Geotechnical Engineering I

FACULTY OF INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND WATER ENGINEERING
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 1
COURSE CONVENOR: ENG. S.T. NHANDARA
February – May 2019
Geotechnical Engineering 1 1
Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering
1. Geotechnical engineering is a speciality of Civil
Engineering which deals with the properties,
behaviour and use of soil and rock in engineering
works.
2. Geotechnical engineering is the design and
construction of structures that are founded in soil
and rocks
3. Geotechnical engineering is the art of burying
success
Origin of geotechnical engineering
 Based on the emphasis and the nature of study in the
area of geotechnical engineering, the time span
extending from 1700 to 1927 can be divided into four
 major periods (Skempton, 1985):
 1. Pre-classical (1700 to 1776 A.D.)
 2. Classical soil mechanics—Phase I (1776 to 1856 A.D.)
 3. Classical soil mechanics—Phase II (1856 to 1910
A.D.)
 4. Modern soil mechanics (1910 to 1927 A.D.)
1. Pre-classical era (1700 to 1776 A.D)
 This period concentrated on studies relating to natural
slope and unit weights of various types of soils as well
as the semi-empirical earth pressure theories.
 In 1717 a French royal engineer, Henri Gautier (1660 –
1737), studied the natural slopes of soils when tipped
in a heap for formulating the design procedures of
retaining walls.
 The natural slope is what we now refer to as the angle
of repose.
 According to this study, the natural slopes of clean dry
sand and ordinary earth were 31° and 45°, respectively.
 In 1729, Bernard Forest de Belidor (1694 –1761)
published a textbook for military and civil engineers in
France.
 In the book, he proposed a theory for lateral earth
pressure on retaining walls
 He also specified a soil classification system in the
manner shown in the following table.
 A French Engineer Jean Rodolphe Perronet (1708–
1794), studied slope stability around 1769 and
distinguished between intact ground and fills
Belidor soil classification system
2. Classical Soil Mechanics—Phase I
(1776 –1856)
 Most of the developments in the area of geotechnical
engineering came from engineers and scientists in
France in this era.
 In 1776, French scientist Charles Augustin Coulomb
(1736 –1806) used the principles of calculus for maxima
and minima to determine the true position of the sliding
surface in soil behind a retaining wall.
 In this analysis, Coulomb used the laws of friction and
cohesion for solid bodies.
 In 1820, special cases of Coulomb’s work were studied
by French engineer Jacques Frederic Francais (1775–
1833) and by French applied-mechanics professor
Claude Louis Marie Henri Navier (1785–1836).
 These special cases related to inclined backfills and
backfills supporting surcharge.
 In 1840, Jean Victor Poncelet (1788–1867), an army
engineer and professor of mechanics, extended
Coulomb’s theory by providing a graphical method for
determining the magnitude of lateral earth pressure
on vertical and inclined retaining walls with arbitrarily
broken polygonal ground surfaces.
 Poncelet was also the firs to use the symbol 𝜑 for soil
friction angle.
 He also provided the first ultimate bearing-capacity
theory for shallow foundations.
 In 1846, Alexandre Collin (1808–1890), an engineer,
provided the details for deep slips in clay slopes,
cutting, and embankments.
 Collin theorized that, in all cases, the failure takes
place when the mobilized cohesion exceeds the existin
cohesion of the soil.
 He also observed that the actual failure surfaces could
be approximated as arcs of cycloids.
 The end of Phase I of the classical soil mechanics
period is generally marked by the year (1857) of the
first publication by William John Macquorn Rankine
(1820 –1872), a professor of civil engineering at the
University of Glasgow.
 This study provided a notable theory on earth pressure
and equilibrium of earth masses.
 Rankine’s theory is a simplification of Coulomb’s
theory
3. Classical Soil Mechanics—Phase II
(1856 –1910)
 Several experimental results from laboratory tests on
sand appeared in the literature in this phase.
 French engineer Henri Philibert Gaspard Darcy (1803–
1858) published a study in 1856 on the permeability of
sand filters.
 Based on those tests, Darcy define the term coefficient
of permeability (or hydraulic conductivity) of soil, a
very useful parameter in geotechnical engineering to
this day.
 Sir George Howard Darwin (1845–1912 conducted
laboratory tests to determine the overturning moment
on a hinged wall retaining sand in loose and dense states
of compaction.
 In 1885 by Joseph Valentin Boussinesq (1842–1929),
was the development of the theory of stress
distribution under loaded bearing areas in a
homogeneous, semiinfinite, elastic, and isotropic
medium.
 In 1887,Osborne Reynolds (1842–1912) demonstrated
the phenomenon of dilatency in sand.
 John Clibborn (1847–1938) and John Stuart Beresford
(1845–1925) studied on the flow of water through sand
bed and uplift pressure
4. Modern soil mechanics (1910 –
1927)
 In this period, results of research conducted on clays
were published in which the fundamental properties
and parameters of clay were established.
 The most notable publications are given in the
following table
Important studies on clay 1920-1927
Investigator Year Topics
Albert Mauritz 1911 Consistency of soil that is: liquid,
Atterberg (1846-1916), plastic and shrinkage limits
Sweden
Jean Frontard (1884- 1914 Double shear tests (undrained)
1962), France in clay under constant vertical
load
Arthur Langtry Bell 1915 Lateral pressure and resistance of
(1874- 1956), England clay; Bearing capacity of clay,
Shear box test for measuring
undrained shear strength using
undisturbed specimen
Wolmar Fellenius 1918, 1926 Slip circle analysis of saturated
(1876- 19570), Sweden clay slopes
Karl Terzaghi (1883– 1925 Theory of consolidation for clays
1963), Austria
4. Modern Geotechnical Engineering post 1927
 The publication of
Erdbaumechanik auf
Bodenphysikalisher
Grundlage by Karl
Terzaghi in 1925 gave
birth to a new era in the
development of soil
mechanics.
 Karl Terzaghi is known
as the leader of modern
geotechnical
engineering.
Karl Terzaghi (1883 -1963)
 The first conference of the International Society of Soil
Mechanics and Foundation Engineering (ISSMFE) was
held at Harvard University in 1936 with Karl Terzaghi
presiding.
 It was through the inspiration and guidance of
Terzaghi over the preceding quarter-century that
papers were brought to that conference covering a
wide range of topics such as:
i. shear strength
ii. effective stress
iii. in situ testing
i. Cone penetrometer test
ii. Consolidation settlement
iii. Elastic stress distribution
iv. Preloading for soil improvement
v. Frost action, expansive clays
vi. arching
vii. theory of earth pressure
viii. earthquakes
Geotechnical Engineering I – Course outline
Content
1 Lateral earth pressure
2 Slope stability
3 Geosynthetics
Continuous Assessment % Contribution

