
recovery groups. scores were ↓ only in
subjects in the ACT
group.
Gill, et al Elite male rugby 23 elite 1. Contrast Cycle (80– CK pre- ↑ in CK activity
(18) players were male water 100 rpm, game, observed as a result of
monitored over rugby therapy 150W) immediately the rugby match (p ≤
four competition players (CWT) for 7 post-match, 0.01). The magnitude of
games during the 2. minutes 36 & 84 recovery in the PAS
New Zealand Compression hours post- intervention was ↓ than
Provincial garment match in the ACT, CWT, and
Championship (CG) 3. GAR interventions at
competition. Low intensity the 36 and 84 hour time
Players were active points (p ≥ 0.05). The
randomly exercise ACT intervention
assigned to (ACT) showed 88.2% recovery
complete one of 4. passive after 84 hours which
four post-match recovery was the highest out of
strategies. (PAS) all interventions.
AR - Active Recovery; ACT - Active Recovery; PR - Passive Recovery; PAS - Passive Recovery; MR - Massage;
MAS - Massage; CR - Cold water immersion; COLD - Cold water immersion; CTW - Contrast water therapy; CWT -
Contrast water therapy; COMB - Combined recovery method, CG - Compression Garment; CK - Creatine kinase;
Bla - Blood lactate; RANG - Relaxed arm angle; FANG - Flexed arm angle; MIF - Maximal isometric force; MS -
Muscle soreness; SOR - Muscle soreness; HR - Heart rate; PRS - Peak running speed; VO2.max - Maximal
oxygen consumption; CMJ - Countermovement jump, RPE - Rate of perceived exertion; GOT - Glutamate
oxaloacetate transaminase; GPT - glutamate pyruvate transaminase; LDH - lactate dehydrogenase ↓- Significantly
lower/worse; ↑ - Significantly higher/better; Sign.- Significant; ∆-Change in
EFFECT OF COMPRESSION GARMENTS FOLLOWING CONTACT SPORT
Athletes in sports involving high-intensity, intermittent-sprint exercise, combined with high levels of body contact
collision, such as the various football codes (including rugby), have commonly adopted the use of CG as a method to
improve recovery between sessions. A number of studies have shown an increased recovery effect as a result of
donning CG following training interventions, mostly using eccentric training protocols (2, 8), but there is limited research
that investigated contact sport matches.
Gill et al (18) reported that professional rugby players who wore a lower body CG for 12 hours post-game experienced
greater enhancement in recovery from muscle damage compared with PAS (no recovery), but not compared with ACT
(7 minute exercycle 80-100rpm ̴ 150W) or CWT (alternating between one minute in cold water [8–10°C] and two minutes
in hot water [40–42°C] for approximately nine minutes). It must be noted that the trauma associated with such contact
sports is significantly different than eccentric and training protocols. Therefore, the implications of the findings of this
study for post-exercise recovery would not be relevant following eccentric training protocols due to the differing types of
muscle damage and fatigue accumulated compared to a contact sport match. In another study assessing the effects of
CG on intermittent exercise and recovery following simulated team sport exercise, no differences in CK, Bla and perceive
muscle soreness were present following both CG (worn during simulated team game exercise and for 15 hours post
simulated team game and [day 1] and day 2) and non-CG treatments. However, participants reported reduced levels of
perceived muscle soreness in the ensuing 48 hours post simulated team sport exercise when wearing CG (2.5 ±1.7 vs.

3.5 ±2.1 for compression and control) (15). A limitation in this study is the athlete’s knew they were to wear CG, this
may have caused a placebo effect which is not present in the control group.
Athletes participating in contact sport may find benefit in donning CG for 12-15 hours to reduce muscle damage and
perceived muscle soreness post-game.
Table 2 - Contact sport interventions using compression garments for recovery.
Outcome
s
Subject Recovery Protoco
Author Intervention measures Summary of main findings
s Modes l
and
timings
Gill,et al Elite male rugby 23 elite 1. Contrast 12 hours CK pre- Incr rate and magnitude of
(18) players were male water game, recovery observed in ACT,
monitored over four rugby therapy immediate CWT, and CG treatment
competition games players (CWT) ly post- groups compared to PAS
during the New Compressio match, 36 group. Low impact exercise
Zealand Provincial n garment & 84 immediately after comp,
Championship (CG) hours wearing CG or carrying out
competition. 2. Low intensity post- CWT enhances CK clearance
Players were active match more than passive recovery.
randomly assigned exercise The CG intervention showed
to complete one of (ACT) 84.4% recovery after 84 hours
four post-match 3. Passive which proved to be third best
strategies. recovery out of all interventions (ACT
(PAS) was the best with 88.2% CK
recovery). No significant
differences in CK recovery
profile were observed between
the ACT, CWT, or CG
interventions at any time point.
Duffield Subjects performed 14 male 1.Compressio 15h post La−, CK No differences (P = .50) in La−
et al two randomized rugby n day 1 and MS or CK were
(15) testing conditions players 2.Control and 2 present, participants felt
(with or without reduced levels of MS post
garments) involving exercise when wearing CG (2.5
consecutive days of ± 1.7 vs. 3.5 ± 2.1 for CG and
a simulated team control; P = .01)
sport exercise
protocol, separated
by 24 h of recovery
within each
condition and 2
weeks between
conditions.
CS-Compression sleeve; CG-Compression garment; CG - Compression garment; COMP - Compression garment; C-

Control; CONT-Control; CK-Creatine Kinase;; ACT-Active recovery; PAS-Passive recovery; MS-Muscle soreness; La-
-Lactate concentration; GCS↓- Significantly lower/worse; ↑ - Significantly higher/better; Sign- Significant; Incr-
Increased; Decr- Decreased
HYDROTHERAPY
Hydrotherapy procedures are a generally popular and common component of athlete recovery routines (39).
Nevertheless, information regarding these modalities is relatively anecdotal. Some physiological responses to water
immersion are well investigated and understood, however, in terms of post exercise recovery, the underlying
mechanisms, optimal exposure times and water temperatures for various types of exercise are poorly understood (39).
The human body reacts to water immersion with changes in cardiac response, peripheral resistance, and blood flow (4,
43, 44). Immersion of the body in water can result in an inward and upward displacement of fluid from the extremities to
the central cavity due to hydrostatic pressure. As acknowledged by Wilcock et al (43), the displacement of fluid may

bring about an increase in the translocation of metabolites from the muscle. Therefore, post-exercise oedema may be
reduced and muscle function sustained (39). Whilst the effects of hydrostatic pressure exerted on the body during water
immersion may be beneficial, the water temperature the body is exposed to is also thought to manipulate the efficacy
and success of hydrotherapy interventions (39). The main physiological effect of CWI is a reduction in blood flow due to
peripheral vasoconstriction (9, 26). In CWT, immersion in hot water increases blood flow due to peripheral vasodilation
(4, 9, 24, 29).
EFFECT OF CRYOTHERAPY/COLD WATER IMMERSION FOLLOWING CONTACT SPORTS
CWI also commonly referred to as cryotherapy (meaning “cold treatment”) is the most frequently utilized modality for
the treatment of acute soft tissue sports injuries, due to its ability to reduce the inflammatory response and reduce spasm
and pain (17, 26, 27). Currently, research specifically investigating the relative efficacy of CWI following contact sports
is limited. The specific application by coaches, practitioners and strength and conditioning coaches of CWI for recovery
purposes to exercise-induced muscle damage remains predominantly anecdotal using various temperature and
exposure protocols.
One study conducted by Higgins et al (20) compared CWI (5 minutes 10-12 °C), CWT (1 minute 10-12°C, 1minute 38-
40°C x 7 cycles) and PAS over four under-20 rugby union competition matches across four weeks. Participants were
randomly allocated into one of three recovery modality groups, performing each protocol after each competition match
and training (one match and two trainings per week). A 300m sprint and phosphate decrement test were used as pre-
post anaerobic performance measures (week 1 and week 5) where subject ratings of perceived rest, muscle tightness
and perceived modality benefit were used. No significant difference was identified between pre-post measures in the
phosphate decrement test or the 300-m test. Effect size calculations revealed medium to large effect (d = 0.72) for 300-
m tests for CWT against control and a trivial effect for CWI (d = 0.17) in the 300-m test against control. Effect scores
across CWT, CWI, and PAS indicated a trend toward CWT benefiting recovery in rugby. From subjective reports, five
of seven participants from the CWI group reported feeling more tight two days after games than when previously
adopting no recovery strategies. All seven participants in the CWI group had a negative feeling toward the baths.
Participants from the CWT group reported having a more positive feeling after the treatment; a sense of being more
relaxed and finding it easier to rest and sleep post-game and post-training.
Five minute CWI appears to be a commonly adopted recovery protocol in sport (20). However, results from Higgins et
al (20) indicated that CWI of five minutes had a negative effect on players’ performance recovering from competition
and training. It may be that five minutes exposure to cold water is an insufficient time to lower tissue temperature enough
to deliver benefits associated with cryotherapy. Furthermore, in the Higgins et al (20) study no direct markers of muscle
damage and/or fatigue (e.g. CK, Bla) were measured to identify a true physiological recovery response marker for each
recovery modality.
In another study (30), the effects of CWI after simulated collision sport exercise was examined. Ten male rugby athletes
performed three sessions consisting of a 2x30 minute intermittent sprint-exercise protocol with either tackling or no
tackling, followed by a 20 minute CWI intervention (9.2°C ± 0.2°C to a level of the iliac crest for 9 minutes followed by 1
minute seated in room temperature repeated twice) or PAS (control). CWI had no effect on the elevation in blood markers
for muscle damage (P > 0.05), although Bla was significantly reduced after recovery compared with PAS (P = 0.04).
CWI also resulted in reduced muscle soreness two hours after recovery compared with PAS (P < 0.05).
CWI is an effective treatment for the reduction of symptoms associated with DOMS (17, 30) and muscle injury (5). While
studies incorporating eccentric and performance training protocols to invoke muscular stress and damage (not in the
scope of this study) followed by CWI has been proven to be beneficial in athlete recovery, a more refined investigation
into the individual components of a specific recovery protocol is needed to reveal the effect of varying the duration of
exposure, the temperature, and the medium used (39). Additionally, an attempt to incorporate match and training
statistics to quantify the volume and intensity of each match and training would be of benefit in future studies to
investigate the effect of each modality according to the volume and intensity (e.g. minutes played, number of contacts
etc) placed on each participant.

Table 3 - Contact Sport interventions using cold water immersion for recovery.
Outcomes
Interventio Recovery Protoco
Author Subjects measures and Summary of main findings
n Modes l
timings
Higgins, Subjects 26 under- 1. CWT 5 min Pre and post field
Trivial effects were identified
Heazlewoo from a 20 club 2. CWI above tests including a
for ice baths (d = 0.17) in the
& Climstein premier rugby (ice waistline 300-m test and a
300-m test against control.
(20) rugby club volunteer baths) at 10- phosphate Effect size calculations in the
participated s 3. Control 12°C decrement test phosphate decrement test
in 4 x (no and subjective showed a negative effect (d = -
80min recovery) reports (how 0.62) for ice baths. 5 of 7
game of rested they felt,
participants from CWI group
rugby union how tight they felt,
reported feeling more tight 2
across four and whether they
days after games than when
weeks felt the treatment
previously adopting no
where they was beneficial)recovery strategies. All 7
were then were conducted participants in the CWI group
randomly during the trial.
had a negative feeling toward
assigned to the baths. Participants from the
1 of 3 CWT group reported having a
recovery more positive feeling after the
treatments. treatment.
CWI - Cold water immersion CTW - Contrast water therapy; CWT - Contrast water therapy; ↓- Significantly lower/worse;
↑ - Significantly higher/better
EFFECT OF CONTRAST WATER THERAPY FOLLOWING CONTACT SPORTS
During CWT participants alternate between hot water and cold water exposure respectively. This technique has been
used extensively in sports medicine as a recovery modality and is now becoming more frequently used in aiding recovery
after physical training and competition (7). The application of cold ice or water is thought to cause vasoconstriction of
the blood vessels (9). Vasoconstriction decreases swelling and inflammation by slowing the metabolism and production
of metabolites and limiting the degree of injury (9). Thermotherapy (heat) has been shown to cause vasodilation of the
blood vessels (9, 29). This increases blood flow and the supply of oxygen to the area, which results in an increased
amount of antibodies and an improved ability to clear metabolites (9).
Several studies have investigated the use of CWT following intermittent contact sport (14, 18, 20, 21), using multiple
measures at varying time points to quantify the rate and magnitude of change following the modality. A study by Gill et
al (18) on professional rugby union players examined the rate and magnitude of muscle damage recovery (measured
CK) following four recovery interventions including CWT (1 minute in cold water [8–10°C] and 2 minutes in hot water
[40–42°C] x3) (18). The reported rates of recovery were very similar for ACT (88% post 84 hours), CWI (85% post 84
hours), and lower-body CG (84% post 84 hours). It was suggested that the ACT, CG, and CWT modalities were more
useful forms of recovery than PAS following rugby union and conjectured that a greater recovery effect may have been
observed if the duration of each were to be increased. The time constraints imposed in a competitive environment were
acknowledged.
Ingram et al (21) used a simulated team sport method to assess the efficacy of CWI (2x5 minutes immersions at 10°C,
separated by 2.5 minutes sitting upright at room temperature [22°C]), CWT (2 minutes in cold water [10°C] and 2 minutes
in hot water [40°C]) and no recovery (control) post exercise. Upon completion and at 24 hours post the team sport
simulation participants performed one of three recovery modalities for 15 minutes. Both CWT and CWI resulted in
significantly lower (p < 0.05) muscle soreness ratings and strength measures within the 48 hours post intervention
compared to the control. CK was found to have increased throughout the 48 hours post exercise, peaking after 24 hours.
No significant differences in CK between the three recovery conditions were found at any time point.
As previously mentioned, Higgins et al (20) compared the effect of CWI (5 minutes 10-12 °C), CWT (1 minute 10-12°C,
1 minute 38-40°C x 7 cycles) and PAS following four under-20 competition matches across four weeks, on the rate and
magnitude of anaerobic recovery using two performance tests (300m sprint and phosphate decrement test). CWT
elicited a large effect size for recovery of the 300-m tests (d = 0.72) and a small effect size (d = 0.18) for the phosphate
decrement test scores. Participants from the CWT group reported being more relaxed and finding it easier to rest and
sleep post-game and post-training compared to the CWI group. Even though no significant treatment or interaction
effects were identified, effect size calculations identified that there was justification for the use of CWT following rugby
union as it may assist in the maintenance of performance (rather than improve outright performance). Dawson et al (14)
examined the, CWT (alternating between two minutes in a hot shower [45°C] and 1 minute in waist deep icy water [12°C]
until five hot and four cold exposures had been completed), pool walking (15 minutes of easy walking (moving forwards,

backwards and sideways in the shallow end of a 28°C swimming pool), stretching (15 minutes of gentle static stretching
of the legs and back involving 2-3 repeats of 30s held stretches across several muscle groups and joints) and control
on the recovery of explosive power (vertical jump and 6-second cycle ergometer) at 15 and 48 hours post Australian
football matches. At 15 hours post-game, measures of vertical jump and 6-second work and power were significantly
lower than pre-game measures in the control condition, which were no longer evident 48 hours post-match. No
significant differences were evident between the conditions in vertical jump measures, even though subjects still
reported significantly higher ratings of muscle soreness. Dawson et al (14) concluded that recovery of muscle soreness,
flexibility and power at 48 hr. post-game was not significantly enhanced by performing an immediate post-game recovery
beyond that achieved by performing only next day recovery training.
The physiological mechanisms underlying the benefits of CWT following contact sport remain unclear (39).
Temperatures for CWT generally range from 10-15°C for cold water and 35-38°C for hot water. It is evident that CWT
is being widely used following contact sport; however, additional research needs to be conducted to clarify its optimal
role, relative efficacy, and the number and timing of rotations completed during the protocol.
Table 4 – Contact sport interventions using contrast water therapy for recovery.
Outcomes
Auth Recovery
Intervention Subjects Protocol measures and Summary of main findings
or Modes
timings
Daws Participants 17 1. Control Alternating MS ratings and MS was ↑ (p<0.01) than baseline
on, B were studied Australian 2. Stretch with 2min measures of on both Sunday and Monday in
(14) across 12 football 3. Pool hot shower flexibility (sit and all conditions, but no differences
Australian players walking (45°C) x5 reach) and power between the three recoveries and
football games 4. Hot/cold and 1min (6-s cycling sprint control were evident. On Sunday,
where they (CWT) ice water and vertical jump) vertical jump and 6-s work and
completed waist deep were obtained 45 power scores were only ↓ than
each of four (12°C) hr. pre-game baseline values in control. No
allocated (Thursdays) differences were found between
recovery (baseline), 15 hr. the three experimental
treatments at post-game recoveries. On day 2 no
least once. . (Sundays) and 48 significant differences were
hr. post-game recorded in performance
(Mondays) between the recoveries and the
effect sizes were of lower
magnitude. Recovery of MS,
flexibility and power at 48 hr.
post-game was not significantly
enhanced by performing an
immediate post-game recovery
beyond that achieved by
performing only next day
recovery training.
Gill, Elite male 23 elite 1. Contrast Alternating CK pre-game, Incr. rate and magnitude of
et al rugby players male rugby water therapy 1 min in immediately post- recovery observed in ACT, CWT,
(18) were players (CWT) cold water match, 36 & 84 and CG treatment groups
monitored 2. (8–10°C) hours post-match compared to PAS group. Low
over four Compression and 2 min impact exercise immediately after
competition garment (CG) in hot comp, wearing CG or carrying
games during 3. Low water (40– out CWT enhances CK clearance
the New intensity active 42°C) X3 more than passive recovery. The
Zealand exercise (ACT) CWT intervention showed 85%
Provincial 4. Passive recovery after 84 hours which
Championship recovery proved to be second best out of
competition. (PAS) all interventions. No significant
Players were differences in CK recovery profile
randomly were observed between the ACT,
assigned to CWT, or CG interventions at any
complete one time point.
of four post-
match
strategies.
Higgi Subjects from 26 under- 1. CWT Alternating Pre and post field Effect size calculations identified
ns, a premier 20 club 2. CWI (ice 1 minute tests including a a medium to large effect (d =
Heazl rugby club rugby baths) cold (10- 300-m test and a 0.72) for 300-m tests for contrast
ewoo participated in volunteers 3. Control (no 12°C) and phosphate baths against control and a trivial
d, & 4 x 80min recovery) hot (38- decrement test and effect (d = 0.18) for contrast
Clims game of rugby 40°C) for subjective reports baths in the phosphate
tein union across seven (how rested they decrement test. Treatment–
(20) four weeks cycles felt, how tight they treatment analysis identified a

where they felt, and whether large effect for contrast baths (d
were then they felt the = 0.99) in the phosphate
randomly treatment was decrement test and a medium
assigned to 1 beneficial) were effect for contrast baths (d =
of 3 recovery conducted during 0.53) in the 300-m test.
treatments. the trial. Participants from the CWT group
reported having a more positive
feeling after the treatment
compared to CWI.
ACT - Active Recovery; PAS - Passive Recovery; CTW - Contrast water therapy; CWI – Cold water immersion;
CG - Compression Garment; CK - Creatine kinase; CMJ - Countermovement jump; MS- Muscle soreness ↓- Significantly
lower/worse;
↑ - Significantly higher/better; Incr – Increase; Decr – Decrease
EFFECT OF HOT WATER THERAPY FOLLOWING CONTACT SPORTS
Hot water therapy (HWT) refers to the immersion of the body in temperatures at or exceeding 36°C which increases the
core body temperature (4, 38, 42, 43). Compared to other hydrotherapy modalities, little research has been conducted
on the physiological or performance effect of HWT. However, peripheral vasodilation is one physiological response that
has been associated with heat exposure which results in an enhanced blood flow response. HWT has also been
suggested to enhance the maintenance of neuromuscular performance capacity of athletes (40), increase healing via
waste removal and increase nutrient delivery to and from cells (12, 34), and aid rehabilitation of soft tissue injuries and
athletic recovery (5).
Despite the predicted benefits associated with HWT, anecdotally it is not generally prescribed on its own or as a
substitute for other recovery interventions. To date there has been no research on HWT protocols following contact
sports. Athletes often immerse themselves in hot water in conjunction with a CWI following contact sports due to its
ability to increase blood flow and nutrients to specified areas, clear metabolites (9) and decrease perceived muscle
soreness (18, 20). As a consequence of the forceful contact and muscular damage that is caused by such sports,
applying heat to specific bleeding/bruised/injured areas (soft tissue, joints, ligaments tears/ruptures) of the body could
be detrimental to the acute healing process. However, by applying or immersing a bruised/injured/knocked area of the
body in heat immediately after cold/ice has been acutely applied following contact sport, an increase in
neurotransmission (12, 13), muscle elasticity, joint extensibility, blood flow and nutrients, and reduction of muscle spasm
(5, 9, 10, 43) could be observed at the injured site. Additionally, the use of HWT may also be problematic following
matches performed in hot and humid environmental conditions when decreasing core temperature is of high importance
at this time.
EFFECT OF MASSAGE FOLLOWING CONTACT SPORT
The incorporation of MAS one day following contact matches is widely prescribed and recommended on an anecdotal
basis to reduce symptomatic relief of muscular soreness, increase range of motion, loosen muscle spasms and
adhesions, and facilitate athlete relaxation. However, to date no studies have assessed the efficacy of incorporating
MAS following a contact sport competition match and its effect on the rate and magnitude of ensuing fatigue and
structural damage. It has been suggested that post training massage may actually cause further tissue damage (3).
This may also be the case following contact sport, however, different effects may occur as different muscular damage
and trauma is caused by weight training compared to collisions experienced during contact sport. Further research is
needed to investigate the rate and magnitude of recovery of resultant fatigue types (neural, endocrine, biochemical),
structural damage and trauma following post-game MAS in contact sports. In addition, the investigation of performing
individual MAS immediately post-game, one day post-game only, on continuous days post-game or in combination with
other recovery modalities would be of benefit for future use following contact sport.
CONCLUSION
Literature concerning the post exercise use of various recovery modalities and their subsequent recovery effect on
physiological markers is well documented, but very few studies have examined the efficacy of recovery modalities and
their ability to promote recovery following contact sport. The use of ACT, CG, CWI, and CWT for post contact sport
recovery purposes have all been investigated with varying results. No studies have assessed the efficacy of
incorporating MAS, and HWT following a contact sport competition match and their effect on the rate and magnitude of
ensuing fatigue and structural damage. No studies have attempted to incorporate match statistics to quantify match
intensity and severity and its subsequent recovery effect on performance and physiological markers. Investigations
examining the recovery benefit of different exposure times, number of rotations (CWT), equated hydrostatic pressure
exposure (hydrotherapy), the use of a combination of recovery modalities and the incorporation of match statistics and
intensity following contact sport would give coaches and practitioners the ability to make more informed decisions
regarding recovery modality prescription.

Although the research is limited and at times contradictory, the following recommendations for best recovery practice
are based on an evidence base where possible:
Active Recovery
• When possible, ACT needs to be performed immediately or as soon as possible following a match. It is also
recommended to perform an active recovery session within 24 hours following a match.
• The ACT task should be of a sufficiently low sub-maximal intensity as to not induce further fatigue, but also to assist
with athlete psychological recovery, particularly after a tense and physical match.
• Low intensity ACT tasks may include (but not limited to) such things as, cycling, walking, jogging, active movements
in a pool, surfing, and swimming. Try to always include static stretching following active recovery.
• Optimal duration for ACT is inconsistent in current research. However, ACT tasks of 15-30 minutes in duration appear
to be effective in enhancing recovery.
Compression Garments
• To ensure best use of CG, garments must be properly fitted according to body size, weight and height to ensure
optimal recovery benefit.
• While limited research has been conducted on the most effective exposure time, it can be assumed that the longer
an athlete wears CG the greater the recovery effect.
• With numerous compression brands on the market, aspects to consider when purchasing are the level of
compression, type of fabric, type of weave and thickness (39).
Hydrotherapy (CWI, CWT, HWT)

• When possible, whole body immersion (excluding head and neck) should be performed. Contact sport involves
whole body movements; therefore, whole body recovery treatment should be the preferred option. Partial immersion
of the body may limit changes and result in a redistribution of blood flow, therefore reducing some of the potential
and proven benefits of water immersion. Additionally, partial immersion reduces the hydrostatic pressure exerted
on the body and may reduce the effectiveness of the hydrotherapy intervention (38).
• Hydrotherapy interventions should aim to be practical and time efficient. Hydrotherapy interventions of 10-15 min
duration appear to be effective (37).
• There is little consistency between studies investigating the optimal water temperature for various hydrotherapy
protocols. Water temperatures of 10-15°C (cold) and 38-42°C (hot) appear to be effective. For athletes performing
continuous CWI (10-15 minutes), it is recommended to use a slightly warmer water temperature (e.g. 15°C). A
slightly warmer temperature is perceptually more comfortable, enhancing compliance. However, if an athlete is
performing an intermittent CWI protocol (10-15min in blocks), a cooler temperature (e.g. 10-12°C) may be more
effective given the shorter exposure time (37, 39).
• Particularly working with contact sport individuals and teams, it is important to recognize individual responses to
various recovery interventions. Not every athlete will respond to a specific recovery treatment in the same way, and
this should be acknowledged (37).
Massage
• While studies have highlighted the potential for further muscle damage if MAS is performed immediately post
exercise or within 48 hours, massage therapists must be aware of any potential contraindications and/or acute
injuries the athlete may have sustained during the game. MAS pressure must be on the softer side with
accompanying longer flowing (flushing) strokes of the major muscle groups when performed immediately after or
within 48 hours. More sports based massage techniques (neuromuscular, remedial, deep tissue) are most effective
when the player’s muscles are less sensitive (on or after 48 hours post-game).
• The most effective MAS duration is unknown; however it is fair to assume the longer the massage therapy session,
the longer the therapist has to enhance the athletes’ recovery process.
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Foam rolling as a recovery aid for athletes.

From the Field - Directed Topic

FOAM ROLLING AS A RECOVERY AID FOR ATHLETES.
David Stevens
ABSTRACT
Foam rollers are increasingly utilised by athletes as a recovery aid, but often with little or no knowledge regarding correct
technique. Foam rolling encompasses a combination of self-massage (SM) and self-myofascial release (SMR)
techniques. It has been suggested that foam rolling may improve joint range of motion (ROM), flexibility, muscular
function and performance, while decreasing muscle soreness, joint stress and overuse injuries. However, these claims
are largely anecdotal and mostly yet to be supported by scientific research. There is no research available examining
the benefits of foam rolling as a recovery aid for athletes. Preliminary research supports that an acute bout of foam roller
SM and SMR initially enhances ROM without a loss of muscle function. Performing SMR on the foam roller may be an
effective and convenient method of treating painful and debilitating myofascial trigger points, and in combination with
SM techniques, may play a role in enhancing the long-term functional health of the athlete. Based on background
information and personal experience, it is suggested that a combination of SM and SMR techniques on the foam roller
be performed for a minimum of 60 sec per soft tissue area, and incorporated a minimum of 2-3 times per week as part
of an athlete’s overall recovery strategy. As a recovery aid that enhances mobility and assists to reduce the incidence
of overuse injuries, SM and SMR on the foam roller may be a complementary and integral component towards sustained
optimum athletic performance. More research is required into the specific benefits and mechanisms of foam rolling as
an athletic recovery aid which can then be used to recommend specific usage guidelines.
INTRODUCTION
Foam rollers have become an increasingly popular recovery aid used by athletes. Foam rolling is thought to help improve
muscular function, flexibility, joint range of motion (ROM), and performance; while decreasing muscle soreness, joint
stress, and overuse injuries (7, 9, 13, 18). However, there is a distinct lack of scientific evidence currently available that
supports these claims. At this stage, the perceived benefits of foam rolling are largely anecdotal.
A foam roller is a firm foam cylinder of variable length and usually about 15cms in diameter (7, 23). The perceived
benefits of foam rolling are achieved via the principles of self-massage (SM) and self-myofascial release (SMR). An
individual uses their own body mass on the foam roller to exert pressure on the soft tissue in combination with long or
short rolling or kneading movements, and direct static pressure (13, 17). This helps to massage and stretch muscles
and tendons in addition to breaking up myofascial trigger points and restoring soft-tissue extensibility (7, 13, 18).
Scientific literature on the perceived recovery benefits of foam rolling is almost non-existent, and there is also a lack of
research regarding technique guidelines on the most effective use of foam rollers. This is apparent when observing
athletes using the foam roller without any clear instruction – exercises and techniques used seem to vary considerably.
Foam rollers are also used as an aid during Pilates-type workouts, stretching, and sometimes during warm-ups.
However, for the purpose of this article, the use of foam rollers will only be discussed in their role as an aid to athletic
recovery through SM and SMR.
Massage has been defined as “a mechanical manipulation of body tissues with rhythmical pressure and stroking for the
purpose of promoting health and well-being” (4). Massage is suggested to have numerous benefits with respect to
athletic recovery including: decreased muscle tension and stiffness, reduced muscle pain, swelling and spasm,
increased blood flow, increased skin and muscle temperature, enhanced healing rate of injured muscles and tendons,
improved joint flexibility and ROM, decreased lactate concentrations, reduced anxiety, increased relaxation, enhanced
immune and endocrine function, and increased performance (4, 22). There is considerably more scientific literature
available on the recovery benefits of massage by a therapist. While the evidence is limited and conflicting supporting
the use of massage as a recovery tool for athletes, this is due more to the scarcity of quality research rather than
research not supportive of a positive effect, due to many studies containing inherent design flaws (5, 15, 22).
Furthermore, while it may be flawed to expect SM using a foam roller to elicit the same claimed recovery benefits as
massage by a therapist, it is postulated that some of these benefits will also apply to foam roller SM, particularly from a
long-term recovery (maintenance) viewpoint. Specifically, it is proposed that foam roller SM may assist to improve joint
ROM, flexibility and muscle function, combined with a decrease in muscle soreness, joint stress, and overuse injuries.

Myofascial release therapy is a manual therapy technique that helps reduce restrictive barriers or fibrous adhesions
present between layers of fascial tissue (13). Myofascial release targets and seeks to alleviate myofascial trigger points,
which are defined as “hyper-irritable spots, usually within a taut band of muscle or muscle fascia, which are painful on
compression and can give rise to characteristic referred pain, motor dysfunction, and autonomic dysfunction” (12).
Trigger points have been proposed to develop from several causes including acute trauma or repetitive microtrauma to
the muscles, poor posture or movement mechanics, and overtraining (12, 8, 15). Trigger points result in muscle
shortening and limit strength and function of muscle as a whole, leading to a positive feedback loop of muscle fatigue
and a greater susceptibility to activation of additional trigger points and injury (12, 15). Currently there is very little quality
scientific research that has been done on the specific benefits of myofascial release as a recovery benefit to athletes.
While more well-designed research needs to be completed in this area, the initial signs of myofascial release as an
effective recovery technique for athletes are encouraging, especially in helping to overcome chronic injuries and
soreness (2, 19, 15) and improve ROM and muscular function (13). It is hypothesised that performing SMR techniques
on the foam roller will elicit similar benefits as those performed by a therapist, although limitations regarding self-
treatment of intricate trigger points is acknowledged.
Current scientific literature on foam rolling is, at best, rudimentary. Review of available literature reveals only two
reputable published studies that have specifically examined the effects of foam rolling, and these did not investigate the
use of the foam roller as a recovery aid specifically for athletes. MacDonald et al. (13) found that an acute bout of foam
roller SMR as a warm-up of the quadriceps was an effective treatment to acutely enhance knee joint ROM without a
concomitant deficit in muscle performance. Curran et al. (7) determined that myofascial rollers constructed of harder
material (a hollow PVC pipe surrounded by a thin layer of neoprene) significantly increased soft tissue pressure and
better isolated contact area on the soft-tissue in comparison to foam rollers made of softer material (uniform polystyrene
foam), and may be more beneficial to optimise muscle function. Clearly, well-designed scientific research needs to be
conducted regarding the effectiveness and mechanisms of action of SM and SMR on the foam roller as a recovery aid
for athletes.
In the presence of considerable anecdotal support but in the near absence of scientific research evidence, the purpose
of this article is to provide background information and technique recommendations for the use of SM and SMR on the
foam roller and why it should be considered a useful recovery aid for athletes. Images outlining a general whole body
foam rolling recovery session are provided following the conclusion.
DISCUSSION
The general premise of foam rolling is to position the roller underneath the targeted soft tissue area and perform a
variety of long or short rolling movements along the length of the area, pausing on any particularly painful areas (trigger
points) and allowing the direct sustained pressure through the roller to initiate a “softening” (release) before continuing.
The user’s body mass on top of the roller creates the pressure that massages muscles and releases tight spots in the
fascia. The user’s arms and legs are used as leverage to perform the rolling movements and are also used to control
the amount of pressure exerted by offsetting or applying more weight as required.
Longer, less intense rolling movements along the length of muscle are an example of effleurage SM technique (see
Video 1). While a therapist will typically perform this massage technique in a distal to proximal sequence, in the direction
of lymph and venous return (5, 21), effleurage may be performed in both directions on a foam roller from a practicality
viewpoint. Longer rolling movements help to stretch the muscle and fascia, relieve muscle soreness (15), and assist to
reduce trigger point pressure sensitivity (19).
Shorter, more intense kneading undulations along sequential sections of soft tissue on the foam roller are an example
of petrissage SM technique (see Video 1). Petrissage has been reported to improve circulation, reduce muscle soreness
and swelling, soften fascia, and loosen adhesions between tissues (15). These small rolling movements usually begin
at the proximal portion of the muscle and work down in sections to the distal portion (8, 13), or vice versa (17).
Video 1 – Foam roller SM techniques.
SMR on the foam roller is assisted by both effleurage and petrissage techniques, but the actual “release” occurs while
pausing and applying sustained pressure on particularly painful and sensitive areas (trigger points) of the soft tissue,

and waiting until a distinct “softening” is felt (17, 18, 19). Davies (8) has suggested holding on trigger points until pain
decreases by 75%. This may be useful as a guide but is without scientific backing and may cause some confusion due
to subjective individual pain tolerance variance. Trigger point pressure release technique results in lengthening of the
fascia and breaking down scar tissue and soft tissue adhesions (18, 19). This technique may need to be performed
several times on the same trigger point within a foam rolling session depending on the severity of the trigger point and
user tolerance.
It seems that a combination of the aforementioned SM and SMR techniques are utilised during a foam roller athletic
recovery session. Typically commencing with 2-3 longer, less intense rolling movements, the targeted soft tissue area
is then subjected to a series of more intense, short kneading motions gradually moving down the length of the soft tissue
area, pausing on painful areas until a release is initiated. Less intense, long rolling movements indisperse each trigger
point release and completion of each kneading run in order to provide some relief. Nevertheless, questions remain
regarding which foam rolling techniques are best for enhancing athletic recovery, as no research has been specifically
conducted in this area.
The amount of time spent performing SM and SMR on the foam roller will likely have an effect on recovery outcomes.
MacDonald et al. (13) used 2 X 60 sec bouts of mainly small undulations (petrissage) on the quadriceps muscle, with
60 sec rest between bouts, to elicit an acute increase in knee joint ROM without a concomitant decrease in muscle
performance. Renan-Ordine et al. (19) employed trigger point pressure release therapy indispersed with effleurage (by
a therapist) on the gastrocnemius for 90 sec to produce superior outcomes in terms of physical function and reduced
plantar heel pain compared to a self-stretching program. Demetrious and Harrop (9) suggest 15-90 sec is required per
muscle group, while Verran (23) recommends 60-120 sec. Paolini (17) advocates that constant pressure should be
applied to the muscle from 60-90 sec up to 5 min, or until a release is felt.
Clearly, questions remain as to the optimum time that should be spent performing SM and SMR on the foam roller, as
there has been no scientific research to date specifically examining this. Based on the previous recommendations and
from experience, performing SM and SMR on the foam roller for a minimum of 60 sec per muscle group / exercise
seems plausible to initiate a recovery effect. More time may be required for particularly sore soft tissue and if there are
multiple and persistent trigger points. This time frame would enable a total body foam roller recovery session (refer Fig.’s
1-12) to be completed in 15-30 min. It is suggested that this is best completed as a separate recovery session rather
than at the end of a training session.
Furthermore, there may exist a time vs pressure relationship depending on the density of the foam roller used, whereby
a firmer roller requires less time for effective SM and to initiate a release, and vice versa. Curran et al. (7) discerned that
a roller made of harder material compared with a conventional softer uniform foam roller significantly increased soft
tissue pressure and better isolated contact area and hence may be more beneficial to optimise muscle function. More
research on this area is required before specific recommendations can be made regarding different densities of foam
rollers and their effect on outcomes and timing of SM and SMR. In the absence of this research, it is assumed that a
conventional uniform foam roller is suffice for most athletic recovery purposes and when inexperienced in use of the
foam roller. A progression to harder rollers may be suggested once experienced and if required to produce a more
effective myofascial release or massage.
Further research is required regarding the optimum frequency of foam roller usage for athletic recovery. Performing
SMR on the foam roller for therapeutic benefits 1-3 times per day has been recommended but without scientific backing
(8, 9). It is likely that foam rolling for athletic recovery and injury prevention should be incorporated 2-3 times weekly
(23) depending on other recovery strategies in place, and session length should begin at 10-15 min (18), gradually
increasing as required. Stretching may also be incorporated after foam roller SM and SMR exercises to create a more
comprehensive post-recovery session.
It is likely that SM and SMR foam rolling recovery effects occur through more than one mechanism. These may include
biomechanical, physiological, neurological, and psychophysiological mechanisms. However, in the general absence of
scientific research on foam rolling, explanations at this stage can only be hypothesised using evidence from massage
and myofascial release studies with a therapist, which may be flawed as this link has yet to be proven.
One of the rare scientific studies conducted into foam rolling demonstrated that knee joint ROM was significantly
increased without a decrease in muscle performance of the quadriceps after an acute foam rolling bout (13). MacDonald
et al. claimed that the direct and sweeping pressure created by the small undulations performed on the foam roller
generated friction that acted to warm the fascia, allowing the fascia to take on a more fluid-like form, known as the
thixotropic property of the fascia. Foam rolling restored soft-tissue extensibility and increased joint ROM by enabling the
breaking up of abnormal fibrous cross-links and scar tissue that may have formed between layers of fascia from the
repeated stress of overuse and led to inhibited proper biomechanics and reduced joint ROM (13, 17).
From a personal coaching observational viewpoint, inclusion of foam roller SM and SMR as part of an athlete’s recovery
strategy has seemingly contributed towards positive outcomes where other methods have fallen short. Specifically this

has included alleviating IT band syndrome, decreasing hip pain and increasing hip ROM, increasing shoulder and
thoracic mobility, and easing shin splints. While it is plausible to suggest that a psychological component may be
involved with SM and SMR on the foam roller, as there may be with a therapist (10, 15, 16, 22), anecdotal and preliminary
research suggests there is more than a placebo effect.
It is anticipated that foam rolling will have minimal or no acute recovery effects in terms of enhancing lactate clearance,
reducing severity of delayed onset muscle soreness, or improving acute performance. Indeed, most evidence from
studies involving massage by a therapist is inconclusive or does not support improvements in these outcomes at this
stage (3, 5). Regardless, research on the potential acute recovery effects of foam rolling is required.
It is proposed that the primary benefits of foam roller SM and SMR as a recovery aid for athletes will be focused more
on promoting long-term functional “maintenance” and prehabilitation. As a convenient method for treating painful and
debilitating trigger points, SMR on the foam roller may be an effective way of increasing joint ROM. Combined with SM,
this may contribute towards decreasing joint stress and muscle soreness, and enhancing flexibility. Ultimately, these
potential benefits may play a role in reducing overuse injuries. While acute muscular function and thus performance
may or may not be enhanced, the potential benefits of foam rolling in improving the general functional state and well-
being of the athlete may indirectly augment performance in the long-term by assisting the athlete to train and compete
with minimal disruption. Nevertheless, much scientific research needs to be conducted into the potential long and short
term benefits of SM and SMR on the foam roller as a recovery aid for athletes. Among the areas in which well-designed
research needs to focus are the mechanisms of action of foam rolling, and techniques, timing and frequency generating
best outcomes. In the meantime, initial indications are positive that SM and SMR on the foam roller may be considered
a useful inclusion into the long-term recovery strategies of athletes.
Performing SM and SMR on the foam roller may have a role in enhancing the long-term functional state of the athlete.
As an effective and convenient recovery method for treating myofascial trigger points and increasing joint ROM, the
foam roller may also assist with increasing flexibility, and decreasing joint and soft tissue soreness. Incorporating foam
rolling into post-recovery sessions may complement training and competition performance by enhancing mobility and
helping to reduce incidence of overuse injuries.
It is not suggested that SM and SMR on the foam roller should replace conventional massage and myofascial release
by a therapist, particularly for more difficult soft tissue areas and/or when the skills of a clinician are required. However,
foam rolling may provide a cost effective and convenient method of assisting to maintain a mobile, functional athlete as
an integral component with other recovery modalities.
General guidelines regarding foam roller use as a recovery aid are specified below:
• Use a conventional uniform density foam roller to begin with. Harder rollers may be used when experienced and
when a firmer massage or release is required.
• Position the roller on the floor and underneath the soft tissue area requiring massage and/or myofascial release.
• Use your arms and/or legs as leverage and to offset your bodyweight as required, keeping within pain tolerance.
Some lower body exercises – quadriceps, hamstrings, calves, shins (Fig’s 4, 5, 7, 8) – can be performed with 2 legs
simultaneously to further lessen pressure if necessary.
• Begin with 2-3 long, less intense rolls back and forth along the length of the targeted soft tissue area.
• Use short, more intense kneading motions moving slowly and sequentially along the length of the soft tissue area in
a proximal to distal direction.
• Pause and hold direct pressure through any particular painful areas (trigger points) until a distinct softening (release)
is felt. Repeat if necessary.
• Move back to proximal portion of soft tissue with one fluid motion to repeat kneading process (and release if required).
• Spend a minimum of 60 sec per targeted soft tissue area - more if numerous releases are required or area is
particularly sore.
• Breathe normally. Maintain core stability during exercises where hips are unsupported.
• Avoid rolling directly over bones or joints and roll only over soft tissue areas.
• Focus on areas that are tight and/or have reduced ROM.
• Incorporate 2-3 times per week or more for particularly painful areas, best completed as a separate recovery session.
Foam rolling can be followed by stretching for a comprehensive post-recovery session.
• Seek medical advice if pain persists or is increased with foam rolling.
Figures 1-12 illustrate general exercises comprising a total body foam rolling recovery session. Some of these exercises
are also presented in Video 2. This is by no means an exhaustive selection of exercises, and athletes are encouraged
to alter body positions and experiment as necessary.