1 Assignment 30
2 Software assignment 30
3 Test 40
Geotechnical Engineering I – References
1. Das, B. M. “Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering.” Chris
Carson ISBN-13: 978-0-495-29572-3.
2. Das B.M. and Sobhan. “Principles of Geotechnical Engineering. 8th
Edition.” CRC. New york.
3. Craig, R.F and Knappett J.A. 2012. “Craig’s soil mechanics”
4. Singh, A 2014.“Modern geotechnical engineering”CSBS, New Delhi
5. Whitlow, R. “Basic soil mechanics .” Addison Wesley Longman
Limited. Essex
6. Koerner,R. “Designing with geosynthetics.” Prentice Hall. New Jersey
1. Lateral Earth Pressure
1.1 Soil mechanics review
1.2 Earth Pressure
1.3 Gravity retaining walls
1.4 Sheet retaining walls
1.5 Braced excavations
1.6 Structural design of reinforced concrete
retaining walls
Lateral Earth pressure
 Earth retaining structures are an essential part of civil
engineering. They are designed to prevent lateral soil
movements which are caused by lateral earth pressure.
 These include:
Basements
Soldier piles
Cantilever walls
Gravity walls
Soil nails
Sheet pile walls
Basements
5 Storey Basement with a 6 storey hospital on top, London (2015)
Basements
Soldier piles
Retaining walls
Sheet pile walls
Course objectives
 The objective of this course is to introduce participants
to:
Advanced analysis of lateral earth pressures
The various earth retention systems, their
applicability, limitations and design
Course outcomes
 On completing this course participants should be able
to:
 Identify the types, advantages and disadvantages of
the different earth retaining systems (e.g gravity
structures, piles e.t.c)
 Quantify the lateral earth pressures associated with
different earth retaining systems
 Select the most technically appropriate type of
retaining wall for a given project based on a clear
understanding of the different available systems.
Soil mechanics review
 Soils are aggregates of mineral particles, and together
with air and/or water in the void spaces, they form
three-phase systems.
 A large portion of the earth’s surface is covered by
soils, and they are widely used as construction
 and foundation materials.
 Soil mechanics is the branch of engineering that
deals with the engineering properties of soils and their
behavior under stress.
Soil mechanics review
 For engineering purposes, soil is defined as the
uncemented aggregate of mineral grains and decayed
organic matter (solid particles) with liquid and gas in the
empty spaces between the solid particles
 Civil engineers must study the properties of soil, such as its
origin, grain-size distribution, ability to drain water,
compressibility, shear strength, and load-bearing capacity.
 It includes the application of the principles of soil
mechanics and rock mechanics to the design of
foundations, retaining structures, and earth structures.
1.1.1 Soil behaviour is complex:
1. Soil behaviour is anisotropic
2. Multi phase system
3. Non- homogenous
4. Non linear stress/strain response
5. Stress is history dependant
1.1.2 Complexity gives rise to the importance of:
1. Lab tests
2. Field tests
3. Factor of safety
1.1.3 Soil texture