CONCLUSION
While research is lacking on foam rolling as a recovery aid for athletes, its use should still be considered based on much
anecdotal support and positive preliminary scientific studies. Performing SM and SMR on the foam roller as part of an
athlete’s recovery strategy may be an effective and convenient method of treating painful trigger points and enhancing
joint ROM, in addition to improving flexibility and reducing muscle and joint soreness. This may contribute favourably
towards less overuse injuries and maintaining long-term functional health, thus complementing athletic performance.
More research is required into the specific benefits and mechanisms of foam rolling which can then be used to
recommend specific usage guidelines.
Video 2 – Foam roller exercises
Exercises comprising a total body foam rolling recovery session for athletes
Figure 1 - Gluteals / piriformis.
Figure 2 - Hip flexors.
Figure 3 - Iliotibial band (ITB).

Figure 4 - Hamstrings – Use 2 legs simultaneously on roller for less pressure.
Figure 5 - Quadriceps - Use 2 legs simultaneously on roller for less pressure.
Figure 6 – Adductors.
Figure 7 - Calves - Use 2 legs simultaneously on roller for less pressure.
Figure 8 - Shins - Use 2 legs simultaneously on roller for less pressure.

Figure 9 - Thoracic spine.
Figure 10 - Rotator cuffs / rhomboids.
Figure 11 - Latissimus dorsi / teres major.
Figure 12 – Pectorals.
REFERENCES
1. Ali Rasooli, S., Koushkie Jahromi M., Asadmanesh, A. & Salesi, M. 10. Hemmings, B., Smith, M., Graydon, J. & Dyson, R. Effects of
Influence of massage, active and passive recovery on swimming massage on physiological restoration, perceived recovery, and
performance and blood lactate. Journal of Sports Medicine and repeated sports performance. British Journal of Sports Medicine.
Physical Fitness. 52(2): 122-127. 2012. 34: 109-114. 2000.
2. Arroyo-Morales, M., Olea, N., Martinez, M. M., Hidalgo-Lozano, A., 11. Lane, K.N. & Wenger, H.A. Effects of selected recovery conditions
Ruiz-Rodriguez, C. & Diaz-Rodriguez, L. Psychophysiological on performance of repeated bouts of intermittent cycling separated
effects of massage-myofascial release after exercise: a randomised by 24 hours. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research.
sham-control study. The Journal of Alternative and 18(4): 855-860. 2004.
Complimentary Medicine. 14(10): 1223-1229. 2008. 12. Lavelle, E.D., Lavelle, W. & Smith, H.S. Myofascial trigger points.
3. Barnett, A. Using recovery modalities between training sessions in The Medical Clinics of North America. 91: 229-239. 2007.
elite athletes: does it help? The Journal of Sports Medicine. 36(9): 13. Macdonald, G., Penney, M., Mullaley, M., Cuconato, A., Drake, C.,
781-796. 2006. Behm, D.G., & Button, D.C. An acute bout of self myofascial release
4. Best, T. M., Hunter, R., Wilcox, A. & Haq, F. Effectiveness of sports increases range of motion without a subsequent decrease in muscle
massage for recovery of skeletal muscle from strenuous exercise. activation or force. Journal of Strength and Conditioning
Clinical Journal of Sports Medicine. 18(5): 446-60. 2008. Research. (Epub ahead of print) May 10, 2012.
5. Brummitt, J. The role of massage in sports performance and 14. Micklewright, D. The effect of soft tissue release on delayed onset
rehabilitation: current evidence and future direction. North muscle soreness: a pilot study. Physical Therapy in Sport. 10(1):
American Journal of Sports Physical Therapy. 3(1): 7-21. 2008. 19-24. 2009.
6. Cheung, K., Hume, P. & Maxwell, L. Delayed onset muscle 15. Moraska, A. Sports massage. A comprehensive review. Journal of
soreness: treatment strategies and performance factors. The Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness. 45(3): 370-380. 2005.
Journal of Sports Medicine. 33(2): 145-164. 2003. 16. Ogai, R., Yamane, M., Matsumoto, T. & Kosaka, M. Effects of
7. Curran, P.F., Fiore, R.D. & Crisco, J.J. A comparison of the petrissage massage on fatigue and exercise performance following
pressure exerted on soft tissue by 2 myofascial rollers. Journal of intensive cycle pedalling. British Journal of Sports Medicine.
Sport Rehabilitation. 17(4): 432-442. 2008. 42(10): 834-838. 2008.
8. Davies, P. Self myofascial release. Available at: www.sport-fitness- 17. Paolini, J. Review of myofascial release as an effective massage
advisor.com. Accessed September 15, 2012. therapy technique. Athletic Therapy Today. 15: 30-34. 2009.
9. Demetrious, T. & Harrop, B. Foam roller exercises. Available at: 18. Quinn, E. Foam roller exercises for easing tight muscles. Available
www.physioadvisor.com.au. Accessed September 14, 2012. at: www.sportsmedicine.about.com. Accessed September 14,
2012.

19. Renan-Ordine, R., Alburquerque-Sendin, F., de Souza, D.P., 22. Vaile, J., Halson, S & Graham, S. Recovery review – science vs
Cleland, J.A. & Fernandez-de-Las-Penas, C. Effectiveness of practice. Journal of Australian Strength and Conditioning.
myofascial trigger point therapy combined with a self-stretching Supplement (2): 5-21. 2010.
protocol for the management of plantar heel pain: a randomised 23. Verran, C. the (almost) magical foam roller. Working your injuries.
controlled trial. The Journal of Orthopaedic and Sports Physical Available at: www.runningtimes.com. Accessed September 15,
Therapy. 41(2): 43-50. 2011. 2012.
20. Robertson, A., Watt, J.M. & Galloway, S.D.R. Effects of leg 24. Weerapong, P., Hume, P.A. & Kolt, G.S. The mechanisms of
massage on recovery from high intensity cycling exercise. British massage and effects on performance, muscle recovery and injury
Journal of Sports Medicine. 38: 173-176. 2004. prevention. The Journal of Sports Medicine. 35(3): 235-56. 2005.
21. Tiidus, P.M. Manual massage and recovery of muscle function 25. Zainuddin, Z., Newton, M., Sacco, P. & Nosaka, K. Effects of
following exercise: a literature review. The Journal of Orthopaedic massage on delayed-onset muscle soreness, swelling, and
and Sports Physical Therapy. 25(2): 107-112. 1997. recovery of muscle function. Journal of Athletic Training. 40(3):
174-180. 2005.

CURRENT TRENDS AND PRACTICES –

RECOVERY – SCIENCE vs PRACTICE
Journal of Australian Strength and Conditioning 2010 Supplement 2
















Please visit the following websites for up-to-date free evidence based information and Fact Sheets regarding Nutrition
and Supplements for Sports Performance
http://www.sportsdietitians.com.au/factsheets/
http://www.ausport.gov.au/ais/nutrition/factsheets
http://www.ausport.gov.au/ais/nutrition/supplements






























11 (4) 2003
Designing effective programs.

Strength Strength and Conditioning Coach, 11(4):17-20. 2003 © ASCA
And
Conditioning
Coach DESIGNING EFFECTIVE PROGRAMS
John Mitchell
Strength and Conditioning Coordinator, ACT Academy of Sport

ISSN 1324-8006
ABSTRACT
The development of effective strength and conditioning programs is a crucial component in the preparation of an athlete
for their sport. The design of the program should consider a number of factors that are directly related to the athlete.
These include; an analysis of the sport, the athlete's medical history, including a musculo skeletal screening, the coach's
perspective and the perspective of the individual athlete. The information gained can then be used to design program
objectives that are based on the individual athlete. The Strength and Conditioning (S&C) Coach can then use these
objectives to design an individual program for the athlete. It is important to use both qualitative and quantitative data
when making a judgement on the effectiveness of the athlete's program. This analysis will then provide a platform by
which further programs can be designed.
INTRODUCTION
Designing effective strength and conditioning programs is an important component in the preparation and development
of an athlete for their sport. There are a number of factors that are directly related to the athlete. These include; an
analysis of the sport, the athlete's medical history, the coach's perspective and the perspective of the individual athlete.
When you design an exercise program it must be according to individual specifications (Fleck & Kraemer 1987). Only
when these specifications have been considered can you begin to design a program that is not only effective but also
allows the athlete to take ownership over their training and development. In order for a program to be deemed effective
there must be an evaluation process. The evaluation process should include evidence gained through both qualitative
and quantitative means.
WHAT IS AN EFFECTIVE PROGRAM?
An effective program should meet the objectives set down at the commencement of the program. Program objectives
or goals need to be formed through a consultative process. This consultative process should involve information
gathering on the sport itself and on the athlete for whom you are to develop a program. You must consider the athlete's
medical history and anatomical deficiencies. The process needs to have input from the main stakeholders i.e. the athlete
and the coach.
"Coaches must treat each athlete individually according to his or her abilities, potential, learning characteristics and
specifics of the sport, regardless of performance level. Model the whole training according to the athletes physiological
and psychological characteristics to naturally enhance training objectives" (Bompa, 199 p. 36-37).
One of the most common errors in psychology interventions in sport and exercise settings is failing to recognise
individual differences (Van Raalte & Brewer, 1996). However this concept applies equally well to other disciplines. For
this reason, before you start to design your athlete's program you need to consider the fore-mentioned specifications
that are directly related to the athlete. These factors will then allow the athlete to take ownership of the program.
Ownership of the program will in turn enhance program adherence, enjoyment and athlete motivation levels (Van Raalte
& Brewer, 1996).
AN ANALYSIS OF THE SPORT
The first step in designing a strength training program is to determine the objectives. These objectives need to be based
on a needs or game analysis (Baker, 1998). Fleck & Kraemer (1987) outlined a needs analysis process whereby they
identified three distinct components that should be addressed when designing a program:

1. Exercise movements
• Specific muscles
• Joint angles
• Contraction mode
• Loading needs
2. Metabolism used, estimated % contribution from:

• ATP-PC source
• Lactic acid
• Source
• Oxygen Source
3. Injury Prevention
• Most common sites of possible injury
• Sites of previous injury
In order to design an effective program the S&C coach must analyse the sport. What physical components does the
sport require for the athlete to perform at the desired levels? Is it strength, power, speed, agility, flexibility, aerobic
conditioning, coordination, reaction time, etc? positions/events. Do different require different components (e.g.)
Halfbacks and Front rowers in rugby?)
THE ATHLETE'S MEDICAL HISTORY
The medical history of the athlete is an invaluable tool when defining the objectives of your athlete's program. In
particular there are two important areas to consider:
1. Medical screening
2. Musculo skeletal screening
1. Medical screening
It is important that athletes have a medical screening from a doctor. A medical screening may identify any acute or
chronic conditions that may impact on the athletes.
These conditions may affect the way you program for a particular athlete. Part of your duty of care as a S&C coach
is to maintain a safe environment for the athlete. A doctor's clearance for the athlete to commence re recommence
a training program is essential in protecting both the athlete and yourself.
2. Musculo skeletal screening

Athlete screenings should examine areas of important to the athlete depending on their sport (Harvey 1988). A
musculo skeletal screening provides you with an anatomical map of your athlete. This screening, (generally
performed by physiotherapist) will identify any contraindications to strength training that an athlete has with either
the skeletal system or muscular system (eg. spinal abnormalities.)
Often these contraindications may lead to an injury. It is recommended that the S&C coach discuss the athlete's
screening with the practitioner. An awareness and understanding of the contraindications will then allow you to
incorporate rehabilitation or injury prevention exercises into the program.
THE COACH'S PERSPECTIVE
The coach should be a main contributor to any program that you design for an athlete. The coach will be able to provide
vital information pertaining to the athlete and the sport. The information the S&C Coach needs to obtain from the coach
to design an effective program includes:
• Periodization plan - Long and short term. The Coach will be able to provide information regarding the timing of
the season – important dates, when they want their athlete to be at their best.
• Athlete's role/position/event. It is important to understand the "job" that the athlete has to do from the coach's
point of view. Depending on their position/event there will be different physical requirements.
• Athlete's ability level. Determine from the coach what sort of ability the athlete has. What level will they be
competing at? What physical characteristics may need fast tracking?
• Strengths and weaknesses of the athlete. What does the coach perceive to be the athletes strengths and
weaknesses? Strengths and weaknesses would additionally be determined through pre-training physical
assessment tests. eg. Strength, power and flexibility tests.

The coach has a great deal of influence over their athlete. Therefore it is vitally important that the S&C coach gains their
confidence. In this way they will be able to reinforce the importance of the program that you provide.
THE ATHLETE'S PERSPECTIVE
"Goals should be developed in consultation with playing staff if such participation will improve the quality of the goals
and their acceptance". (Locke & Latham, 1984, cited in Booker & Meir, 1996). It is all well and good to design the world's
best program, however if your athlete doesn't like to program the changes of it being successful are slim.
The S&C coach should have an interview with the athlete after you have talked to all other stakeholders. It is important
that when you interview your athlete you give them a brief summary of the other factors you have considered i.e. the
needs of the sport, medical history, musculo-skeletal screening and the coach. Find out what the athlete likes and
dislikes. What does the athlete want to achieve from the program? All of these factors need to be considered before you
design their program. In this way a program may be designed in such a way that the athlete can see that they have
been involved in the development process.
PROGRAM DESIGN
Program design is where your knowledge of human science meets the art of coaching. In S&C, coaches need to take
information from many sources and bring it together to design a program that meets the needs of all stakeholders, is
practical, and will achieve the desired program objectives.
With all the information you have gathered it is then up to you to design a program based on your expertise. Which
exercises will best meet the objectives? How will you manipulate the variables, i.e. sets, reps, tempo, rest? Will it be a
2 day program? What is important is that you design your athlete's program to suit them.
All athletes are different and will respond differently to given training stimuli. Athletes using the same program may then
have different results. There have been many unsuccessful attempts by athletes and coaches to mimic programs of
successful athletes (Zatsiorsky 1995).
PROGRAM EVALUATION
How do you know whether you have achieved your program objectives? There are a number of tools that you may use
in order to evaluate the effectiveness of the program that you have designed. Too often the evaluation of training
program is solely based on quantitative analysis. It is important to recognise that there are a number of qualitative
measures that you may also use.
QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS
Typically quantitative analysis has taken the form of testing. Whereby the effectiveness of the program is drawn from
improvements in test results. Testing is an important component. The tests carried out should reflect the objectives of
the program. If the objectives of the program were to increase strength and speed, it is clear that the athlete should be
tested on those components. Other testing should only be carried out if you were looking to see if there had been any
concurrent changes in other physical components, such as muscle size, body fat, ect. Many sport specific relevant tests
for athletes are detailed in the book "Physiological tests for elite athletes" by the Australian Sports Commission.
You should also have your athlete return periodically to the doctor and physiotherapist so that they may assess whether
your intervention has been effective in correcting any conditions they identified in their screenings.
QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
Your qualitative analysis can be readily formed from anecdotal evidence given by the coach and athlete. Try to find out
whether your intervention has had an effect on performance, either positive or negative.
You may also like to have your athlete maintain a diary. It is important to keep record not only of exercises, sets and
repetitions but it is also useful to have your athlete record how they feel on the day and how the exercise protocol is
working for them. Do they like the exercises you have prescribed? Why/why not? Another valuable measure can be an
exertion scale. Using any number of perceived exertion scales (1-5 or 1-10), have the athlete record their training
intensity for each session. If they did not achieve their training objectives you could look at their diary and see whether
they have not only adhered to your program but also trained at an intensity which will allow for adaptation. Maybe they
did everything right and the program objectives were not achieved.

CONCLUSION
Effective programming is achievable through consultation with the major stakeholders, by analysing the needs of the
sport and considering the anatomical limitations of the athlete. The information gained through the relevant consultations
will then allow program objectives to be formed. Using the program objectives an appropriate individual program can be
designed. The effectiveness of your program can then be evaluated using both quantitative and qualitative data.
REFERENCES
1. Australian Sports Commission (2000). Physiological tests for elite 4. Bompa, T.O. (1999). Periodization -Theory and Methodology of
athletes. C. Gore (Ed). Human Kinetics. Champaign III. Training, 4th Ed. Human Kinetics: Champaign. III.
2. Baker, D. (1998) Designing, implementing and coaching strength 5. Fleck, S.J. & Kreamer, W.J. (1987). Designing Resistance
training programs for beginners and intermediate level athletes - Part Training Programs: Human Kinetics, Champaign, III.
1 : Designing the program. Strength & Conditioning Coach, 5, 11- 6. Harvey, D. (1998) Screening Test Protocols - Pre-participation
20. screening of athletes. Australian Sports Commission. Belconnen,
3. Booker, R. & Meirs, R. (1996). A systems approach to enhancing ACT.
motivation and performance in team sports - Part 1 : Accountability 7. Van Raalte, L.J. Brewer. (1996). Exploring Sport and Exercise
systems, data systems and feedback systems. Strength & Psychology. American Psychology Association: Washington, DC.
Conditioning Coach, 4 - 8-10. 8. Zatsiorsky, V.M. (1995). Science and Practice of Strength
Straining. Human Kinetics: Champaign. III

Periodisation in AFL & Other Factors of Influence.

Level 2 Submission
PERIODISATION IN AFL & OTHER FACTORS OF INFLUENCE
Luke Wass
Morningside AFC [QAFL Premiers] Strength & Conditioning Coach, Bachelor Exercise &
Sports Science, Weightlifting – Sports Power Level 2, Track & Field Level 2
ABSTRACT
Periodisation has attracted a large level of interest in the strength and conditioning field as its reliability is continually
producing and assisting in improving sporting performance as sports science research continues to supply well
supported efficient training methods and principles. The body of literature in this article explores the structure of
periodisation by adopting AFL as the sport to present as an example. This article incorporates a detailed description of
the annual plan displaying the phases; preparation, competition and transition. This article then breaks into further detail
describing the specific preparation phase, maintaining management of training throughout the season, game turn
around, preparation for the finals and the process of how macrocycles and training phases correspond together. Specific
detail relating to AFL is also touched on to give a more intristic example such as background, fitness demands and
requirements and in addition fundamental principles in periodisation and history of periodisation is included. As
periodisation involves planning of training this article also explores some additional components that derive from this
topic. These components are recovery, super compensation theory, training load monitoring, overtraining, over reaching
and the (UPS) unexplained underperformance syndrome.
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this article is to emphasize the importance of forward planning for training by using AFL as an example.
Optimal sporting performance can be positively influenced by the quality of the training regime. The anticipated result
from a well planned and organised training regime is to maximise performance on match day. The planning of training
is described as the term periodisation.
Periodisation is an organised, forward planned and structured approach to training that involves progressive cycling of
various aspects of a training program during a specific period of time. Periodisation involves a process of alternating
training loads throughout the season building up towards the peak period of season competition.
HISTORY AND ORIGINS OF PERIODISATION
Training in an organized manner can be dated back to the ancient Olympics. Competitors in the Olympics were said to
train for 10 months prior to the month-long event. However, it was not until the early 1900s that specialists such as
Murphy and Kotov suggested preparatory exercises and specific training phases (16). More specific, better structured
and organized periodization models originated from work undertaken in the 1960s (25). Russian physiologist Leo
Matveyev and Czechoslovakian sport scientist Tudor Bompa expanded and further organized the periodization model
(Pedemonte, 1986). Bompa and Metveyev are regarded as the founders of modern periodization. Since the 1960s,
other coaches and exercise scientists have built modified versions of periodisation from the original models (25).
For those people who have ever wondered how the Russians were so successful for three decades in many different
sports, here is the answer. The unnaturally bulked appearance of Eastern Block women was due to periodisation of
trainng. Tudor Bompa adopted the ideas generated by Russian sports scientists in the early 1960s. The Russians
developed the approach of dividing the year of training into different training periods (16).
Before the new approach was adopted training was primarily focussed on maintaning the same constant stresses year
round, that is, doing the same workouts and training regime week in and week out. The new approach was to implement
some phases of training that were easier than others enabling rest and allowing the body to become stronger (3).
Today most training programs for sporting teams and athletes are based on the theory and principles developed by
Tudor Bompa and Leonid Matveyev.