a) Particle size, shape and distribution
 Coarse textured –gravel(>2mm), sand (0.06-2mm)
 Fine textured – silt(0.06-0.002mm) , clay (<0.002mm)
b) Particle size distribution
 Sieve/Mechanical analysis or Gradation test
 Hydrometer analysis for smaller than 0.075mm
c) Particle size distribution curves

 Well graded
 Poorly graded
1.1.4 Effect of particle size
Gravels, Sands Silt Clay
1. High strength 1. Lower strength 1. Lowest strength
2. High modulus 2. Lower modulus 2. Lowest modulus
3. High permeability 3. Lower permeability 3. Lowest permeability
4. Granular 4. Granular 4. Non granular
5. Cohesionless 5. Cohesionless 5. Cohesive
6. Effect of water 6. Effect of water 6. Effect of water very
unimportant important important
Typical bulk densities for soils
Soil Type Bulk density kg/m3

Sand and gravel 16 – 22
Silt 16 - 20
Soft Clay 17 - 20
Stiff Clay 19 - 23
Peat 10 – 14
Weak Rock 20 – 23
Hard Rock 24 - 27
Concrete 24
Soil strength
 Soil strength is measured in terms of shear resistance –
shear strength
 Shear resistance is developed on the soil particle
contacts
 Failure occurs when the normal stress and the shear
stress reach some limiting combination
 The limiting shear stress (soil strength) is given by:
Ʈ = C + σn tanΦ
Where:
C – Cohesion
A property exhibited in fine grained soils (clays and
silts), which is the result of atomic attractive forces
between soil particles
These forces allow the material to exhibit shear strength

even when no confining pressure is available
𝜎𝑛 = Normal stress on the failure plane at failure
𝜑 = Angle of internal friction; It is most pronounced in
cohesionless soils (sands and gravels) and approaches
zero in soft cohesive soils such as soft clay
The strength of soil sheared under drained conditions CD
is described with the effective stress strength
parameters:
𝝉 = 𝒄 + 𝝈′𝒏 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝝋
Where: c– effective cohesion

𝜎𝑛′ - effective stress at failure
𝜑 – effective friction angle
1.2 Earth pressure
Earth Pressure
The two pressure systems in the earth’s surface are the
earth pressure and the water pressure.
Water pressure distribution:
Water pressure is the same in all directions since it is a
liquid. The vertical stress at a point inside water is the
same as the horizontal stress at that location.
𝜎ℎ = 𝜎𝑣 = 𝛾𝑤 𝑧
𝝈𝒗
𝝈𝒉
Lateral pressure
a)The pressure exerted by the soil against an engineering
structure or acting on a surface of surrounding soil mass
is called earth pressure.
b)Lateral pressure is caused by lateral stresses in soil.
The ratio between the lateral and vertical effective
stress is defined as coefficient of earth pressure,k
c)Magnitude and distribution of lateral pressure is
Important in designing structures below ground level.
Earth pressure at rest
𝝈𝒗
z
𝝈𝒉
In a homogenous natural soil deposit, the ratio 𝜎ℎ /𝜎𝑣 is

a constant known as coefficient of earth pressure at rest
Ko
At Ko there are no lateral strains
Lateral earth pressure at Rest
The vertical stress at any depth z is 𝜎𝑣 = 𝑞 + 𝛾𝑧
The corresponding horizontal stress 𝜎ℎ = 𝑘𝑜 𝜎𝑣 + 𝑢
Where u = water pressure
q
𝑘𝑜 𝑞
𝝈𝒗
1
z
2
H 𝝈𝒉 P1
H/2 P2
H/3
𝑘𝑜 (𝑞 + 𝛾𝐻)
Estimating Ko
For:
1. normally consolidated clays and granular soils;
2. Coarse grained soils
𝑘𝑜 = 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑
For fine grained normally consolidated soils
𝑘𝑜 = 0.44+0.42( PI% / 100)
Typical values of Ko
Soil 𝒌𝒐
Dense sand 0.35
Loose sand 0.6
Normally consolidated clays 0.5 – 0.6
Clay, OCR = 3.5 1.0
Clay, OCR = 20 2.8
Active/ Passive Earth Pressure
By definition active or passive earth pressure
Wall moves
Wall moves away
towards soil
from soil
Active Earth Pressure in granular soils
 𝜎𝑣 = 𝛾𝑧
 Initially there is no lateral movement;
 𝜎ℎ = 𝑘𝑜 𝜎𝑣 = 𝑘𝑜 𝛾𝑧
 As the wall moves away from the soil:
𝜎𝑣 remains the same
𝜎ℎ decreases till failure occurs (active state)
n.g.l
𝝈𝒗
Z
𝝈𝒉
Rankine analysis
 Rankine derived the lateral pressures in a soil deposit
assuming it to be in a state of plastic equilibrium
 The state of stress along the interface between the soil
(i.e backfill) and the retaining structure (wall) is
assumed identical with the stress state within the soil
mass away from the wall
 In other words the presence of the wall does not
modify the state of stress in its vicinity and the state
remains as if the soil mass were semi-infinite,
homogenous and isotropic
Rankine analysis
 For this condition to be satisfied only a vertical wall
with a smooth back with no friction or adhesion on the
soil wall interface supporting a cohesion-less soil with
a horizontal backfill surface is considered
Rankine’s theory: Active Earth Pressure
(in granular soils)
 Consider a soil mass at a depth z behind a smooth
vertical wall supporting a cohesionless backfill with a
horizontal surface in level with the top of wall, the
vertical pressure on the element is 𝜎𝑣 = 𝛾𝑧
 Let the wall move away from the wall so that a state of
plastic equilibrium is reached in the soil mass. The
horizontal pressure reaches a minimum value called
the active pressure Pa which relates to 𝜎𝑣 as follows
𝜎ℎ = 𝑝𝑎 = 𝑘𝑎 𝜎𝑣 = 𝑘𝑎 𝛾𝑧
Rankine’s theory: Active Earth Pressure
(in granular soils)
 Where 𝑘𝑎 is the coefficient of active pressure
 As the backfill surcharge is horizontal there can be no
lateral transfer of weight and no shear stresses exist on
horizontal and vertical planes
 The vertical and horizontal stresses 𝜎𝑣 and 𝜎ℎ are
therefore principal stresses, the former 𝜎𝑣 being the
major principal stress 𝜎1 and the later being the
minor 𝜎3
Rankine’s theory: Active Earth
Pressure (in granular soils)
𝝈𝒉,𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 = 𝒌𝒂𝝈𝒗
1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 2
𝜑
𝑘𝑎 = = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (45 − )
1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 2
Ka = Rankine’s coefficient of active pressure