BACKGROUND ON AFL
AFL is a quick and sharp moving sport played on a medium to large oval shaped field measuring between 135 – 185
metres in length and 110 – 155 metres in width. The sport revolves around a high level of fitness as well as technical,
tactical and mental qualities. AFL is played at a variety of levels both amateur and professional. The AFL is the highest
level of competition, and is played in all Australian states.
A game consists of four 20 minute quarters, with extra time (usually five to ten minutes) added for the time that the ball
is out of play. The first and third quarters are followed by a short break (of ten minutes), with a longer break of twenty
minutes, off the ground, at half time. Each team consists of eighteen players on the ground, with another four interchange
players who may be interchanged at any time for other players on the field. The AFL works on an unlimited interchange
system whereby there is no limit to the number of interchanges that can occur. This has been a significant change in
the last few years as teams now regularly achieve 100 interchanges a game. This has led to an increase in intensity
and speed at which the game is being played. Periodisation plays a critical role to modify and design training to manage
the change of intensity over recent years.
It is essential that the coaching staff keep their rostered players free from both injury and illness as much as possible
and available for selection in the senior team if they are to be successful. The traditional line up sees five lines of three
players spread from one end of the ground (backs) to the other (forwards), with the other three players set to follow the
play. In addition to running, players must leap to mark or punch the ball, deal with tackling, quick changes in direction
and handballing. A good elite player must have good foot skills, be a good decision maker, be fast, sharp and strong
along with having good aerobic and anaerobic capacity.
FITNESS DEMANDS AND REQUIREMENTS IN AFL
AFL is a physically demanding sport that stresses the three energy systems -aerobic, anaerobic lactic and anaerobic
alactic. It requires strength and power output for contesting for the ball, kicking, jumping and bounding. It is also felt that
the game is becoming faster due to improved ground surfaces, contemporary training and playing methods, increased
number of interchange players and technical resources (9). For an example of the fitness level required at the
professional level, (30) published a case study of physiological and anthropometric characteristics (mean ± standard
deviation) of players at an AFL club. Anthropometric characteristics showed that players that were classed as midfielders
(generally play in midfield and follow the ball around the ground) had a stature of 1.88 ± 0.09 m, weight of 86.0 ± 8.9 kg
and sum of 8 skinfolds of 47.0 ± 7.8 mm. (30) reported that the midfielders had a 10m sprint time of 1.90 ± 0.06 s, flying
30m time of 3.48 ± 0.11 s, a vertical jump of 62.3 ± 3.7 cm and a predicted VO2 max of 61.6 ± 3.5 ml.kg-1.min-1.
The importance of players acquiring high skill and fitness levels has resulted in AFL club’s implementing demanding
training loads. In the past, one training session per day was common however, today; athletes regularly train twice a
day. The pressure on coaches to achieve success means the boundaries are continually being tested with what the
players can achieve and what their bodies can manage. The key to success is finding the balance between achieving
peak performance whilst avoiding overtraining.
If training volumes are not managed efficiently players can fall victim to a condition usually referred to as the ‘overtraining
syndrome’, ‘staleness’ or ‘burnout’. Training for a high impact sport that involves many athletic attributes such as AFL
requires a balance between various training loads for injury prevention measures. The reliance is on the coaching staff
to deliver the optimal volume of training necessary whilst ensuring recovery protocols are in place and being executed.
Periodisation plays a critical role in planning and factoring in game specific components into a good quality well
organised annual plan to maximise performance all year round.
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF PERIODISATION
When developing the annual plan and training phases here are some fundamental principles to take into consideration.
Principle Of Specificity
The specificity principle is when training must go from highly general training to highly specific training and implies that
to become better at a certain skill you must perform that specific skill. That is to say, in order to enhance your ability to
run, the principle of specificity advocates running over all other forms of aerobic and anaerobic exercise.
Principle Of Progressive Overload

The principle of overload states that a greater than normal stress or load on the body is required for training adaptation
to take place. That is to say, once the body has adapted to a certain stimulus, then a different stimulus is required to
continue the change. In other words, to increase endurance, muscles must work for a longer period of time than they
are used to.
Principle Of Reversibility
The principle of reversibility is when training stops the gains made and will be lost over time. That is to say, the muscles
hypertrophy with use and atrophy with disuse, placing a great emphasis on the need to find balance between stress and

rest and periods of low intensity and high intensity. The principle of reversibility highlights the potential need for cross
training, as well as indicating the damaging effects of injury.
Principle Of Individuality
Abilities and attitudes are influenced by factors such as hereditary, maturity, diet, sleep and previous experience in
sport. Every athlete is different and responses to exercise will vary (as for, the need for individualised programming). In
general terms however, women need more recovery time than men, older athletes need more recover time than younger
athletes, and the heavier the load, the longer it will take for the muscles to recover.
Principle Of Variation
Variation provides on going stimulus to the player and aids in avoiding boredom. Variation of training components and
training methods (e.g. speed sessions or cross training etc) offers players a chance to adapt and learn more.
Principle Of Adaptation
Adaptation is the way the body programs muscles to remember particular activities, movements or skills. By repeating
the skill or activity, the body adapts to the stress and the skill becomes easier to perform. Adaptation explains why a
person is often sore after starting a new routine, but after doing the same exercise for weeks or months the player has
little muscle soreness.
GENERAL PHASES
There are three general phases of the season:
Preparation Phase – is the pre season that goes for 3.5 months. This phase begins at the beginning of December to
the first fixture in the first week of April with a two week break over the festive season. The pre season generally consists
of 3 to 4 pre season practice and trial games.
Competition Phase – is the season competition that goes for 5 months with an extra month for teams in the finals. In
season competition consists of 19 fixtures and in addition the possibility of 1 to 4 finals games. This phase begins in the
last week of March and continues to the second last week of August.
Transition Phase – is the off season that goes for 2.5 months and 3.5 months for teams that did not make the finals.
This phase begins in the last week of August until pre season in December. Teams that make the finals begin their
transition phase mid September.
The general phases are then broken down into specific training phases. There are four training phases general
preparation, specific preparation, competition, and transition.
For AFL the periodic training systems break into two types of cycle’s microcycle and macrocycle. The microcycle is
generally a week of planned sessions for whatever macrocycle and training components are taking place.
The macrocycle refers to a block or period of training working towards peaking for the goal period of the competition,
that is, finals football in September.
Macrocycles run parallel with the four training phases to focus on the specific training components at a particluar time
of the year to avoid over-training and to systematically alternate high loads of training with decreased loading phases to
improve components of muscular fitness (e.g. strength, strength-speed, and strength-endurance). They are:
1. General Preparation phase

2. Specific Preparation phase
3. Competition phase
4. Transition phase
TRAINING OBJECTIVES PER COMPONENT
Below is an example of some training objectives in AFL over the duration of the annual plan. Testing methods for these
objectives are seen in Figures 1 and 2.
The timing of these tests being conducted has been explained below in the description of each phase.
Performance
To win 80% of home games.
To make the top 6 at the end of the season.

Assessment
To monitor progress in:
Maximum strength
Hypertrophy
Peak power
Aerobic endurance
Anaerobic endurance
Speed and agility
Endurance
Maximise aerobic capacity. I.E 3KM time trial.
Improve anaerobic and muscular endurance to match the specific position type.
Interval type exertion required in AFL. I.E Beep Test.
Strength
Individual hypertrophy goals.
Achieve personal best for maximum strength tests in general preparation phase.
Speed and Agility

Set personal best for 20m & 40m sprint times.
Set personal best for agility. I.E Slalom-type agility test.
Power
Set individual benchmarks for power clean.
Set personal best for double & single-leg vertical jump.
HOW MACROCYCLES AND TRAINING PHASES CORRESPOND
The core structure of the annual training plan involves two things, macrocycles and training phases. These two elements
play a key role in how training is planned and can determine how successful the annual plan will become.
Each training phase also has macrocycles that run parallel. Training phases are the “time period” and split into four
different phases around the year. Macro cycles are “specific training components” that align with the training phases.
The difference between the two is that training phases are a time period and macro cycles are the training components
implemented into that time period.
For example, the general preparation phase is mid November to mid February for a total duration of three months.
Running parallel with this phase are the macro cycles targeting strength, aerobic and anaerobic endurance training, as
these are the objectives for this part of the season.
The macrocycles will structure training within these components. Macro cycles are broken down specifically as to how
these components are managed and can change within a training phase depending on what training components are
the focus at the time. For example, the aerobic and general strength training (macrocycle) may start at the beginning of
the training phase to build an aerobic and strength base then move into the anaerobic and maximum strength training
four weeks later after the aerobic and general strength base has been achieved and so on.
GENERAL PREPARATION PHASE
The general preparation phase begins in December and ends mid February. This is the most critical phase as in building
a high quality foundation of fitness and strength to carry onto the specific preparation phase. If the quality of training and
results to follow are not achieved, this will manifest into the next phase and hinder the preparation process for the start
of the season.
The macrocycle for this training phase covers strength, aerobic and anaerobic endurance training towards the end of
the training phase and going into the next training phase.
Fitness testing at the beginning of this phase plays an important role in seeing what fitness level the players are at prior
to commencing the first phase of pre season. Below is an example of the fitness tests conducted.

Table 1 – Example: General Preparation.
Fitness Test Result

Body mass (kg) 87.5
Height (cm) 187.9
Skinfolds sum of 7 sites (mm) 39.6
Grip Strength (kg) 67
1RM Bench Press (kg) 145
Vertical Jump (cm) 76
Sit and Reach (cm) +14
3KM Time Trial (min) 10
Beep Test (time/level) 15
1RM Barbell Squat 210
Towards the end of this phase these tests are repeated to monitor progress and to determine if personal goals have
been achieved. The result from the 3km time trial can also be used to estimate players VO2max.
The primary objectives of this phase are to:
• Develop an aerobic base followed by anaerobic training towards the end of the phase that will allow other training
goals to be met in later phases towards the start of the season.
• Participate in aerobic cross-training activities and incorporate skill components with a view to maintaining physical &
psychological health later in the competitive year.
• Address any muscle imbalances through additional specific agonist – antagonist testing protocols such as the
bilateral bench press v’s bench pull. Unilateral testing is another beneficial protocol, for example push exercises such
as the one arm barbell military press or one arm dumbbell press and for a pull the one arm barbell bent over row.
This principle can also apply to the lower body to compare agonist and antagonists by completing a leg extension
and leg curl test for any hamstring and quadriceps imbalances. Where there is an imbalance more training attention
is required to the muscle group of the weaker limb and monitored throughout the entire season. By addressing any
imbalances will increase the player’s potential to become stronger in even proportion and enhance the quality of
work coming into the next phase of power and SAQ (speed and quickness).
• Increase lean muscle mass & maximum strength.
• Ensure follow all recovery protocols.
• Fitness testing.
This is a very productive time of the year to have the pre-season training camp. The benefit in having a pre-season
training camp is to develop team bonding and welcome new players to the playing list early on in the season.
The training variables for this part of the season vary. The requirements to build the aerobic base are low intensity type
of running and cross training with a higher volume of work. For general strength, building lean muscle mass and
maximum strength this requires very high intensity work in the weight room and a lower volume of work. As long as the
body is recovering accordingly the objectives of this phase can be met.
SPECIFIC PREPARATION PHASE
The specific preparation phase begins mid-February and ends late March just prior to the start of the season. The priority
of this phase is speed and power along with continuing to build anaerobic endurance.
The macrocylce for this phase covers the continuation of maximum strength and then proceeding to peak power training
such as olympic lifts, power cleans and plyometrics. The component correlating with peak power is SAQ (speed and
quickness) involving different types of sprints and agility training. Anaerobic endurance training is also part of this
macrocycle. This is an ideal time to implement game specific drills relevant to the components of these macrocycles.
The key primary objective after this phase is to peak and be ready for competition starting the season in a very
competitive manner.
Fitness testing continues in this phase, as the focus is maximum strength, peak power, agility, speed and quickness.
Below is an example of the fitness tests conducted.

Table 2 – Example: Specific Preparation.
Fitness Test Result
Slalom-type agility test (sec) 7.99

Standing long jump (cm) 247
20 metre Sprint (sec) 2.92
40 metre Sprint (sec) 5.12
1RM Bench Press (kg) 145
Vertical Jump (cm) 76
Sprint Recovery Test (RSA) (sec) 24.5
Towards the end of this phase these tests are repeated to monitor progress and to determine if personal targets and
goals have been achieved. As the follow up tests are close to the beginning of the season it is very important that players
reach targets from a psychological perspective leading up towards the season. This mental strategy helps give players
peace of mind and confidence they are ready for the start of the season physically and mentally.
The annual periodised plan in Appendix A shows that volume of training is high for pre-season games in the specific
preparation phase. However, generally, as part of the preparation process for the competition phase, teams are
expected to win and to be able to “train through” this stage of the season.
The primary objectives of this phase are:
• Continued development of maximum strength.

• Development of peak power.
• Development of anaerobic endurance and repeated sprint ability (RSA) over position specific distances.
• Development of acceleration and agility over position specific distances.
• Implementation of a variety of game specific drills correlating with the components of the particular macrocycle in
progress.
• Ensuring the following of all recovery protocols.
• Fitness testing.
• Team bonding activities such as leisure sports, bowling, pool etc.
• Training through and win preseason games.
COMPETITION PHASE
There are 22 competition games in total beginning in the last week of March continuing through to the third week in
August. For teams that make the finals they can play between 22 and 26 games for the season. No team prepares for
just the 22 competition rounds but for all the 26 game season as generally the main objective is to win the premiership.
A teams primary objectives for this phase generally are:

• To finish the competitive season in the top 6
• To win 80% of home games.
The physical/psychological objectives of this phase are:

• To maintain components (strength, power, speed, agility, endurance) throughout the season.
• To ensure training is specific yet variable enough to prevent overtraining & burnout.
• To re-develop power & speed-related qualities (Testing power and SAQ) for the semi-finals (August-September).
• To ensure all recovery protocols are executed to avoid injury and maintain a fresh list.
GAME TURNAROUND
Game turnaround is the length of time [days] between one game to the next. Game turnaround plays an important role
in the planning of training as each week the day of a game can change and be played on different days. Generally the
game turnaround in AFL can be anything between six and twelve days. As the annual plan is being structured for the
season ahead game turnaround is also taken into consideration week to week. This is completed by careful forward
planning of weekly microcycles to manage recovery and better game preparation for performance.

RECOVERY
Recovery protocols are very important, as these processes will help avoid injuries and increase the chances of having
a fresh list available throughout the season.
Why is Recovery so important?

The earlier the recovery process begins, the better your muscles and body will feel for the next training session or game.
Immediately after games and training, both physical recovery and quality nutrition are essential to get the body back
into the best possible condition. This will also decrease the chances of injury.
Players who fail to recover efficiently can, over time, show symptoms of underperformance syndrome that may lead to
burnout. The details of this syndrome are discussed further on and can be described as a state of mental, emotional
and physical exhaustion brought on initially by the body doing too much without the necessary recovery and regeneration
the body requires.
Priorities post game:

• Rehydrate
• Muscle repair
• Replace fuel stores
When the body recovers efficiently the following takes place:

• Refuelling the muscles and liver of their expended energy.
• Replacing the fluid and electrolytes lost in sweat.
• Allowing the immune system to handle the damage and destruction caused by the exercise bout.
• Manufacturing new proteins, red blood cells and other cellular components.
Factors that slow the rate of recovery include:

• Damage to the muscle, contact injury or delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS).
• Delay in intake of high GI carbohydrates after exercise.
• Inadequate amounts of carbohydrates in body.
• Reliance on low GI carbohydrate foods instead of high GI.
• High intensity exercise during recovery window.
IMPORTANCE OF HYDRATION
Dehydration at levels less than 2% of body weight are enough to cause a definite decrease in performance. An increase
in heart rate, body temperature and perception of how hard the exercise feels are the first effects of dehydration (10).
These are accompanied by a decrease in concentration and mental functioning and a reduction in skill co-ordination.
As dehydration progresses further, muscle cramping can occur. If higher levels of dehydration (over 3-4%) are reached
there is an increased risk of nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea and other gastro intestinal problems during exercise (10).
Avoiding dehydration is one of the major challenges for all players who want to perform at their best. It may not be
possible to achieve full fluid replacement during all activities. You can expect to lose on average approximately 1L/hr,
and in hot, humid weather 2-3L/hr but all players can reap the rewards of better hydration if they keep a hydration plan
in place during the course of a game to minimise dehydration as much as possible (19).
For example after a game/training instead of drinking just water have a dilute carbohydrate-electrolyte sports drink. This
will rehydrate the body quicker than just drinking plain water as small amounts of sodium and glucose increase the rate
of intestinal absorption of water, and helps this fluid to be retained. This rehydrates the body instead of causing constant
trips to the toilet (19).
PRE MATCH MEAL
Good preparation for a game by having a meal 3-4 hours before a game then a smaller top up snack to fuel carbohydrate
stores about 1-2 hours before a game will assist in the recovery process (10).
Typical food choices for a pre-game meal or snack are cereals, sandwiches, pasta, toast, fruit & liquid meal supplements
(eg. sports drinks).
These foods provide both carbohydrate and protein as energy sources for the game. High fat foods should be avoided
as fat slows down the rate of digestion and therefore the stomach may not empty sufficiently prior to the game. Fat also

doesn't provide the body with the appropriate fuel for the best possible game performance or help with the recovery
procedure.
FUEL DURING A GAME
Thirst is not a good guide to dehydration. Once a person feels thirsty they are already dehydrated.
250ml (1 cup) of sports drink every 15 minutes is a general guide to consuming small amounts of fluid at regular intervals.
This helps to ensure the fluid continues to be rapidly absorbed. Not drinking regularly or starting to drink too late after
the start of exercise will result in dehydration which slows the rate at which a person absorbs fluids. It is vital to have a
plan before each game to avoid becoming bloated, feeling like you have a stitch and/or feel sick (10).
POST MATCH RECOVERY
It is important to consume food and fluids as soon as possible, ideally within 15-30 minutes after the game. Protein and
carbohydrate are essential nutrients for recovery, i.e, a chicken and salad roll or perhaps a protein shake and a salad
sandwich. Protein is essential for muscle recovery and repairing the muscle tissues. Carbohydrates are required to
restore muscle glycogen in the muscle energy tanks.
Example Procedure of Post Game Recovery:
Immediately post game:

• 10 minutes - light jog decreasing to lighter & walking pace.
• Utilise sports drinks for carbohydrate and fluid replacement.
• 10 – 15 minutes stretching each muscle group two times through.
• Holding static stretching for 30 sec on each stretch.
• Assessment of any injuries and diagnosis by physio.
15 – 20 minutes post game:

• Hydro bath 10 minutes - ice bath 30 seconds then 1 – 2 minutes warm to hot shower, repeated 3 – 4 times through.
• Begin carbohydrate and protein intake, perhaps in the form of a protein shake.
30 minutes post game:

• To indicate and measure hydration levels players are weighed to ensure body mass is the same as to one hour
before game was played.
• Players are to keep drinking fluids until normal weigh is achieved.
1 – 2 hours post game:

• Good quality meal consumed then return to normal eating pattern.
• Compression garments if required.
• No alcohol until all the above steps have been executed. No alcohol to be consumed if turnaround for next game
does not exceed five days.
Injured Players:
Bruised or injured players should wait 3 – 4 hours after a game to stretch if not the following day as this will return
muscles to resting length and avoid adaptive shortening. Injured players are not to consume alcohol as this interrupts
the recovery process.
MAINTAINING TRAINING THROUGHOUT SEASON
Periodisation involves many variables including frequency (how ‘often’ you train), duration (how ‘long’ you train for one
session), volume (how ‘much’ you train in a given week or cycle) and intensity (how ‘hard’ you train at any given time).
These variables are incorporated into the annual plan as a tool to help manage and monitor training load. The variables
can change each training phase macrocycle depending what the objectives are.
To maintain physical components of strength, power, speed, agility, and endurance throughout the season can only be
done by managing training load as best as possible. An example of how this is conducted can be taken from the
Matveyev theory explained earlier in this article. As can be seen from the annual periodised plan in Appendix A (Click
here) the training volume and load changes throughout the season.
During the season over a four-week period the training volume and load increases to the required maximum exertion
usually followed and measured by the rate of perceived exertion (RPE) scale method, which is discussed soon. After
the four-week period the volume and load decrease to take the strain off the players bodies. This strategy is used so
that players can be at their freshest to maximise performance. Training is specific yet variable enough to prevent burnout

and avoid overtraining. This four week period usually will cycle through three to four times throughout the season and
taper off just briefly before the preparation for the finals begins. This preparation commences four weeks out from the
first finals game.
PREPARATION FOR THE FINALS - PEAKING AND TAPERING
Four weeks before the semi finals begin (August-September). The focus is to re-develop power & speed-related
qualities. Testing for power and SAQ is conducted in the first week of the four-week preparation. These tests will tell the
coach where his players are at physically compared to the testing done earlier in the season. The coach may however
only choose two to four of the tests out of the seven from Table 1 and 2 for measure and comparison. In this four-week
period the volume of training is low but the intensity is very high. The idea behind this approach is to have the team very
powerful and quick to enable them to peak to maximise performance just in time for the first finals game. Once the semi
finals commence training goes from very high intensity, low volume and tapered to a very low volume, low intensity. The
tapering process is to ensure players are at their freshest to perform throughout the most important part of the season.
TRANSITION PHASE
This phase is used to facilitate psychological rest, relaxation and regeneration as well as to maintain an acceptable level
of general physical condition. This phase lasts about eight weeks and it is important players let their body regenerate
from both a physical and psychological perspective.
The primary objectives of this phase are:

• Physical regeneration after the competitive season
• Psychological regeneration after the competitive season
• Maintaining some basic fitness through active recreational pursuits (e.g. surfing)
• Addressing any injury concerns with medical personnel.
TRAINING LOAD
“Training load” can be defined as the volume of training stimulus performed to improve physical qualities as a foundation
for enhancing sporting performance (15).
The ultimate goal of training is to prepare athletes to perform at their best in important competitions (28). The ability to
monitor training is critical to the process of quantifying training periodisation plans (15). By monitoring training accurately
and effectively, athletes will receive the desired training effect and be prepared for competition, whilst minimizing injury
and illness. Injury and/or illness can occur when physical demands outweigh the body’s ability to fully recover between
training sessions and competitions (1). Coaches and athletes both stand to benefit from accurate training load monitoring
(12). In AFL, most player intensities range from repeated bouts of explosive sprinting to low intensity bouts of jogging,
walking or standing. It has been previously documented that mean heart rates for a total game time of two hours
exceeded 165 beats per minute (8).
Contributing to the overtraining syndrome does not seem to be just training load. Training monotony and training strain
are training variables that may also contribute to negative adaptations to training.
MONITORING TRAINING LOAD
Borg’s RPE Scale

The Borg rating of perceived exertion (RPE) scale is a simple, yet very effective method of monitoring exercise (4). The
RPE scale was developed to enable reliable and valid estimations of perceived exertion and is now commonly used in
exercise testing, training, and rehabilitation (4). The RPE scale is based around the idea that a measure of perceived
exertion is the level of strain and /or heaviness that is encountered during physical effort. The given definition of RPE
refers to overall perceived exertion, which depends on many factors including sensory cues and somatic symptoms,
emotional factors and rating behaviour (4). The original scale has been modified and the CR (Category Ratio) 0-10 RPE
scale has become a standard method to evaluate perceived exertion in exercise testing, training and rehabilitation (13).

Table 3 – Example of the RPE chart.