𝝉
Failure envelope
𝝋
𝝈𝒉 𝝈𝒗 𝝈
Active earth pressure in cohesive soils
 Follow the same steps as for granular soils
 The main difference is that c is not equal to 0
𝜎ℎ,𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 = 𝑘𝑎 𝜎𝑣 − 2𝑐 𝑘𝑎
If there is a tension crack, the depth of tension crack
2𝑐
𝑧𝑐 =
𝛾 𝑘𝑎
a) Effect of uniform surcharge
 If a uniformly distributed surcharge pressure of
intensity q per unit area acts over the entire surface of
the soil mass, the vertical pressure 𝜎𝑣 is increased to
𝛾𝑧 + 𝑞 which causes an additional lateral pressure of a
uniform intensity kaq behind the wall
 The total additional pressure due to the surcharge is
thus kaqH acting at mid height H/2
b) Effect of stratum change
 If the backfill is stratified such that ka and 𝛾 are not
constant with depth, the pressure will not increase
linearly but will change abruptly at the strata
interfaces
 The pressure distribution is obtained by using
appropriate values of ka for each strata
 For a particular layer the weight of the overlying layers
is considered as a surcharge
c) Effect of submergence
 For a submerged backfill ka is applied to the effective
vertical pressure only
 The effective active pressure distribution is computed
on the basis of bulk unit weight 𝛾 above the water
table and 𝛾 ′ below the water table
 The net water pressure below the water table must be
added to the active pressure to obtain the total
horizontal pressure
Passive earth pressure in granular
soils
Initially soil in in Ko state
As the wall moves towards the soil
𝝈𝒗 remains the same
𝝈𝒉 increases till failure occurs
n.g.l
𝝈𝒗
z
𝝈𝒉
Rankine’s theory: Passive Earth
Pressure (in granular soils)
𝝈𝒉,𝒑𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒗𝒆 = 𝒌𝒑𝝈𝒗
1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 2
𝜑
𝑘𝑝 = = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (45 + )
1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 2
Kp = Rankine’s coefficient of passive pressure

𝝉
Failure envelope
𝝋
𝝈𝒉 𝝈𝒗 𝝈
Passive earth pressure in cohesive
soils
 Follow the same steps for granular soils
The only difference is that c is not equal to zero.
 Everything else is the same as for granular soils
𝜎ℎ,𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 = 𝑘𝑝 𝜎𝑣 + 2𝑐 𝑘𝑝
Summary of computation of lateral
pressure in soil
 In the case where there is no groundwater:
𝜎𝑣 = density of soil x depth = 𝛾𝑧
𝜎ℎ = lateral earth press. Coeff x density of soil x depth
= 𝑘𝛾𝑧There are three lateral earth pressure
coefficients, K:
 Active earth pressure coefficient, 𝑘𝑎
 Passive earth pressure coefficient, 𝑘𝑝
 Lateral earth pressure coefficient at rest, 𝑘𝑜
Earth Pressure distribution
Pa and Pp are the resultant active and passive thrusts on
n.g.l
the wall
n.g.l 𝑃𝑎 = 0.5𝑘𝑎 𝛾𝐻2 H
D
𝑃𝑝 = 0.5𝑘𝑝𝛾𝐷 2
𝑘𝑝𝛾𝐷 𝑘𝑎 𝛾𝐻
Summary of Rankine’s earth
pressure theory
𝝈𝒉,𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 = 𝒌𝒂𝝈𝒗 − 𝟐𝑪 𝒌𝒂
𝝈𝒉,𝒑𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒗𝒆 = 𝒌𝒑 𝝈𝒗 − 𝟐𝑪 𝒌𝒑
Assumes smooth wall

Applicable only on vertical walls
The normal stress acting on the wall is a principal stress
Example:
1. An 8m high retaining wall retains a soil comprised of
two 4m thick layers with the following properties:
Upper layer- c= 10 kPa, 𝜑=18o, 𝛾= 18kN/m3
Lower layer- c = 0KPa, 𝜑=35o, 𝛾= 18kN/m3
a) For a surface load of 50 Kpa, determine the active
force and its distance from the base of the wall
50kPa
C=10, 𝝋= 18, 𝜸 = 18 4m
C=0, 𝝋=35, 𝜸=18

4m
b) Assume that the water table is located 2m below the
ground surface. The saturated unit weight of both layers
is 19.5 KN/m3
50 KPa
C=10, 𝝋 = 18, 𝜸 = 18
4m
𝜸 = 19.5 KN/m3 2m
C = 0, 𝝋 = 35, 𝜸 =19.5
4m
Rankine’s theory: Special cases
Sloping ground surface
Where the ground surface is sloping, the vertical stress
at a given depth will have a value of:
𝝈𝒗 = 𝜸𝒛 − 𝒖 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷
The lateral earth pressure against a smooth vertical wall
is assumed to act parallel to the ground surface
Active Pressure 𝜎ℎ𝑎 = 𝑘𝑎 𝜎𝑣 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽
Passive Pressure 𝜎ℎ𝑝 = 𝑘𝑝 𝜎𝑣 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽− 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝛽−𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜑
Where 𝑘𝑎 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽+ 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝛽−𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜑
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜑
𝑘𝑎 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜑
Example A retaining wall of 5m height retains a sloping
backfill with 𝛽 (the angle of the sloping ground with
horizontal ) = 20 deg. The properties of the backfill are:
C = OKPa, 𝝋=35deg. 𝜸=17KN/m3
1.3 Gravity retaining wall
Gravity Retaining Walls
Types of conventional retaining walls
1. Gravity retaining structures- Stability depends on the
self weight of the wall.
2. Semi gravity retaining structures- minimum amount
of reinforcement may be used in the wall to reduce the
size of the wall.
3. Cantilever retaining walls – Reinforced concrete is
used in wall design with thin stem and slab base.
Relatively economical for design.
n.g.l
b) Semi- gravity wall
n.g.l
n.g.l
a) Gravity wall
stem
heel
toe
Geotechnical Engineering 1 c) Cantilever walls 73

4) Counterfort/ Buttressed retaining walls
Similar to cantilever retaining walls but thin slabs stems
(conterfort) may be used at some interval to tie the base
slab and stem in order to reduce the shear force and
bending moment for more economical design.
Backfill
Face of wall
counterfort
a) Counterfort walls
Gravity retaining walls-design
consideration
Primary modes of failure are:
1. Sliding along base (translation)
2. Overturning about the toe
3. Bearing failure of supporting base
4. Excessive settlement
5. Overall failure of wall and soil
1. Sliding
𝐹𝑅
𝐹= > 1.5
𝐹𝑆
Where :𝐹𝑅 = 𝑉𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜎𝑏 + 𝐶𝑏 𝐵 + 𝑃𝑝
𝐹𝑆 = 𝑃𝑎ℎ
𝝈 = Interface / Soil – concrete friction angle =(½ to 2/3) φ
Cb = (½ to 2/3)C
𝑃𝑃 + 𝑊𝑖 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜎
𝐹𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 =
𝑃𝑎ℎ
𝝈= Interface / Soil – concrete friction angle = (½ to 2/3) 𝛗
𝑃𝑝 = 0.5𝑘𝑝𝛾𝐷2
𝑃𝑎ℎ = 0.5𝑘𝑎 𝛾𝐷2
2. Overturning
𝑀𝑅
𝐹𝑂𝑆 = >2
𝑀𝑂
MR – Resisting moment
Mo – Overturning moment
𝑃𝑝𝐷/3 + 𝑊𝑖 𝑥𝑖
𝐹𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 =
𝑃𝑎ℎ 𝐻/3
Safety against overturning about toe for sloping ground
𝑃𝑝𝐷/3 + 𝑊𝑖 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑃𝑎𝑣 𝐵
𝐹𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 =
𝑃𝑎ℎ 𝐻/3
Location of resultant from toe can be determined as
𝑃𝑎𝑣 + 𝑊𝑖 𝑥 = 𝑀𝑅 − 𝑀𝑂
𝑀𝑅 − 𝑀𝑂
𝑥=
𝑃𝑎𝑣 + 𝑊𝑖
In the design of cantilever retaining walls it is preferred

that the stem center is right above the location of resultant
force at the base (resultant of soil reaction).
3. Bearing failure
2+ 2
𝑅= 𝑃𝑎𝑣 + 𝑊𝑖 𝑃𝑎ℎ − 𝑃𝑝
𝐵
𝑒= −𝑥
2
𝑄 6𝑒 𝑃𝑎𝑣 + 𝑊𝑖 6𝑒
𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1+ = (1 + )
𝐵 𝐵 𝐵 𝐵
𝑄 6𝑒 𝑃𝑎𝑣 + 𝑊𝑖 6𝑒
𝑞𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 1− = (1 − )
𝐵 𝐵 𝐵 𝐵
Note: for e>B/6,Qmin becomes negative. This is not