Rating Descriptor
0 Rest
1 Very, Very Easy
2 Easy
3 Moderate
4 Somewhat Hard
5 Hard
6 -
7 Very Hard
8 -
9 -
10 Maximal
The RPE model is a simple system for strength and conditioning coaches to monitor load of several different modalities
of training including technical, tactical, endurance, speed and strength (20).
The sessional RPE is the athlete’s rating of the global intensity of the exercise bout (15). The goal of sessional RPE is
to encourage the athlete to view the session globally and to simplify the myriad of exercise intensity cues during the
exercise bout (22). This allows researchers or the coach to evaluate trends in training, injury, and illness in relation to
the session RPE (22). The effective use of session RPE could also lead to optimal athletic performance with a reduced
injury/illness cost from overtraining, due to a greater training synchrony between a coach-designed training regime and
the actual intensity at which athletes train (29).
With a large majority of training and conditioning in AFL done in groups the RPE method comes in very useful and
simple in implementing each training session. However (18) investigated the physiological assessment of aerobic
training in the team sport of soccer and stressed that coaches need to be extremely aware of an individual’s internal
training load (physiological responses) that results from an external training load being applied. The physiological stress
(internal load) induced by group training (i.e. same external training load) often differs between individuals (18). The
RPE method is a very important tool for coaches at all levels. The fact that this method is easy to implement also
highlights its ability to become a key tool for strength and conditioning coaches to monitor internal training load.
The RPE method of monitoring training stress is suitable for monitoring team sports as it enables the coach to accurately
combine training loads from different training modalities to give an accurate estimation of overall training load (11). By
monitoring team sport training effectively, a greater understanding of optimal training will be developed, ultimately
delivering peak competitive performance on the field (11).
For periodisation purposes the RPE method facilitates training phases, the development, management of annual
planning and specific periodisation macrocycle phases for individuals and teams towards peak performance.
TRAINING MONOTONY AND STRAIN
Training monotony is a measure of the day in day out variety and repetitiveness of training within a given week. It is
calculated as the average daily training load divided by the standard deviation over the course of a training week.
Greater daily variability (i.e. alternating "heavy" and "light" days) can lead to positive adaptations whereas less variability
can rapidly lead to deconditioning and staleness. Training strain is the result of load and monotony from physiological
and psychological strain on the body (14).
Training Monotony = Daily Mean (Average Load)/Standard Deviation
Training Strain = Weekly Load x Monotony
Calculating Training Load

Using the methods of training load, monotony and strain, the likelihood of excessive training loads is reduced, thereby
reducing the chances of overtraining or injury (11). Calculating and measuring training load with these very informative
tools will enable more control, understanding and quality that can go into the training developed. This ultimately can
reduce injuries and deliver optimal performance on the field.

Training sessions generally involve many of the following components: warm-up, speed and agility training, skill
development, endurance development, lactate tolerance development, development of aerobic power, muscular
strength, power development and warm down. Additionally, many different activities can be completed within these
components further increasing the variability of training stressors. The physiological and psychological considerations
along with the physical exertion in these sessions make it difficult for a coach or strength and conditioning coach to
accurately determine training load using heart rate or time measures. By using the RPE method for each session, a
global score for the total monotony and strain of each session can be calculated assisting in the accuracy of managing
the training load going into the planning of training phases and macrocycles. The example below details the application
of the calculation process.
Table 4 – Example of Calculating Weekly Training Load.
Day Training Session Duration (Min) RPE Load

Sunday Aerobic Run 180 5 900
Monday Weight Training 120 7 840
Tuesday Aerobic Run 20 2 40
Wednesday Aerobic Intervals 90 6 540
Thursday Anaerobic Intervals 75 7 525
Friday Aerobic Run 20 2 40
Saturday Weight Training 120 7 840
Table 5 – Example of Calculating Totals.
Calculating Method Result

Daily Mean (Average) Load 532
Daily Standard Deviation of Load 367
Monotony (Daily Mean/Standard Deviation) 1.44
Weekly Load (Daily Mean Load x 7) 3725
Strain (Weekly Load x Monotony) 5397
This information can be quite easily calculated using a spreadsheet program (i.e. Microsoft Excel).
Here are the steps:
• Approximately 30 minutes after the conclusion of each training session, players rate the global intensity using the
RPE chart in Table 1. Delay scoring the session so that particularly difficult or particularly easy segments toward the
end of the exercise bout do not dominate your rating.
• Multiply this number (0-10) by the duration of the entire training session (including warm-up, cooldown, and recovery
intervals during the training session). In the case where multiple training sessions are performed on a given day, the
training loads are all included for that particular day.
• Find the average load and standard deviation for the week by using the microsoft excel spreadsheet. Use these
numbers to calculate monotony, weekly load, and strain using the formulas in Table 5.
SUPER COMPENSATION
During and after an intense session there is an initial breakdown of muscle fibers and depletion of naturally occurring
substances (nutrients) in the body, leaving the body and nervous system in a state of fatigue post workout.
From this state of fatigue the body begins to rebuild itself through rest and an increase in protein synthesis, to rebuild
the muscle fibers and nervous system back to its original level. The period from fatigue to baseline level is known as
compensation.
If a player allows for proper recovery from initial fatigue to the next workout, they may then have achieved super
compensation. Figure 1 below shows a diagram example of super compensation.
Gains are made when the body fully recovers from training, not during the actual training. A player may see gains in
performance during the session or game, but this is due to full recovery and super compensation.
This is where the muscle/nervous system is built up beyond the original baseline, creating a new level of physical
condition. This is the goal of training. That is, training smart, recovering well, and super compensating completely.
Super compensation is not centred only in the muscular system. The body and mind needs to recuperate psychologically
from stressful sessions (if a players concentration is below par during subsequent efforts, their coordination and overall
form will deteriorate), and the nervous, endocrine, and immune systems all have to recover as well. However, the
muscular and immune systems are interrelated (the muscles produce chemicals which stimulate white blood cells), so

good muscle recovery should enhance immune functioning. If overwork is being prevented at the muscular level, then
it is possible that the nervous and endocrine systems will also be recovered (2).
From the bodies training stimulus the curve dips below the baseline into a fatigue state. As the body recuperates the
compensation process is in place until the curve is at the baseline. This is when the player is fully super compensated
and ready to train or play again.
Players can find it difficult to know if one is completely recovered or not, given the intense training schedules formulated
around the annual plan.
Some players might be super compensated after just 30 hours or so, while others could take 40 to 48 hours. Certain
factors can hinder the recovery process such as depending on what type of training took place in a particular session,
i.e speed endurance type or weights session; the training variables such as intensity, volume, training load, quality of
nutrition and conditions such as weather and so on. There is a variation between players as it is very individualised as
to how long a player will take to reach super compensation (17).
Managing super compensation gets back to earlier discussions on monitoring training load and recovery as these
methods help increase the chances of having players as fresh as possible to deliver optimal performance. These training
tools and methods are very much part of the periodisation process in AFL.
Super Compensation
Baseline
Fatigue Rate
Compensation/Recovery
Figure 1 – Super Compensation Diagram.
From the bodies training stimulus the curve dips below the baseline into a fatigue state. As the body recuperates the
compensation process is in place until the curve is at the baseline. This is when the player is fully super compensated
and ready to train or play again.
Players can find it difficult to know if one is completely recovered or not, given the intense training schedules formulated
around the annual plan.
Some players might be super compensated after just 30 hours or so, while others could take 40 to 48 hours. Certain
factors can hinder the recovery process such as depending on what type of training took place in a particular session,
i.e speed endurance type or weights session; the training variables such as intensity, volume, training load, quality of
nutrition and conditions such as weather and so on. There is a variation between players as it is very individualised as
to how long a player will take to reach super compensation (17).
Managing super compensation gets back to earlier discussions on monitoring training load and recovery as these
methods help increase the chances of having players as fresh as possible to deliver optimal performance. These training
tools and methods are very much part of the periodisation process in AFL.
OVERTRAINING, TRAINING FATIGUE & OVER - REACHING
A common issue in AFL and for athletes in general is over training without sufficient recovery to reach super
compensation. Coaches are under increasing pressure to achieve successful results and to do this boundaries are
continually being tested with regard to what level players can push themselves to and what their bodies can withstand.
The challenge for coaches is to find the balance between achieving peak performance and avoiding the negative issue
of overtraining. Training for high impact and collision sports such as AFL reflects a balance between the minimum
training load required to elicit an improvement in fitness and the maximum training load tolerable before sustaining
marked increases in injury rates (17). This is subjected to quality coaching to provide the optimal amount of training
without pushing beyond the recovery requirements. In addition, the recovery process is also vitally important due to the
demanding nature of training, games and travel.
Achieving an appropriate balance between training sessions, competition stresses and recovery is important in
maximising the performance of athletes (2). Lack of appropriate recovery in pre-season may result in players being

unable to train at the required intensity or complete the required load at the next session, thereby predisposing the
athlete to injury (2). Hence, there is a need to monitor the training patterns of AFL players to enable the correct training
loads to be implemented and allow the training load and recovery ratio to provide positive training adaptations. The use
of such practices allows negative adaptations to training to be minimised and appropriate fitness and skill levels achieved
such that players are able to perform at their highest level (12).
WHAT IS OVER TRAINING?
Over training is classified into two types: over reaching and over training (staleness).
Over - reaching is the first phase of overtraining and is more easily managed. Overreaching is the soreness that results
when a player does not allow enough of a timeframe to recover around training sessions and games (12). If training
continues consecutively with an increase in training load without recovery while in the over reached state, the player
may fall victim to over training syndrome.
Over training or staleness develops when players and coaches ignore the signs of overreaching and continue to
consecutively train. The mistake players and coaches make is the mindset that poor or weak performance signals
require for training to be lifted and to increase training. However this will only fatigue the body more, possibly leading to
staleness and burnout (12). This makes the recovery process very difficult as recovering from overtraining could mean
weeks or months of time off. Recognising overreaching in the early stages is important. Other factors in a player’s life
such as work, study, relationships etc can also play a role in the breakdown of overtraining. From a psychological
perspective it is important players include "down time" from training to work on balancing these other important aspects
of life.
The over-training syndrome is characterised by chronically suppressed athletic performance, accompanied by one or
more serious symptoms. These symptoms may present themselves physically and/or psychologically (23). A list of
symptoms supplied by (23) in recent investigations shows what athletes acquire when suffering from over-training
syndrome:
Reported symptoms of the over-training syndrome
• Chronically suppressed
• Athletic performance
• Chronic fatigue
• Prolonged post-exercise
• Fatigue
• Muscle tiredness
• Muscle weakness
• Joint pain
• Headaches
• Constipation
• Dizziness
• Abnormal sweating
• Painful lymph glands
• Sleep disturbances
• Mood disturbances
• Concentration problems
• Lapses in memory
• Sore throat
• Constant colds
UNEXPLAINED UNDERPERFORMANCE SYNDROME [UPS]
The prevalence of over training syndrome (OTS) is difficult to estimate, hindered by unsystematic research with large
variances in protocols from study to study. This has resulted in the very existence of overtraining being questioned (6).
At a round-table discussion at St Catherines College, Oxford, top British sports scientists and medics, (5) redefined the
OT syndrome as the ‘Unexplained Underperformance Syndrome (UPS), Defined as ‘a persistent unexplained
performance deficit (recognised and agreed by coach and athlete) despite two weeks of relative rest’.
This contrasts with the definition of chronic fatigue syndrome, where symptoms must last at least six months. This was
said to be a broad and all-inclusive definition that does not include over-reaching. It is postulated that UPS is associated
with suppressed immune function. This is associated with increased incidence and severity of upper respiratory tract
infections (URTIs). There have also been reports of intestinal upsets, slow wound healing and increased sensitivity to

environmental and food allergens. Alteration in immune cell function has also been recorded, which includes suppressed
neutrophil function, suppressed lymphocyte count and proliferation, suppressed natural killer cell count and activity and
decreased serum, nasal and salivary immunoglobulins (5).
In addition to fatigue and an unexpected sense of effort during training, (5) lists the early symptoms of UPS:
Physiological performance:
• Decreased performance
• Prolonged recovery
• Decreased muscular strength
• Loss of coordination
• Chronic fatigue
• Insomnia
• Muscle soreness
• Loss of appetite
Psychological:
• Depression
• General apathy
• Emotional instability
• Difficulty in concentrating
• Fear of competition
Immunological:
• Increased susceptibility to illnesses
• Allergies
• Minor scratches heal slowly
• Bacterial infection
Biochemical:
• Negative nitrogen balance
• Depressed muscle glycogen concentration
• Mineral depletion i.e. zinc, cobalt, aluminium, selenium, copper
• Elevated cortisol
• Low free testosterone
Several factors contribute to UPS, including a sudden increase in training volume and/or intensity, heavy competition
schedule, lack of periodisation, monotonous training programme, lack of programmed recovery and high self-reported
stress levels regardless of whether they are directly related to training (26). Despite the fact that high cortisol has been
recorded in some athletes with UPS, very little research is available on how to lower cortisol levels besides rest periods
of several months (26). Chronic secretions of cortisol need to be addressed as they can lead to the following (26):
1. A weakening of the immune system, making the athlete more prone to bacterial and viral infections.
2. A depletion of zinc and B6, which are needed to make hydrochloric acid (HCl) in the stomach.
3. An increase of fat in the abdominal area.
4. An increase in protein breakdown, leading to a loss of muscle tone.
5. An inability to heal wounds due to a depletion of zinc.
6. Increased sleep problems.
7. An inability to focus mentally as memory is impaired.
8. An increased possibility of insulin resistance, which can lead to diabetes.
This is a broad definition, which is useful since the symptoms of the problem are not exact and usually vary between
different cases. The ‘reduced performance’ is normally defined by the athletes themselves, as they are usually constantly
monitoring their own training or competitive performances (5).
Preventing UPS calls for a careful balance of training load and recovery by having an accurate measure of recovery
may be useful to identify any problems that may be preventing the player from achieving peak performance. The
strength and conditioning coach and other coaching staff work together to manage the training load by having a system
in place to continually analyse players throughout the periodisation plan for early markers and symptoms before they
manifest.

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1. Anderson, L., Triplett-McBride, T., Foster, C., Doberstein, S., & Brice, 17. Gabbett, T. J., & Domrow, N. (2007). Relationships between training
G. (2003). Impact of training patterns on incidence of illness and load, injury, and fitness in sub-elite collision sport athletes. Journal
injury during a women's collegiate basketball season. Journal of of Sports Science, 1-13.
Strength and Conditioning Research 17(4), 734-738. 18. Impellizzeri, F. M., Rampinini, E., & Marcora, S. M. (2005).
2. Barnett, A. (2006). Using recovery modalities between training Physiological assessment of aerobic training in soccer. Journal of
sessions in elite athletes. Sports Medicine, 36(9), 781-986. Sports Sciences, 23(6), 583-592.
3. Bompa, T. O. (1989). Physiological intensity values employed to plan 19. Ivy, JL. (1991). Muscle glycogen synthesis before and after exercise.
endurance training. Track Technique, 3435-42. Sports Medicine, 11:6-19.
4. Borg, G. (1998). Borg's Perceived Exertion and Pain Scales. 20. Kelly, V. G., & Coutts, A. J. (2007). Planning and monitoring training
Illinois: Human Kinetics. loads during the competition phase in team sports. Strength and
5. Budgett, R., Newsholme, E., Lehmann, M., Sharp, C., Jones, D., Conditioning Journal, 29(4), 32-37.
Peto, T., Collins, D., Nerurkar, R., White, P. (2000). Redefining the 21. Kentta, G., & Hassmen, P. (1998). Overtraining and recovery - a
overtraining syndrome as the unexplained underperformance conceptual model. Sports Medicine, 26(1), 1-16.
syndrome. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 34(1), 67-8. 22. McGuigan, M., & Foster, C. (2004). A new approach to monitoring
6. Budgett, R., Newsholme, E., Lehmann, M., Sharp, C., Jones, D., resistance training. National Strength and Conditioning
Peto, T., Collins, D., Nerurkar, R., White, P. (2000). Redefining the Association, 26(6), 42-47.
overtraining syndrome as the unexplained underperformance 23. Meehan, H.L, Bull, S.J. and James, D.V.B. (2000) The over-training
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Characteristics of Australian Football League Players. Fourth syndrome. Paper presented at the annual conference of the British
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Canadian Journal of Sport Sciences, 17 (3), 234-40. Medicine in Sport, 8(3), 333-345

Monitoring neuromuscular fatigue in female basketball players across training and game
performance.
MONITORING NEUROMUSCULAR FATIGUE IN FEMALE BASKETBALL PLAYERS

ACROSS TRAINING AND GAME PERFORMANCE
Tania Spiteri 1,2, Sophia Nimphius 1, Adam Wolski 2, and Stephen Bird 3
1 Edith Cowan University, Perth, Australia

2 West Coast Waves Women’s National Basketball League (WNBL) team, Perth, Australia
3 Charles Sturt University, New South Wales, Australia
INTRODUCTION
Measures of neuromuscular fatigue through the assessment of countermovement jump (CMJ) performance have
become increasingly popular across team sports to investigate the recovery process of athletes following single and
repeated bouts of competition (1,2). Monitoring this activity-recovery relationship not only provides information regarding
the optimal recovery athletes (3), but can also provide an indication of the session’s volume and intensity to reduce
athlete burn out and injury risk as a result of insufficient neuromuscular control. While many investigations exist
assessing CMJ performance demonstrating the relationship between neuromuscular performance and fatigue (1,2,3),
there has yet to be an investigation into levels of neuromuscular fatigue following training sessions in female basketball
athletes, and how this may subsequently affect game performance.
METHODS
Participants
Fifteen female basketball athletes (age: 24.25 ± 2.55 yr.; height: 177.69 ± 7.25 cm; body mass: 75.56 ± 14.55 kg) playing
for the West Coast Waves Women’s National Basketball League (WNBL) were recruited for this study. All players had
a minimum of 1-year training experience in which CMJ performance was part of the regular training regime. Athletes
were free from injury at the time of testing, with informed consent and ethics approval obtained prior to testing.
Experimental Design
Subjects performed CMJ’s on a portable force plate (400 Series Performance Plate; Fitness Technology, Adelaide,
Australia) with hands positioned on a carbon fibre pole held across the top of their back, with instructions to jump as
high as possible. Three CMJ’s were performed following a 10 min standardised warm-up in the evening before and after
two training sessions and a competitive basketball match (Figure 1). Variables of interest including jump height (JH) by
velocity, flight time to contact time ratio (FT:CT) and relative power (W/Kg), were collected and calculated using the
Ballistic Measurement system (Fitness Technology, Adelaide, Australia).
Tuesday Training Thursday Training Saturday Game Tuesday 2 days CMJ Testing (averaged
Post-Game = together to form
baseline measure).
= CMJ Testing
= Training
= Game
48 hrs 48 hrs 72 hrs
Figure 1 - Testing schematic.
To compare differences between baseline, pre-game, post-game and two days post-game, a repeated measures
ANOVA (p ≤ 0.05) was performed, with an independent T-test used to determine differences in neuromuscular measures
between Tuesday and Thursday training sessions. Effect size (ES) statistics were also calculated to establish a measure
of magnitude.
RESULTS
Differences between pre and post training for Tuesday and Thursday sessions are displayed in Table 1. There was a
significant decline in FT:CT ratio from baseline to post-game (p = 0.002; ES = 0.45) and from pre-game to post-game

(p = 0.002; ES = 0.61), whilst relative power (p = 0.001; ES = 0.49) and JH (p = 0.003; ES = 0.4) significantly increased
between post-game and two days post-game (Figure 2).
Table 1. Measures of Neuromuscular Fatigue (mean ± SD) compared between two training
sessions
Tuesday Thursday
Pre Post Pre Post
Jump Height (cm) 33.01 ± 4.01 33.02 ± 4.03 34.01 ± 5.0 35.01 ± 5.0
^ *
FT:CT ratio 0.76 ± 0.13 0.83 ± 0.16 0.81 ± 0.15 0.81 ± 0.16
^
Relative Power (W/Kg) 39.32 ± 3.70 39.63 ± 4.78 47.52 ± 5.06 48.24 ± 5.22
*
Significant decline in FT:CT ratio (p = 0.02) post training Tuesday
^
Significant decline in FT:CT ratio (p = 0.001) and relative power (p = 0.001) post training Tuesday
compared to Thursday
DISCUSSION
Findings from the study indicate FT:CT appears to be a sensitive measure to monitor training intensity and detect
neuromuscular fatigue following training and game performance. FT:CT and relative power was significantly reduced
following Tuesday training session can be viewed as a higher-intensity session compared to Thursday as greater
neuromuscular fatigue was observed. As no significant differences were observed between baseline and pre-game
measures, it appears a 48 hour rest between the lower-intensity training session and game enabled sufficient
neuromuscular recovery to occur (1,4). Following game performance, a decline in FT:CT is observed, which is common
in team sports where the speed of movement execution is crucial (2). As JH remained relatively unchanged, we can
conclude athletes spent a longer on the plate, allowing more time for force application, to compensate for neuromuscular
fatigue and achieve a similar JH (2). Examining the recovery of athletes post-game, relative power and JH significantly
increased two days post-game, while FT:CT remained unchanged. While 48 hours recovery have previously been
reported to sufficiently return measures of neuromuscular fatigue back to baseline (4), the recovery strategies employed
by each individual athlete was not monitored in this study and may explain the unchanged FT:CT ratio.
15
% Change from Baseline
Jump Height
10 FT:CT
#^ *
Rel Power
5
-5
e
e
lin
am
am
am
se
-10
G
tG
tG
Ba
re
os
os
P
P
s
ay
D
o
Tw
Figure 2 - Percentage change in JH, FT:CT ratio and relative power from baseline. Significant decline in FT:CT ratio
from baseline to post-game# and from pre- to post-game^. Significant increase in JH and relative power post-game to
two days post-game*.
According to the results of this study, strength and conditioning professionals can monitor neuromuscular fatigue utilising
CMJ’s in female basketball athletes, specifically observing changes in FT:CT to monitor performance declines following
training and game sessions, and the recovery strategies of athletes.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the contributions of the players and support staff of the West Coast Waves
basketball team towards this research.

REFERENCES
1. Cormack, S. J., Newton, R. U.& McGuigan, M. R. Neuromuscular an 3. Wood, A.J., Kelly, V.G., & Gabbett, T. Neuromuscular and perceptual
endocrine responses of elite players to an Australian rules football fatigue responses to an elite level netball match. Journal of
match. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Australian Strength and Conditioning. 19:(sup 1), 120-26,2012.
Performance. 3: 359-74. 2008. 4. Ronglan, L., Raastad, T.& Børgesen, A. Neuromuscular fatigue and
2. Nimphius, S. Monitoring neuromuscular fatigue in amateur baseball recovery in elite female handball players. Scandinavian Journal of
players during a national tournament. Journal of Australian Medicine and Science in Sports. 16: 267-273. 2006.
Strength and Conditioning. 19:(sup 1), 110-14,2011.

Designing an annual training plan for a young developing squash player: A case study.
DESIGNING AN ANNUAL TRAINING PLAN FOR A YOUNG DEVELOPING SQUASH

PLAYER: A CASE STUDY
Paul Gamble PhD
ABSTRACT
In this article an annual plan is detailed for a young developing male squash player making the transition from junior
competition to the senior professional world tour and Professional Squash Association (PSA) circuit. Each of the
programme goals are discussed with reference to the relevant literature from squash and other racquet sports. This
information is also presented in the context of the demands of squash at elite level. The specific training methods
employed in order to meet these challenges and address the various programme goals outlined are described. Finally,
aspects of planning and scheduling are discussed and examples of how different training approaches are integrated
throughout the training year and within each training cycle are provided.
BACKGROUND AND INTRODUCTION
Physical preparation for squash poses a complex challenge for the strength and conditioning specialist as the sport
demands a range of quite disparate training goals. In particular the transition from junior competition to the senior
professional world tour is notoriously difficult to manage and requires a highly adaptable approach. The purpose of this
article is to explore each aspect of training for squash at elite level, and outline how to approach designing an annual
plan in a way that meets the challenges outlined. Examples are provided from work undertaken at the Scottish Squash
national performance programme under the stewardship of National Performance Director and National Coach, Roger
Flynn, widely regarded as among the leading squash coaches worldwide. The player referred to in the examples was
aged 19 years at the time of writing; he had been part of the junior performance programme since early in his
development and had trained under the supervision of the author for the preceding six years.
NEED ANALYSIS FOR THE SPORT OF SQUASH
Squash match-play at elite level is played ‘point a rally’ (i.e. the player who wins the rally wins a point, regardless of who
served). The first player to reach eleven points (or by a clear margin of two points if a score line of 10-10 occurs) wins
the game, and matches are best of five games. After playing a shot the player must clear the area in order to provide
their opponent with an unobstructed direct route to play the ball for the next shot. Squash play therefore requires the
ability to move quickly in order to not only reach the ball to play the shot, but then clear the area immediately afterwards.
Likewise the player must react to the motion of the ball and negotiate the opposing player – all within a restricted playing
area (the dimensions of a squash court are 9.75m from back wall to front wall, and the width of the court is 6.4m). As
such, squash players have a critical need for multidirectional movement abilities. The repeated acceleration,
deceleration and change of direction involved during each rally requires the player to repeatedly overcome their own
inertia, which in turn is dependent upon force-generating capacities in multiple directions of movement.
Squash therefore demands a number of movement competencies associated with performing acceleration and change
of direction movement in multiple directions from a variety of starting positions. Furthermore, executing these
movements under match conditions requires various strength qualities, as well as power expression and stretch-
shortening cycle capabilities.
Moreover, players must retain these capacities for the length of the match, and match durations in excess of an hour
are common, particularly between two closely matched opponents. The player needs to be able to move quickly and
strike the ball hard not only during the opening rally of each game, but also during the latter stages of each game in
order to win the crucial points that decide the outcome of the game and the match as a whole. Consequently, strength-
endurance and power-endurance are key attributes for an elite squash player.
Likewise competing at elite level necessitates a high degree of metabolic conditioning – for example, VO2max values of
63.6 ± 3.0 ml/min/kg were reported in a study of elite players (15). Rallies in squash at elite level are often long – a study
of the demands of squash at elite level reported that around a third of all rallies within a match exceed 20 seconds (15).
The rest between rallies is also brief, so that the effective playing time in relation to the time duration of each game is
very high, as is the ratio of work:rest.

The high metabolic demands associated with changing speed and direction repeatedly are compounded by the
additional work involved with striking the ball, the metabolic cost of which rises with increases in striking velocity (8).
This demands highly developed anaerobic and aerobic capacities, as well as movement economy for the various
locomotion movements employed on the court (15, 31).
Finally, squash demands a high degree of both mobility and stability. An illustration of this is that the player must be
able to first lunge at full stretch to reach to intercept the ball, and then be able to maintain a stable base to execute the
desired shot. This requires not only flexibility, balance and lumbopelvic stability but also ‘postural strength’ – i.e. ability
to maintain postural and structural integrity under dynamic conditions.
ASSESSMENT AND SCREENING
At the beginning of the off-season each year, a full screening of each athlete is performed to flag potential issues. This
is conducted in collaboration with the sports physiotherapist and comprises a full musculoskeletal assessment, in
addition to specific dynamic and movement-based screens selected from literature. Examples of dynamic tests
employed include the single-leg squat assessment used to evaluate lumbopelvic control and hip muscle function (6)
and the torsional stability screens described by McGill (23). These aspects are thereafter monitored on an ongoing basis
throughout the year.
High volumes of practice and competition cause muscle imbalances that are characteristic of racquet sports. For
example, the marked hypertrophy of dominant side of the gluteal and hip flexor muscles (26) and also rectus abdominis
(25) that is observed with tennis players, is similarly typically exhibited by elite squash players. Squash is also associated
with particular musculoskeletal and functional movement issues. Due to the asymmetrical nature of the sport racquet
sports players show side-to-side differences in both upper and lower limb performance (24).
To some extent such bilateral differences are a natural consequence of the nature of the sport and as such the player
is unlikely to ever achieve complete symmetry. Equally, imbalances in mobility, strength and function between limbs are
associated with injury risk (19). On that basis, remedial training to offset deficits identified remains an important part of
players’ physical preparation. The players’ injury history and ongoing issues are similarly addressed on individual basis.
As such, the assessment process to a large extent determines the player’s individual programme goals for the initial
part of the training year.
The player who is the subject of this article had been subject to this annual screening process and ongoing monitoring
throughout the preceding six seasons under my supervision. The player had no current injury issues, restrictions in
mobility, or deficits in function. Similarly he had no significant injuries in the previous two years that had restricted his
participation in training or competition.
PHYSIOLOGICAL AND PERFORMANCE TESTING
A battery of performance tests is performed at the start of the training year and periodically throughout the year. This
serves to identify individual strengths and areas requiring emphasis, guide training prescription in terms of individual
training goals, and monitor subsequent development and guide progression.
Performance assessment is entirely field based, with a number performed on the court, which favours context specificity
(12). For example, the Scottish Squash national performance programme employ a modified version of the Yo-Yo test,
running widthways across the court (6.4m), so that players perform five turns for each shuttle (total distance of 38.4m,
or 6 x 6.4m, per shuttle). In the past, an on court version of the 20m multistage shuttle (‘beep’) test has also been used,
running the length of the court and covering the distance from the back wall to the front wall, before returning to the back
wall once more in time for each ‘beep’ (covering a total distance of 19.5m, or 2 x 9.75m, per shuttle). Assessments of
power undertaken in the test battery for players in the performance programme include variations of both vertical and
(single-leg) horizontal jumps. Finally, players perform assessments of strength endurance, including a maximal push up
test performed on a medicine ball with handles, and a maximal chin up test, both performed to failure.
The player in question was the youngest in the full-time squad at the national centre; his scores on all tests compared
favourably to the other players and his overall test profile revealed no specific areas requiring remedial development.

Table 1 – Preseason test profile.
Name of Assessment Player’s Preseason Score Group Norm (mean ±SD)

Countermovement Jump 58.4 cm 53.3 ±7.3 cm
(30cm) Drop Jump 62.2 cm 53.5 ±7.2 cm
Single-leg Horizontal Jump – L 2.49 m 2.34 ±0.19 m
Single-leg Horizontal Jump – R 2.52 m 2.40 ±0.22 m
Maximum Chin Ups 13 12 ±5 reps
Maximum Push Ups on Medicine Ball with handles 34 43 ±17 reps
Modified Multi-stage Shuttle ‘Bleep’ Test Level 12, Shuttle 1 Level 12, Shuttle 2 (±1 shuttle)
METABOLIC CONDITIONING
The frequent changes in direction and velocity demanded of players during a squash match impose considerable energy
costs. Furthermore, hitting imposes an additional metabolic demand that increases when players strike the ball harder
(8). As such the average intensity at which players operate throughout a squash match are considerably higher than is
seen in other racquet sports such as tennis. Average values recorded from elite players during games are maintained
≥85% of VO2max (≥HRmax) for the duration of playing time. Work intensities approach close to maximum levels during
the culmination of each game.
Squash is therefore termed a high-intensity aerobic activity with great emphasis on the anaerobic energy systems (15).
It is critical that the player is able to retain the capacity to react and move quickly at decisive moments within a rally and
in the game. In addition to highly developed aerobic fitness, what differentiates squash players at elite level is superior
scores on measures of repeated sprint ability (31). This latter study employed a ‘squash-specific’ repeated sprint
assessment performed on the court, comprising ten maximal efforts negotiating a course marked by cones on the
course, interspersed with 20-seconds recovery.
Metabolic conditioning for players in the national performance programme comprises a blend of different methods.
Extended aerobic intervals are employed at different times, and particularly during the off-season and pre-season this
may be in the form of cross training modes, including stationary cycle, cross-trainer and rowing ergo. More brief high
intensity interval training methods are also employed, predominantly in the form of running-based conditioning and court-
based conditioning drills. These methods have been employed successfully in other racquet sports, notably tennis (9).
The use of skill-based drills on the court as a means of metabolic conditioning has similarly been described previously
with elite level badminton players (30). One important benefit that is apparent with this highly specific form of metabolic
conditioning is that it offers concurrent development of movement economy and efficiency for the various forms of
locomotion movements employed on court, including lateral and change of direction movements. Finally, repeated sprint
conditioning methods, for example in the form of stair running sprints, are also employed in particular during the build-
up to major peaks in the competition season. A variety of sprint:recovery protocols employing a pyramid set format are
prescribed in a progressive manner during the build-up. For example, 5-second (approx) all-out stair running efforts
departing every 30-seconds (work:rest approximately 1:6), employing modified pyramid sets of 4, 8, 8, 6, 6, 4 repetitions,
with 4 minutes’ recovery between sets. Once more, the efficacy of repeated sprint conditioning using a shuttle sprints
of similar duration has been reported with racquet sports (tennis) players (9).
MOVEMENT SKILLS TRAINING
As a consequence of the restricted playing area and reactive nature of the sport acceleration and first-step quickness
are key abilities, whereas maximal speed performance over longer distance is less relevant as the player will never
express their maximum speed capabilities on the court. From a tactical viewpoint, getting to trajectory of the ball early
has an added advantage as this facilitates shot selection (2). In addition to linear (forwards) acceleration and initial
speed, quickness for lateral motion is crucial for squash players. Studies in tennis have identified lateral motion
comprises 50% of players’ motion on court (24) – this figure is likely to be higher still in squash. Change of direction and
execution of angled movements that occur in squash play are also typically initiated with lateral movement (29).
The ability to recover and return rapidly is as critical as getting to the ball in the first instance: the player who occupies
the ‘T’ area is in pole position to dominate the rally. The ease with which the player is able to initiate the movement back
to the ‘T’ is dependent upon the sound deceleration mechanics and postural stability, and often a key part of this is the
mechanics of the final lunge position from which the player executes the shot. Developing sound lunge movement
mechanics is therefore a key priority from an early stage in the player’s development, which is reinforced both on court
and in the gym. The ‘ideal’ lunge posture has two main aspects:

• ‘Positive’ front foot/lower Leg angle with knee positioned behind heel of front foot, with balance through the heel
• The back leg is weight-bearing: lower leg and foot should be relaxed to allow the knee and ankle to flex; from the
knee up should be viewed as a load-bearing pillar
• Strong/Long trunk posture and strong and stable shoulder girdle posture/positioning
Figure 1 – ‘Ideal’ lunge posture schematic.
Figure 2 – ‘Ideal’ lunge posture executed on the court.
Technical and neural aspects of speed expression over the first few steps are similarly a major area of emphasis, which
can be developed through training. There are ‘ideal’ movement patterns from the ‘T’ which players rehearse under the
guidance of their squash coach that are designed to allow the player to move to each corner and side of the court in a
way that allows them to play the shot from their preferred lead leg. However under the dynamic and unpredictable
conditions players face during a match the player will inevitably also be forced to use their ‘wrong’ foot to initiate the
movement from the ‘T’ or play the shot. Likewise players may be static or in motion (in a variety of directions) when they
accelerate to intercept the trajectory of a ball. Players must therefore be practiced at executing acceleration and
developing short-distance speed from the full range of starting conditions, and the full array of possible starting
movements initiated with either leg.
In much the same way as has been described in tennis (14), players often employ preparatory ‘preload’ movement such
as a ‘split step’ to aid first step quickness from the ‘T’. Specifically, this involves an ‘un-weighting’ action whereby the
player allows their feet to leave the floor as they rapidly drop their centre of mass, which serves to preload the locomotor
muscles as the player touches down (11). These preload movements are therefore also progressively integrated into
movement skills and reactive agility drills.
Despite excellent movement mechanics and general athleticism, the player in question was not yet fully expressing his
movement abilities on the court. Therefore the continued emphasis for this player was translating the movement skills
and change of direction development into specific reactive agility on court. Specifically, whilst movement mechanics and
technical aspects of acceleration and change of direction movements were still reinforced, in each session these drills
would be progressed to employ relevant cues and reactive conditions including partner drills so that these activities
were executed in the context of what is faced on court. Similarly, observation of practices and matches was used to
provide feedback on different aspects of his movement under competitive conditions in order to assist the player in
transferring what he had been working on during these sessions into a match environment.

STRENGTH TRAINING PLAN
The player’s ability to overcome their own inertia is critical for the acceleration, deceleration and change of direction
activities that characterise their movements on court, which places large demands on the force-generating capacity of
the locomotor muscles. A variety of strength qualities are required, including isometric strength, and strength and speed-
strength during both concentric and eccentric muscle actions. Finally, strength-endurance and power-endurance are
required for all of the movements employed. During latter stages of each game and the match, the player must be able
to not only cover the court quickly but also continue to generate torque to put heat on the ball consistently.
Squash demands the ability to generate torque for a range of shots executed from various positions. Racquet sports
like squash feature kinetic chain from supporting foot to racquet hand – weakness or instability at any segment in the
chain compromises power generation. Accumulation of stresses around weak/unstable links also risks overloading
tissues at other points in the kinetic chain (7). Therefore from both performance and injury prevention perspectives, the
starting point for a squash-specific training plan is addressing deficits identified in the player’s screening and strength
training to target weak links in the kinetic chain. Thereafter exercise selection throughout the training year reflects the
need to strengthen all links in the kinetic chain.
Ultimately from a performance viewpoint the goal is to develop ‘sport-specific strength’ – i.e. ability to express their
strength qualities during execution of game-related activities or sport skills in a match context (28). Strength
development must eventuate in an improved ability to develop force and power under the constraints the player
encounters under match conditions (28). That said, in view of the strength requirements described, there is equally a
role for heavy resistance training in order to elicit the necessary foundation development of force-generating capacity
and adaptation of contractile and connective tissues (10).
Table 2a – Sample strength training program – Early preseason.
Day One Day Two Day Three

10RM 10RM 12RM
3 sets 3 sets 3 sets
Swiss Ball Suspended Row Front Squat Front Squat
Alt Arm DB Shoulder Press Narrow-grip Chins Swiss Ball Suspended Row
Bent-over Dumbbell Lateral Raise Dumbbell Step Up Dumbbell Split Squat
Alt Arm Dumbbell Front Raise Incline DB Bench Press Suspended Push Up on Rings
Dips Dumbbell Split Squat DB Single-leg Calf Raise
Dumbbell Lateral Raise Single-leg Good Morning One-arm Dumbbell Row
There is a need for squash players’ strength training to feature training modes other than traditional bilateral strength
and power training exercises in order to develop strength in other movement planes (22) and the ability to develop force
in horizontal directions as well as vertical (32). Lunge movements are the most common action during squash match
play; it follows that variations of the lunge are employed throughout the strength training programme (4). Variations of
the step up exercise also feature prominently; these exercises are reported to produce marked activation of muscles of
the hip girdle during both concentric and eccentric phases of the movement (27). Unilateral support strength training
exercises improve single-leg strength and power measures to a greater extent than bilateral strength training (21).
Single-leg strength training exercises also require frontal plane stabilisation so offer enhanced recruitment of abductors,
hip and trunk musculature (21). Such considerations are particularly important and relevant for squash.
Table 2b - Sample strength training programme – Special preparation phase (early competition season).

8RM 7RM 8RM
Cable Lateral Fly w/ Scapula Clean Pull Barbell Jump Squat
Retraction Split Stance Dumbbell Row TEMPO Hammer-grip Chins
Suspended Push Up on Rings Front Racked Barbell Lateral Step Up Front Racked Backward Lunge
TEMPO Narrow-grip Chins Push Press Barbell Step Up into Hip Flexion
Alt Arm DB Empty Can Raise Suspended Push Up on Rings Alt Arm Incline DB Bench Press
Dumbbell Pull Over Front Racked Barbell Single-leg Dumbbell Single-leg SLDL
ONE ARM Dumbbell Lateral Raise Squat
Upper body strength development similarly follows a progression from more conventional bilateral heavy resistance
training modes to alternate arm and finally single-arm variations of these exercises. Upper body unilateral strength
training exercises are shown to produce destabilising torques that must be compensated for by trunk muscles on the
opposite (contralateral) side (3). This stabilising challenge corresponds closely to what occurs during match play.

Unilateral strength training exercises also offer a means to offset the imbalances in strength between limbs that occur
in squash (5, 20) and the side-to-side differences in both upper and lower limb performance characteristically observed
in racquet sports (24). This is an important consideration from an injury risk viewpoint (19).
Table 2c - Sample strength training programme – Mid competition season.