desirable and re-proportining is required
4. Excessive settlement
May occur if weak soil is located below foundation
within 1.5 times foundation width
5. Overall failure
Refer to section on slope stability
Example 1: Determine the maximum and minimum pressures
under the base of the cantilever retaining wall detailed in the
following diagram and the factor of safety against sliding. The
appropriate shear strength parameters for the soil are c= 0, and
𝜑= 40deg. and the unit weight 𝛾= 17KN/m3. The water table is
below the base of the wall. Take 𝜎= 30deg. on the base of the
wall. There is an imposed surcharge of 40KPa behind the wall.
0.3m 40KPa
1.75m
5.4m
0.4m
3m
Example 2: The cross-section of a cantilever retaining wall is
shown below. Calculate the factors of safety with respect to
overturning, sliding and bearing capacity
0.5m
o
10
𝜸= 18KN/m3
𝝋= 30deg 6m
C1 = 0
1.5m
0.7m 0.7m
𝜸= 19KN/m3
0.7m 0.7m 2.6m 𝝋= 20deg
C1 = 40KN/m2
Example 3: Details of a gravity retaining wall are given in the figure below.
Given that the unit weight of the concrete material is 24kN/m 3. The unit weight
of the soil backfill is 18kN/m 3 and the design values of the shear strength are c =
0kPa and = 33o . The value of between the wall and backfill foundation is
26o. The pressure on the foundation soil should not exceed 250 kN/m2 . Is the
design of the wall adequate?
Design considerations
The selection of the appropriate wall type depends on
many factors that include:
1. Soil and groundwater conditions
2. Height and ground topography
3. Availability of suitable fill material
4. Construction constraints (space, access , equipment,
specialist techniques available
5. Environment- (appearance and impact during
construction)
6. Ground movements and their effects on adjacent
structures
7. Underground obstruction and services
8. Design life and maintenance requirements
9. Cost
General design procedure for gravity

and cantilever retaining walls
1. Characterize project site and subsurface conditions.
Pay particular attention to groundwater and surface
water, site geology, availability of free-draining backfill
soils and potentially weak seams.
2. Select tentative wall dimensions
3. Estimate the forces acting on the retaining wall ( i.e
4. Check overturning stability; the resultant force should
act within the middle third of the base of the wall.
5. Check bearing pressure; maximum earth pressure on
the wall base should be less than the allowable earth
pressure regarding bearing capacity or permissible
settlement
6. Check sliding; horizontal frictional resisting force on
the base of the wall should be at least 1.5times the
horizontal driving
7. Check for excessive settlements from deeper soil
deposits
8. Check the overall stability of the earth mass that
contains the retaining structure.
9. Apply load factors and compute reactions, shears and
moments in the wall
10. Compute the ultimate strength of the structural
components
11. Check adequacy of structural components against
applied factored forces and moments
Retaining wall design proportioning –
cantilever retaining wall
1. (a) Top width of stem (a): 0.25m 0.4m
n.g.l 1
Bottom width of stem(b):H/12 to
H/10
1
Toe width (c): base thickness/2`to
48 H base thickness
n.g.l Width of base (d): 0.4H to 0.7H

(c) (b)
(f)
(e) Thickness of base (e) : H/12 to H/8
(d)
Height of backfill on passive side
(f) : greater than 1 m
Retaining wall design: Proportioning-
Gravity retaining wall
2. (a) Stem top width (a) = 0.3m to H/12
(n.g.l)
Stem bottom width (f) = H/10 to H/6
1
48 Depth of base (b) = H/8 to H/6
H Width of base (c) = 0.5H to 0.7H
(n.g.l) Width of toe(d) = D/2 to D

(d) (f)
Height of back fill on passive side (e) =
(e)
(b) 1m
(c)
Retaining wall design proportioning
– counterfort or buttress
3.
0.3m (min)
0.3m (min)
H
S= 0.3 to 0.5H
B= 0.5 to 0.7H
Drainage consideration
 Accumulation of rain water in the backfill results in its
saturation, and thus a considerable increase in the
earth pressure acting on the wall
 Two methods to fix this problem are:
a) Provision of weep holes with or without geotextile on
the back-face of wall
b) Perforated pipe draining system with filter
Weep
Filter Perforated pipe
hole
material
Filter material
Drainage consideration- Weep
holes
They should have a minimum diameter of 10cm and
should be adequately spaced depending on the backfill
material.
Geotextile material or a thin layer of some other filter
may be used on the backface of the wall for the full
height in order to avoid the back fill material entering
the weep holes and eventually clogging them
Drainage consideration –
perforated pipes
 Perforated pipes: these are provided horizontally along
the backface of wall at the bottom of stem. The filter
material around the perforated pipe should satisfy the
following requirements:
 Condition 1: The soil to be protected should not wash
into the filter
 D15 Filter <5
D85 Backfill
Condition 2:
Excessive hydraulic pressure head is not created in the
soil due to low permeability
D15 