6RM 6RM 6RM
Single-leg Cable External Rotation Power Clean Stop Clean
Single-leg Alt Arm Cable Press Single-arm Cable Row Wide-grip Chins
TEMPO Wide-grip Chins Front Racked Barbell Fwd Lunge Front Racked Backward Lunge into
Tempo CLOCK Push Up Push Press Hip Flexion
ONE ARM Dumbbell Full Can Raise Front Racked Barbell LATERAL Step Barbell BOUND Step Up
Alternating Leg Dumbbell Pull Over Up Alternate Arm Cable Fly
Mid Box Drop and Hold (L, R) Compass Balance & Reach on BOSU
Although the majority of injuries in racquet sports involve lower limb or trunk (16), shoulder complaints
(inflammation/impingement) can also be common and are often due to muscular imbalances and/or specific rotator cuff
muscle weakness (1). Development of strength and dynamic stability of the shoulder girdle is therefore a critical area
that is addressed throughout the training year. A variety of upper body strength training modes are employed to develop
these aspects including body-weight resistance, free weights, cable resistance, and suspension training exercises.
Furthermore a designated shoulder session is performed each week throughout the year, focussing on scapular
stabilisation and rotator cuff strengthening, using a combination of both isolation and complex exercises (13).
Table 2d - Sample strength training programme – Peaking phase.
Day One Day Two

6RM 5RM
3 sets 3 sets
Loaded Split Bounds Stop SPLIT Clean
Single-leg Single-arm DB Row Single-leg Single-arm Forehand Block
Dumbbell Overhead X-Lunge Standing Horizontal Jump into Bounds
Single-leg Drop Horizontal Jump Hi Box Lateral Bounds
Med Ball Ballistic Push Up Single-leg Cable Diagonal Pulley
Cable Assisted Lunge and Return DB Pivot-Lunge-and-Return ¼ ½ ¾ turn
Throughout the majority of the year the players also undertake a weekly circuits session. In the junior performance
programme the circuit sessions provide a means to develop movement competencies and technique for fundamental
strength training movements in a safe and supervised environment with minimal requirements for equipment and
facilities (the circuit sessions are performed on the squash court). For the senior players the circuit session is employed
to develop strength- and power-endurance for relevant movements, and is also used to provide some variety and
motivation in a group environment. The senior programme circuit is performed in the strength training facility and
comprises a variety of body-weight resistance, free weights and medicine ball exercises. Other activities performed in
the circuit include boxing and skipping. The senior squad circuits employ fifteen stations. A typical session would involve
3-5 sets, 30-seconds per station, with 2 minutes’ recovery between sets,
PLANNING AND SCHEDULING
One of the major challenges faced during the transition from junior ranks to the professional world tour (PSA Circuit) is
planning the competition schedule. Whilst the coach and player might identify tournaments, they must wait until the entry
is closed before finding out whether they have made it into the draw or qualifying for the particular event. In some cases
they might be named as a reserve so that they are effectively on standby if players withdraw due to injury. As such it is
very difficult to predict and plan what events the player will compete in, and this situation continues until the player has
played enough ranking events and performed well enough to increase their PSA ranking to a level that guarantees entry
to certain events.
Due to the ad hoc nature of life starting out on the PSA tour the players’ annual plan must therefore be flexible to
accommodate whatever opportunities arise during an extended competition period. Whilst there are tournaments year-
round, players in the national performance programme have a short off-season break during the period after the
European Team Championships (the key representative event in the calendar) which is held in late April, and a pre-
season preparation period following that, which spans the summer months (June to early/mid-August). This is enforced

particularly strictly with the younger players in order to prioritise their long term development. The competition period
then begins in earnest around mid-August and continues thereafter until May of the following year.
The approach to periodisation employed varies to some degree according to the phase of the year and also the area of
physical preparation concerned. For example, the pre-season period is broadly similar to the classical general
preparation phase, and the players will then move into a special preparation phase during the transition between the
preseason and the beginning of the competition period.
During the extended competition season an approach similar to block periodisation (18) is employed with the players’
court work and metabolic conditioning; the season is effectively divided into blocks of between 12- and 16-weeks. The
early part of each block is characterised by higher volume extended aerobic intervals, whereas later weeks are
characterised by progressively higher intensity interval training and repeated sprint conditioning.
Table 3 – Indicative weekly schedule (in-season).
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday

Squash (1- Strength Squash Strength Squash Circuits
hour), Session (≈75 (45mins), plus Session (≈75 (≈75 mins) (90mins,
followed by mins) conditioning mins) including
AM Strength (45mins) warm up and
(shoulder cooldown)
session)
(≈50mins)
Squash: 5 Strength: 5 Squash: 4-5 Strength: 5 Squash: 5 Circuits: 7
RPE Strength: 4 Conditioning:
7
Squash (1- Agility League match Agility Metabolic
hour), plus (30mins) (30mins) conditioning
conditioning followed by followed by (1-hour, incl
PM
(30mins) squash squash incl warm up)
(1-hour) conditioning
(≈75 mins)
Squash: 4 Agility: 2-3 Match: 4 Agility: 2-3 Conditioning:
RPE Conditioning: Squash: 3-4 Squash: 6-7 6-7
7
Essentially a form of nonlinear periodisation is employed with the strength training plan during the competition period.
The average intensity remains relatively high – i.e. at or above 80% 1-RM intensity – in order to maintain strength and
power throughout the extended season of competition (17). For the majority of the season players perform two whole-
body strength training sessions, plus an upper-body/shoulder maintenance work out and a circuit session. The main
means employed for progression is a systematic shift from heavy resistance training methods employed in the general
preparation phase to hybrid forms of conventional strength training modes with various modifications, culminating in
increasingly sport-specific training modes as the player approaches the culmination of the playing season.
In the phase prior to the most critical competitions identified in the season, such as the European Team Championships,
the intensity of metabolic conditioning is very high, comprising anaerobic interval conditioning and repeated sprint
training. As part of this circuits feature more prominently in this period, so that one of the strength training sessions is
replaced by a circuit session, and the training week comprises just two combined strength training sessions with an
emphasis on plyometrics and highly squash specific training modes, alongside two circuit sessions. The players will
then have a pre event short tapering period immediately prior to the competition.
Ultimately, the critical measure of any programme of physical preparation is the athlete’s performance in competition.
The player featured in this case study enjoyed notable competition successes at senior level during the period,
culminating in breakthrough performances at the national selection trials which saw him selected for the senior
representative team at the European Team Championships where he performed impressively and the men’s team
achieved a top four finish. Based upon these results, we can conclude the approach described in this article served to
benefit the player’s ongoing development. The information presented in this article may assist those working with racquet
sports players. In particular, suggestions have been made for planning and scheduling, and managing different aspects
of physical preparation for players making the transition from junior to senior competition.

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A guide for combining traditional conditioning with conditioning games. An athlete’s perspective.
A GUIDE FOR COMBINING TRADITIONAL CONDITIONING WITH CONDITIONING

GAMES. AN ATHLETE’S PERSPECTIVE.
Scott Geddes
ABSTRACT
The aim of this article was to examine both traditional conditioning methods and conditioning games, provide a players
perspective on each method and create a guide for using both techniques together in preparation for a Rugby League
season.
Throughout the course of the study, both conditioning methods were tested and analysed and broken up into strengths
and weaknesses to illustrate that when utilised independently they both lack essential elements in preparing a team for
a season. However when used in conjunction with each other they produce a significantly better outcome.
This article is based on a study which focused on the Rate of Perceived Exertion (RPE) scores of six conditioning games
sessions and six traditional conditioning sessions. The scores were collected at the end of each session.
The outcomes described within are quantified by data supplied by South Sydney Rabbitohs NRL squad Head
Conditioning Coach, Grant Duthie (2007-2011). Supporting this, a sample of ten professional Rugby League players
was undertaken to gain an understanding of the preferred method of conditioning from the athletes’ viewpoint.
The data collected during the RPE study clearly revealed that the implementation of traditional conditioning methods
yield higher RPE scores than conditioning games. However there was an overwhelming trend within the players polled
that they believed that skill based conditioning games prove more effective in increasing and maintaining on-field fitness
for Rugby League.
INTRODUCTION
While modern history would dictate that desired physical fitness in team sport athletes is best achieved and maintained
by implementing the use of traditional conditioning methods, this article will outline the effectiveness of the use of a
combination of both traditional conditioning methods and skill based conditioning games in preparing a Rugby League
team for an oncoming season.
Traditional training methods in Rugby League are based on three forms of training. Long slow distance (continuous),
Fartlek and Interval training. They are usually performed on the Football field and are based on linear running.
Long slow distance (continuous) (1) is continuous aerobic training performed over a long distance or time at a low to
moderate intensity. It is usually only used for athletes re-commencing training. An example of which is a 30 minute run.
Fartlek training (1) is a mixed intensity form of aerobic training usually involving a sprint - jog – sprint - jog format
depending on the sport.
Interval training (1) is a form of training combining high to maximal efforts (sprint) with resting periods in between.
Example 10 s sprint immediately followed by a 30 s rest repeated 10 times.
Conditioning Games (2, 3) refers to specific activities that simulate the movement patterns of a specific sport. They
involve catching, passing and skill under fatigue. Rules of the games are usually minimal to provide a fast free flowing
game that is performed at an extremely high intensity.
Skill based conditioning games are an “…intense game that simulates the specific
movement patterns and intermittent nature of their sport” - (Den Duyn, N. (2))
Having been a member of the South Sydney Rabbitohs NRL squad for the past 10 years I have had the luxury of gaining
an athlete’s insight into strength and conditioning techniques and processes. A consistent factor of pre-season training:
there is no substitute for hard work on the ground in the pre-season.

In my experience as a player for the Rabbitohs, the conditioning program has been comprised of a combination of long
slow distance, interval training, Fartlek training and skill based conditioning games.
However in the first game of the year as a player you quickly come to the conclusion that no training can compare to
getting out there in a real game. That’s why it is so important to try and replicate game situations and get as close to
game like intensity as possible in your training sessions.
METHOD
The study was conducted during 12 training sessions over a 3 week period of the general preparation stage in late 2010.
The effectiveness of the training method was measured using the Rate of Perceived Exertion.
Within 30 minutes of completion of a training session each athlete was asked to give a score out of 10, this is known as
the Rate of Perceived Exertion (RPE) with 1 being easiest and 10 being the hardest.
From that score we can calculate the load for that session by multiplying the score by the length of the session in minutes
(4).
Example:
RPE of 7 multiplied by 30 minute session (7x30) = load of 210
Table 1 - Rating of perceived exertion (RPE) scale.
Rating Descriptor
0 Rest
1 Very,Very Easy
2 Easy
3 Moderate
4 Somewhat Hard
5 Hard
6
7 Very Hard
8
9
10 Maximal
This study involved the use of two forms of traditional training; Fartlek and Interval training. The sessions below were
performed three times each and provided an average Rate of Perceived Exertion of 8.8 with a total load of 263.6
TRADITIONAL CONDITIONING
Session 1: Fartlek
Grids session
The following 30 minute (including warm up and transitions) Fartlek session rated an average RPE of 8.8 with a total
load of 263.6.
The drill is based on a rectangular grid. There are 4 different grid dimensions depending on fitness levels. (Grid A being
the easiest and D being the Hardest.)
Grid:
A: 69m x 29m
B: 75m x 36m
C: 80m x 39m
D: 84m x 41m

The Athlete has 15 s to sprint the longest length of the rectangle then has 15 s to jog the short length of the grid, this
cycle repeats for a 4 minute set.
There is a 2 minute rest period between sets. Four sets are completed in total.
The Athlete must stay on the hardest grid until they can no longer complete the grid in the allocated timeframe
of 15 s.
Starting points: The squad can be broken up into 4 different groups that start on different corners of the rectangle
according to fitness levels. This setup allows the coach to control the session from the middle of the grid.
TRADITIONAL CONDITIONING
Session 2: Interval
The following 30 minute session is based on the concept of traditional interval training and requires participants to
complete consecutive sets of sprints within allotted time frames (see Table 2).
Table 2 - Interval training session. This session involves an RPE score of 7.9 with a load of 237.7
Exercise Frequency Time (Forwards) Time (Backs)

10 x 100m sprints Every 60 s Under 18 s Under 16 s
REST 60 s 60 s
20 x 40m sprints Every 20 s
REST 90 s 90 s
10 x 5/10/15/20m Shuttles 30 s 30 s 30s
TOTAL = 2800m
SKILL BASED CONDITIONING GAME 1 – Off-side Touch.
Offside touch is a game of Touch football where the team with the ball has only one or two tackles to score a try. There
is no offside rule like in traditional touch football.
The game usually has between five and eight players per team. A squad of 25 players is broken up into four teams with
two games going at the same time. The field size is smaller than regulation size and is dictated by the number of players
on the field. (e.g. 30 m x 40 m is sufficient when working with 6 players each side).
Time: The games are short to insure intensity remains high. Usually 2 x 4 minute halves with one minute rest between
halves. Upon completion of the first game two teams swap over and start a new game with a team they have not yet
played.
Rules of the game:
• The first pass must go backward; the following passes can go in any direction.
• If a player is touched by a defender they must turn the ball over to the other team.
• If the ball goes down it must be turned over to the other team
• The direction of play is determined by the longest distance to the try line when the attacking team gets the ball.
• After a team scores a try, play resumes from the in-goal zone.(similar to the way play resumes in Basketball
when the ball goes out over the base line)
Variations:
Man on man: each player is allocated a player from the opposing team and only they are allowed to touch them
Zones: The field is divided up into 3 equal zones. All of the attacking team members must be in the closest zone for a
try to be allowed. This increases work load for all participants.
The above session’s average RPE was 8.3 with a load of 250. The session time is a total of 30 minutes.
SKILL BASED CONDITIONING GAME 2 - Drop out touch
Defending team drop-kicks the ball out from their in-goal line. The attacking team then has 20 tackles to score as many
points as possible. Every time the attacking team scores the defending team drop kicks out again.
After all tackles are completed the teams swap over.

Defending team has less players then the attacking team. Example 8 players for the attacking team.5 for the defending
team (Defending players can substitute in after a try is scored)
Variation:
Instead of limiting the number of tackles the attacking team have, limit the amount of time they have in which to score
tries.
Other examples of conditioning games
Speed Touch
A game of two-handed touch football. Every time an attacking player gets touched with two hands the defending player
must drop face down to the ground. This allows the attacking team to get over the advantage line and puts the defending
team on the back foot.
Drop off touch

A game of traditional touch football allowing the attacking team six touches in which to score. After each touch one
player from the defending team must drop off (exit the playing space) for the rest of that set of six. After that set of six
is completed all players return to the playing field.
Variation
After a touch is affected the defender must run to a given point before returning to the game. (e.g. corner post or goal
post).
Transition game
This game is played on a full size football field. The attacking team has two tackles (usually two handed grab) to score
or kick the ball down field to gain a better field position. Points are awarded for trapping the opposing team in their in
goal area or through scoring a try. This game focuses on transitioning between attack and defense and is played at an
extremely high intensity. Two lots of four minute halves with a 60 s half time break will ensure that the intensity stays
high
RESULTS
RPE results and players poll
The data collected during this study (Table 3) reveal that traditional conditioning methods - whether Interval or Fartlek -
still score higher in the RPE scale than conditioning games.
Session 2 RPE of 8.8 x30minutes = Load of 263.6 units
In contrast to higher RPE scores for traditional conditioning methods, 9 out of 10 players polled (Table 4) believed that
skill based conditioning games prove more effective in increasing and maintaining on-field fitness for Rugby League.
Table 3 - RPE scores for traditional and games conditioning sessions.
TRADITIONAL CONDITIONING CONDITIONING GAMES

SESSION TIME (min) RPE LOAD SESSION TIME (min) RPE LOAD
1 – wk 1 30.0 8.8 263.6 1 – wk 1 30.0 8.3 249.5
2 – wk 1 30.0 7.9 237.7 2 – wk 1 30.0 8.3 250.0
1 – wk 2 30.0 7.5 225.9 VS 1 – wk 2 30.0 7.4 222.4
2 - wk 2 30.0 8.6 256.5 2 - wk 2 30.0 6.5 193.8
1 – wk 3 30.0 7.8 232.5 1 – wk 3 30.0 7.0 210.0
2 – wk 3 30.0 8.4 253.1 2 – wk 3 30.0 9.0 270.0
Average 30.0 8.2 244.9 Average 30.0 7.8 232.6

Table 4 - Questionnaire results from 10 Rugby League players.
PLAYER POLL
QUESTION ANSWER
Traditional conditioning Conditioning games
Which is Harder? 8 2
Which is better for Rugby League fitness? 1 9
Which is more enjoyable? 1 9
Advantages of traditional approach
The advantages of traditional conditioning sessions over conditioning games include easy workload monitoring, easy
application of training principles, building “mental toughness” and ability to control the session.
• Workload is easier to monitor through working out distance covered in the session and work to rest ratios.
• The progressive overload principle is easy to apply and sessions can be broken down to train specific energy
systems.
Disadvantages of traditional conditioning:
• Lack of specificity, monotony and lack of enthusiasm.

• None linear movement patterns are hard to mimic in training a team of players using traditional conditioning
methods. Comments from numerous players were that they would get “head noise” before traditional
conditioning sessions.
Advantages of skill based conditioning games:
• Specificity must be taken into account when preparing a training program. Conditioning games mimic the
movement patterns of Rugby League.
• Skill under fatigue is high in conditioning games. The catching, passing and concentration levels are tested
whilst under stress.
• Fun factor is high and competitive situations are created, and team members tend to naturally push each other
to a higher level. Nine out of 10 players said they enjoyed game based drills as opposed to traditional
conditioning methods.
• The fun factor also reduces monotony and increases enthusiasm.
Disadvantages of skill based conditioning games:
• A lazy player can often hide or “go under the radar” in this situation, and not push them self to a higher intensity.
However, advancements in technologies such as GPS and heart rate monitors are making it far easier to monitor
workload and intensity during conditioning games.
• If two or more games are going at the same time you need a second coach to referee one game.
PRACTICAL APPLICATION
Combining Traditional conditioning and conditioning games
There are many ways to combine traditional conditioning with conditioning games.
Method 1 combines both forms into one single session and have this session completed twice per week whilst applying
progressive overload principle.
Table 5 - Combined suggested training session.
Component Time
Warm up 10
Team Skills 20
Grids* (Traditional conditioning) 3 x 4 mins
Team Skills 20
Offside touch (Conditioning games) 4 x 4 min games
Stretch 10 mins
Total session time 100 minutes

* The exact content of the grids drill has been outlined previously in this article.
I would recommend this session be performed in the pre-season cycle of training as the grids are a form of Fartlek
training and are of a very heavy workload with an average RPE of 8.2 as shown in Table 1.
Challenges strength and conditioning coaches may find with this approach, is that they may have limited time with the
players, i.e. 20 minutes at the end of training after the skill component is completed.
Method 2 incorporates traditional conditioning drills and conditioning games into one single block. This would be
effective if you are only allocated 20 minutes of conditioning at the end of training.
Table 6 - Suggested training session
Exercise Time
Shuttles 5 minutes
Off-side touch 5minutes
Shuttles 5 minutes
Off-side touch 5 minutes
Table 7: Suggested training session
Shuttles
Distance Goal time Recovery Repeats
10, 20, 30 meters Under 30 s 30 5
Method 3 is to perform traditional conditioning sessions and conditioning games sessions on separate training days
Table 7 - Suggested weekly training program
Day Session
Monday Skills/Speed
Tuesday Skills/Traditional Conditioning
Wednesday Active Recovery
Thursday Speed/Skills
Friday Skills/Conditioning Games
Saturday Wrestling
Sunday Rest
CONCLUSION
Traditional conditioning drills allow us to target specific energy systems, control workload and apply progressive overload
principles. Conditioning games provide a competitive game like environment mimicking the movement patterns of a
Rugby League game. They force players to practice skill and decision making under fatigue and will generally add to
the enjoyment of training sessions and help keep enthusiasm and moral high.
Based on both the data and opinions collected, coupled with personal insight as a professional athlete, I believe that a
combination of Conditioning Games and Traditional conditioning should be used to prepare players for a Rugby League
season. This is due to what seems a natural combination of the players’ feelings (Table 4) and the solid statistics or
RPE scores (Table 3). Independently both forms of training lack key components but together they cover most of the
essential aspects.
Success of a team must be driven by the players themselves, but as strength and conditioning coaches we can provide
the solid foundations for a season through a challenging and enjoyable program and try to cover all physical components
necessary whilst making training as enjoyable as possible. This will go a long way to providing success on the football
field.
REFERENCES
1. ASCA. Level 2 Strength and Conditioning Resource Manual, Part 2, 3. Gabbett, T.J.Training injuries in rugby league: an evaluation of skill-
Unit 6, Energy System Condoning. 2011. pp 165. based conditioning games. Journal of Strength and Conditioning
2. Den Duyn, N. Game sense: developing thinking players. Belconnen, Research16 (2): 236-241, 2002.
ACT: Australian Sports Commission. 1997. 4. Coutts, A. Monitoring training in team sports. Sports Coach 24(3)
2001. pp 21-33

Review of the literature – Methods of external and internal training load monitoring in elite
tennis environments.
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE – METHODS OF EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL TRAINING

LOAD MONITORING IN ELITE TENNIS ENVIRONMENTS
Alistair P Murphy1, 2
1Tennis Australia
2School of Human Movement Studies
ABSTRACT
This review addresses the methods of both external and internal workload monitoring in elite level tennis environments
with discussion of long term athlete development. Limited studies have provided specific examples of workload
monitoring strategies for contemporary tennis populations, whilst many studies in other sporting populations have
developed monitoring initiatives which tennis has the potential to adopt. Monitoring of both training and competition
loads have been identified as vital performance tracking indicators in modern day, elite tennis environments. Therefore,
appropriate workload monitoring techniques play an important role in elite level athlete development. Tennis is a sport
involving both a fine skill component as well as vast physical requirements. Consequently, elite level sporting
organisations such as tennis demand strict, but individualised, program periodisation to ensure that tactical and technical
components along with athlete physicality, are developed in unison. However, research evidence on the implementation
of workload monitoring in tennis is limited and it is unclear to what extent workload monitoring application can influence
athlete skill and physical progression. As such, this review highlights the appropriateness of heart rate (HR) and rate of
perceived exertion (RPE) measures for monitoring internal training load (TL), as well as the future potential of external
load monitoring through global positioning system (GPS) and motion tracking analysis.
Keywords - Perceived exertion, training monitoring, long term athlete development.
INTRODUCTION
In recent times, coaches and athletes are paying increased awareness to training load (TL) monitoring in relation to both
physical and technical development, but also risk of functional impairment due to excessive fatigue (60). Anecdotally,
tennis coaches attempt to structure appropriate periodised training plans for individual athletes. Indeed, it has been
reported that both an underestimation and overestimation of an athlete’s ability to train, perform and recover can have
dire consequences for player development (43; 60; 66). Recently, training volume has been subject to heightened
attention within the tennis community regarding periodisation structures and accumulated training load (43). That is,
whilst competitive match-play is considered essential in the development of elite athletes, the increased tournament
demand, combined with the young starting age, increased professional age and injury risks, highlights the importance
of establishing, periodising and monitoring these early career pathways (21). Consequently, increased focus has been
placed on establishing suitable TL, with coaches attempting to gain the best training outcomes from their athletes while
ensuring regular competition success (39). Contemporary coaches of today face ever increasing logistical challenges
as the competition schedule and standard has developed over time (38, 56). Annual scheduling of tennis tournaments
has experienced a vast growth in the amount of domestic and international competition, now resembling an almost year-
round calendar (56). Inevitably, this rise in athlete demands further impacts on the need to gain, and then protect ranking
points in order to achieve entry to more prestigious and remunerative tournaments (25; 56).
A significant theme that coaches of all sports, particularly tennis, face is that each athlete responds differently to each
mode, volume and intensity of load (14; 27). Accordingly, a prescribed load for one athlete may produce a dissimilar
load and physiological response to another. At present, coaches and athletes may rely predominantly on intuition, ‘gut-
feel’ and past player periodisation techniques in order to prescribe and monitor optimal TL in amongst competition
demands. Ideally, TL monitoring involves systematic methods of measuring individual and/or overall elements of athlete
responses to a training stimulus (10). Training monitoring systems are commonly used by coaches, support staff and
athletes to assess the effectiveness of the training process and periodise future training with appropriate TL (12). In
order for optimal performance to occur, coaches adjust and implement a balance of catabolic and anabolic constraints
of TL, in addition to factors including tournament demands, in-season and off-season scheduling, and travel
arrangements (13; 40; 58). Team sports manage to balance TL through the prescription of a training dose arranged
based on some logistically appropriate training monitoring methods (14). These methods include both internal and
external measures of load, some of which are of more use in tennis than others (12; 19). However, to establish optimal
TL in a previously un-investigated environment such as tennis, it is important to not only monitor the process of training
and recovery, but further, determine what constitutes optimal training versus sub-optimal under or overtraining in both
technical and physical capacities (65).

Current understandings of tennis loads and athlete responses draw-on the ever increasing amount of training monitoring
data from other sporting populations (12; 19), whilst diminutive analysis exists on athlete responses in a tennis specific
environment. A monitoring system should be easy to use, ensuring practical specificity to the training environment,
incorporating not only external measures through ever-advancing technology, but internal perceptual responses from
the athlete themselves (12; 27). The aim of the current review of literature is to provide discussion of the training
monitoring systems in place across elite tennis environments, whilst providing justification for the use of TL monitoring
methods used in other sports which can appropriately be employed in tennis. A further aim is to develop a series of
practical recommendations for tennis coaches to apply in the field. Future suggestions to make the training monitoring
process more effective could have implications for coaches, organisations and athletes with a mindset of long-term
athlete development.
METHODS
PubMed and Cochrane Library databases were searched as well as individual Journals including; Journal of Strength
and Conditioning Research, Sports Medicine, and European Journal of Applied Physiology. Papers were chosen for
inclusion based on relevance to tennis, as well as current understanding of both internal and external training monitoring
within high performance sport. Studies were further chosen where both methods of training monitoring and current sport
specific TL validity have been established. Specific inclusion criteria included (1) TL monitoring in tennis, (2) physical
demands of tennis, (3) TL monitoring in elite sport, (4) internal load, and (5) external load.
DISCUSSION
Training Load Monitoring

Strategies for TL monitoring in any sporting environment are best implemented as a system that can be employed easily,
ensuring logistical practicality specific to the training environment. Further, TL monitoring systems should include
specific tools such as periodised training programs (58; 60), training logs (38), objective measures of load (41; 63; 69),
as well as subjective self-rating protocols (14; 27). Training load monitoring, when used accurately, can enable a coach
to assess the degree of success of a training stimulus and if intended outcomes have occurred (14; 27; 34; 68). Objective
measures such as distance and velocity are typically referred to as external load, as opposed to RPE and HR which are
known as internal measures (12). However, whilst an external load may be identical for a group of athletes, the
perceptual and physiological responses to a specific external load may vary significantly from athlete to athlete (34).
Hence, internal load monitoring becomes vital to determine an athlete’s response to such external loads (34). The
following section will establish the different methods commonly used for each load measure and the benefits each may
have on the analysis of training loads as related to tennis environments.
External Load
External TL is defined as the work performed by athletes in both training and competition independent of internal
responses to a stimulus (68). External load is commonly associated with measures of movement (12). These variables
in external load are often measured and programmed in training using distance, time and speed (34). Classically, sports
and conditioning coaches have prescribed training programs using a measure of external TL (68). Within elite sport,
external load is commonly used interchangeably with the description of the training process (e.g., 6 x 400 m running at
4 min·km-1) (34). In terms of periodisation using training load, external load assessments are the most commonly used
in sporting environments for both prescription and recording purposes, as generally these are the easiest to implement
(34). When used accurately, measures of external TL can enable a coach to assess the degree of success of a training
stimulus and if intended outcomes have occurred (14; 27; 34; 68). Collectively, an athlete’s response caused by both
positive training stimuli and appropriate periodisation leads to an increased level of sports performance (67). Research
analysis of external load has been used to provide an overview of performance through notation of certain events (i.e.
shot count and errors), and time spent involved in certain movements (i.e. walking, jogging, sprinting and work-to-rest
ratio) (see table 1) (6; 44). Specifically in tennis, literature has previously reported external workloads of tournament
match-play, suggesting for example load (stroke per rally) of match-play on a clay surface differs from hard court
surfaces (24; 26; 36). Previous literature investigating performance demands of tennis players has unfortunately focused
solely on the external demands associated with match and tournament play, or discrete studies, with limited training
demand data reported (36; 48; 57). As mentioned previously, traditional methods of external TL measurement involve
measurements of movement through way of distance and speed. With advances in technology, there have been recent
advances in measurement of external load, including time motion and notational analysis, motion tracking software
programs, and global positioning systems (GPS) (6; 19; 23). As such, this review of literature will discuss the impact
that each of these advances has played in training monitoring in sport, discussing both limitations and possibilities of
use in tennis.
A common measure of external load, or more specifically of distance and velocity of movement in many sports is
provided by global positioning systems (GPS). These compact devices are used in many intermittent-sprint sports to
measure athlete movement patterns, particularly velocity and distance (19). However, while popular in a range of sports
such as AFL, cricket and hockey (20; 35; 45; 54), where longer distance movements are commonplace, GPS technology
has not been shown to be suitable in tennis. Specifically, GPS are cited as having low validity for external load in shorter,
high intensity intermittent running bouts, typical of tennis. This is due primarily to the reduced sensitivity of the technology

(19; 35; 54). Coutts & Duffield (11) have previously validated the use of GPS in team sport environments for
measurements of total distance and peak speeds. Further, analyses of distance and peak speeds through GPS have
since translated to sports including, rugby union (15), and hockey (45). The use of GPS has been reported to have
acceptable inter-unit reliability and accuracy for distance measures in hockey and cricket, however, as movement
velocity increases accuracy is reported to decline (45; 55). Previous research has also established that the error estimate
of GPS devices can range from 2 - 25%, again decreasing in reliability with increased movement velocity (11; 45; 55).
The issue arises in tennis however, whereby common movements like ‘shuttle’ running across the baseline, the
frequency of the signals to and from the satellite are not sensitive or fast enough to detect the subtlety of many
movements, resulting in an underestimation of movement distance and speed (19). Duffield et al. (19) attempted to
validate both 1 and 5Hz GPS devices compared to 100 Hz ‘gold standard’ VICON motion analysis system during court-
based movement drills. Accordingly, it was reported that for court-based movements, mimicking those of tennis, GPS
devices fail to capture accurate high velocity and/or frequent changes in direction data, resulting in under-representation
of mean and peak velocity measures (19). Due to the issues in reliability and athlete discomfort, focus for measures of
external load have relied upon non-invasive methods such as filming and coding of footage (23; 63).
Motion and notational analysis is the cinematographic analysis of fine and discrete movements specific to each individual
sporting interest (6). Notational analysis in sport can range from rudimentary methods of hand notation or dictated note
taking, to sophisticated video analysis (49). Further, notational analysis is used by coaches as a convenient, practical
and inexpensive method of gaining insight into the technical and movement demands of sports activities (3). By
recording and quantifying movement patterns, coaches are then able to characterise and relate measures to relative
success (3). In recent times, notational analysis has become a common trend in many sporting environments; including
soccer, netball, rugby union, and rugby league (2; 8; 18). Notational analysis is often used in a sport specific sense, for
example soccer measures patterns of exercise (walking, jogging, sprinting) (2), whilst sports such as AFL monitor
outcomes and opportunities (marking opportunities, ruck contests, kick in’s) (1). Analysis of measures such as these
enable coaches to understand technical performances and/or refine training methods to better replicate common match
occurrences. Notational analysis becomes useful in ecologically valid tennis environments through the planning of
session load preparation, whilst in literature; an example of notational analysis in tennis includes the investigation of
surface types (26). For instance, Fernandez-Fernandez et al. (26) utilised notational analysis to report external load
(stroke per rally) of match-play on a clay surface for elite female players, reporting 57.7% of rallies requiring between 1
and 3 strokes to be completed. Further, Hughes and Clarke (33) conducted research into the effect of court surface
from a strategic view using notational analysis. Players’ court position, activity to rest ratio, and count of certain tennis
specific events were recorded using a graphical user-interface post session, providing positional information as well as
frequency distribution of tennis shots (33). As such, this information is valuable in tennis, to compare external loads of
technical proficiency in tennis specific situations (3). However, the validity and reliability of notational analysis can vary
as a result of the number of observers used, their experience, and quality of viewing perspective. Notational analysis
further faces challenges due to the difficulty in establishing external load for movement demands (i.e. speed or distance
measures), along with the time consuming demands of the coding process itself, this provides rationale as for why
notational analysis has to date not been applied to research investigating chronic training load.
Table 1 – External load - Notational match analysis for tennis.
Fernandez- Mendez et al. Smekal (62) Murias (50) Fernandez-

Fernandez et al. (26) (48) Fernandez et al. (24)
Strokes 2.5 ± 1.6 per rally 2.7 ± 2.2 per rally 42.6 ± 9.6 min-1 - 2.79 ±1.7 per rally
Work to 1 : 2.1 1 : 0.5 - 1 : 2.9 (clay) 21.95% effective

rest 1: 3.7 (hard) playing time
Naturally with the development of technology, new measures of external load and tactical patterns are regularly being
upgraded or developed. Unlike notational analysis, new automated motion tracking systems do not require human
operation. The principles behind vision-based tracking systems involve detection of moving targets in captured images
(3). Once images have been identified, the system creates and labels shapes from the target to subsequently track
movement and predict future locations (51). Multiple sports, such as soccer, baseball, and the event of javelin currently
use motion tracking for coaching purposes regarding trajectory motion analysis (23; 32). In javelin, motion technology
has been reported to provide feedback of optimal throwing release angle and run up speed, which has proven a valuable
tool due to the speed of data turnover (32). There are however several current limitations to current automatic tracking
systems. At present, there are issues with the tracking of multiple players, as well as system breakdown due to player
occlusion, and tracker confusion from player collisions (3). It was suggested by Barros et al. (4) that problems associated
with issues such as occlusion could be overcome by increasing the number of cameras along with camera height.
Recently, focus in tennis has turned to the development of motion tracking analysis in order to quantify movement
distances along with the tally of shots and errors (23; 63). However in tennis, whilst motion-tracking systems seem to
be the most appropriate and viable option in measuring external TL, such technology has yet to be validated as a training
monitoring tool (23; 63).

In summary, the current technology utilised in tennis to measure external load is particularly novel and as yet,
underutilised. With time, technology may allow for developments in monitoring external load, however at present, the
TL measures in tennis primarily used are time motion and notational analysis (36; 48; 57). Unfortunately, due to the time
consuming, cumbersome nature of these methods, literature has to date avoided its use in longitudinal training
monitoring based investigation into the external load of tennis athletes. Further, in a practical sense, while these methods
can prove valuable and are currently used for match analysis; coaches find that the value of such measures decreases
due to the extended turn-around of information in a training environment. Developments in motion recognition software
and GPS could in time provide further information regarding the external load of tennis athletes, particularly in training,
if the sensitivity of it can be dramatically improved to provide instantaneous feedback (19; 23).
Internal Load
Internal load refers to how an athlete individually responds to the external load demands of a session. Specifically,
internal load refers more to the intensity of a prescribed exercise (7). Internal training load assessments often include
measurements of rate of perceived exertion (RPE), and heart rate (HR) (5; 42; 59) (see table 2). Similar to external load,
internal load measures have become vital instruments in session prescription and periodisation (14). However, the
stimulus for training induced adaptation is the relative physiological stress imposed on an individual (internal TL) and
not the external TL (67). Therefore, to monitor and control the training process, it is important to have a valid measure
of internal TL (28). This is particularly relevant in team sports where the planned external load is often similar for each
team member because of the extensive use of group-based exercises (14).
Perceived exertion is defined as the act of interpreting or detecting sensations which arise from the body during physical
exercise (52). Borg (7) described perception of physical effort as a complex psychobiological construct. Such research
helped establish the category-ratio (CR-10) rating scale, most commonly used today in sports, including tennis (12).
RPE is an important element of training session monitoring. Furthermore, RPE is a valuable tool used to identify athletes
who are not coping with training demands, as well as monitor TL of athletes during rehabilitation from injury (12; 27; 53).
Within the literature, Coutts et al. (12) have advocated the use of session-RPE in an investigatory study which analysed
TL data collected during the 2008 Roland Garros Tournament. Coutts et al. (12) concluded that session-RPE is well
suited to the sport of tennis due to its low cost, ease of implementation and data extrapolation. Further, many other
investigations have utilised session-RPE in tennis. These studies include research focused on changes in physiological
functioning in prolonged matches (29), performance and recovery interventions (31), responses to tournament play (48),
and physiological and performance characteristics of tennis drills (57). Moreover, advantages outlined by Kentta and
Hassmen (37) that can be applied to tennis include its high reliability. Furthermore, Kentta and Hassmen (37) have
suggested that the requirement of athletes to focus on psychophysiological cues in order to rate the perceived effort,
can facilitate greater learning. However, despite the wealth of literature citing and advocating the use of session-RPE in
tennis tournaments, there is an apparent scarcity of data available which has investigated the use of RPE firstly obtained
in a longitudinal manner, and secondly utilised as a mode of training monitoring. When compared to literature searches
amongst other sporting environments, several recent studies have validated the use of session-RPE for monitoring TL
in endurance sports (68), individual sports (12), team sports (34), and resistance training (64).
Despite a lack of longitudinal use of RPE within tennis literature, Coutts et al. (12) have suggested that when using the
session-RPE measure in tennis, a coach will gain a precise understanding of an athlete’s tolerance to training stimuli
and as such, will enable coaches to titrate future loads that best suit individual athletes. In research and ecological valid
environments, it becomes vital to establish that an individual can reliably produce a given RPE for a given intensity,
before relying solely on RPE as an intensity regulator. In this regard, all sporting coaches, including tennis, should
recognise that whilst RPE has distinct advantages over measures such as HR (discomfort, reduced range of motion), it
is recommended that both measures be used in conjunction during the initial phase of training (52). Further, Foster et
al. (27) have emphasised the importance of avoiding RPE collection immediately following a session as an athlete must
understand that the value asked for, is for the entire session, not the most recent component. As such, Coutts et al. (12)
demonstrated a measure of RPE 30 min post tennis session is of most appropriateness.
HR analysis has been, and in many cases still is, one of the most important methods of training monitoring in sporting
environments (61). HR monitoring is commonly used to assist in prescription of training programs to achieve an
appropriate stimulus (9). In soccer for example, coaches monitor the HR during an athlete’s response to certain physical
stimulus in a set load, to better understand the player’s current training status (9; 34). In team sports, longitudinal HR
monitoring has previously been reported to assist coaching staff maintain a balance between overreaching and
physiological compensation (10; 30). As a result, this helps to reduce the chance of injury and overtraining in team sport
athletes (10; 30). Regarding literature of HR analysis in sporting environments, there is an abundance of investigations
that have utilised HR across many sports for TL analysis and prescription (22; 44; 46; 62; 68). Specifically, team sports
such as soccer, hockey and rowing have used HR monitoring to determine such effects as validity of HR use for aerobic
conditioning prescription compared to oxygen uptake (22), validity of HR in relation to RPE and swimming session loads
(68), analysis of stress response and activity profiling in hockey athletes (44), and performance outcomes and external
load requirements of rowing (46).
In tennis, a range of literature exists that reports the use of HR as in determining responses to tennis play (16; 17; 26;
31; 53; 57; 62). These examples of literature that incorporate HR analysis include match-play physiological requirements

and impact of fatigue, environmental impact on physiology (court surface), and performance enhancement
investigations (caffeine, carbohydrate, and cooling). Information on HR responses can provide important feedback to
coaches regarding the physiological requirements of tennis match-play, allowing more appropriate preparation of
training to either improve physical tolerance or simulate match-play demands by adjusting TL volume and intensity (12).
Particular tennis investigations which have utilised HR monitoring include the investigation of HR responses between
court surfaces (24; 47; 50; 57). Although there are somewhat conflicting conclusions between such discrete
investigations, in an ecologically valid environment coaches can prepare sessions with this data guiding the ensuing
prescription of the session. However, a limitation of this method is that often measurements of HR can be difficult to
collect in tennis, with HR monitors censured by players due to perception of restricted or uncomfortable movement (34).
Finally, the apparent dearth of literature investigating the longitudinal changes in HR through training programs results
in a significant gap in the understanding that coaches have on the physiological progression and adaptation throughout
a tennis season as well as year on year athlete development.
Table 2 – Internal load for tennis.
Author Coutts et al. (12) Girard et al. (29) Mendez-Villanueva Novas et al. (53)
et al. (48)
Session Type Singles Matches Match-play Singles Matches Singles Matches
RPE (scale) 6.3 ± 0.96 (1-10) 14.5 ± 0.5 (6-20) 13 ± 2 (6-20) 4 ± 1 (1-10)
Author Davey et al. (16) Hornery et al. (31) Novas et al. (53) Reid et al. (57)
Session Type Tennis Drills Singles Matches Singles Matches Tennis Drills
HR (beats·min-1) 190 ± 2 152 ± 15 (hard) 146 ± 20 171 ± 16

146 ± 19 (clay)
Elite tennis athletes and coaches face mounting issues with time management, competition scheduling and periodisation
of training. Circuit scheduling of tennis is affected by the vast increase in number of competitions both domestically and
worldwide. Yet despite the current amount of research literature published on training monitoring in many sports, the
required load regulation and ensuing effects in tennis remain equivocal. Previous literature regarding training monitoring
in a range of other sports has to date strengthened the necessity of training monitoring in tennis. Due to the limited
information on the training loads of tennis athletes, session prescription from coaches is often opportunistic and
logistically driven. At present, no literature has successfully investigated tennis TL in a longitudinal manner. Such data
should be collected in order to advise coaches of the actual loads both acutely and chronically of tennis sessions. Once
session TL has been analysed data can be used in providing feedback on training periodisation to guide program
prescription. Furthermore, little information is available for coaches regarding the actual load of common drills in relation
to matches, or the change in load with court surface, detraining effect of prolonged tournament scheduling or long-term
association between load, injury and performance.
Current research suggests that sporting environments, including tennis, will soon have access to faster and more
accurate measures with the inevitable advances in technology, such as GPS sample frequency, and motion tracking
technology. At the same time, regarding internal load measures, logistics of training environments involving extensive
travel and a range of training environments dictate that RPE and HR are the most useful and validated tools. Tennis
coaches can utilise measures of internal load through logging the responses athletes have to prescribed sessions. By
logging athlete session volume and an internal measure (HR or RPE) this allows coaches to track intensity of sessions
over time, facilitating greater control and periodisation. For an example see table 3 and 4. Furthermore, by logging such
data, this allows coaches to compare TL between such variables as gender, age and court surface. This enables
coaches to understand individual athlete responses to training and competition. Finally, despite the acknowledgement
of the need for training monitoring strategies in tennis, combined with the effects of tournaments (physiologically and
psychologically), there appear only vague, generic guidelines in tennis to understand the training progression of elite
athletes. As such, a greater understanding of the load placed on athletes during training and tournaments could lead to
the development of improved and more appropriate training schedules.

Table 3 – Tennis squad session load template (sample data).
Athlete Session Court Volume RPE Training Mean Peak Session Notes
Type Surface Load HR HR
A Tennis Hard 120 5 600 140 170 Forehand focus, felt energetic
Skills
B Tennis Hard 120 7 840 150 180 Forehand focus, felt tired
Skills
C Tennis Hard 120 8 960 155 185 Wide forehand focus, tough
Skills session
Table 4 – Individual tennis athlete drill load template (sample data).
Date Session Type Court Volume RPE Training Mean Peak Session Notes
Surface (Mins) (1-10) Load HR HR
28/6/12 Tennis Skills Hard 120 6 720 150 180 Group session,
forehand focus
28/6/12 Conditioning S&C 60 7 420 165 185 Intervals, speed
focus
29/6/12 Tennis Match- Clay 90 5 450 145 175 Best of 3 sets
play
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Module 3 - Resource Manual & Participants Notes

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MODULE 3 - RESOURCE MANUAL & PARTICIPANTS NOTES

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Additional Reading Module 3

The Official Magazine of the Strength and Conditioning Association

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

The Official Magazine of the Strength and Conditioning Association

The Traditional Approach to Teaching Strength Training Exercises

Does this model of teaching sound familiar?

Tell the student how to do the exercise via a demonstration.

Visual - showing the student/s how to do it.

a) They have developed more effective methods.

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

In summary, the traditional approach to teach strength training exercise is:

LIMITATIONS OF THE TRADITIONAL APPROACH

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

8. It fails to emphasis tone of voice as a teaching tool.

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

The Official Magazine of the Strength and Conditioning Association

IDENTIFYING DOMINANT LEARNING MODALITIES

There are a number of ways determining this, and they include:

1. Overall response – focused and switched off or frustrated

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

STRATEGIES FOR IMPROVED TEACHING

The following is a generalisation that may apply to the majority of people:

8. Exploit voice tone.

9. Use touch in your teaching

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

10. Brief and de-brief.

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

The Official Magazine of the Strength and Conditioning Association

1. PRIOR TO THE FIRST TRAINING SESSION

2. ON EACH TRAINING DAY, PRIOR TO THE COMMENCE¬MENT OF THE SESSION

2.3 Ascertain the athletes’ physical response to any prior session:

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

3. DURING EACH TRAINING SESSION

3.1 do an assessment of technique set using an extremely light load:

You should also use modes of communication:

Add this information to your list of their technical need.

3.4 Prioritise the feedback in order of importance:

3.5 First set - first point of information (briefing):

3.6 Give feedback during the set:

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

3.8 De-brief: Immediately upon completion of that set:

3.10 Give projections about rate of learning:

3.11 Be mindful of volume - don't overdo it:

3.12 Don't increase load at the expense of technique:

3.13 Reinforce habits each session: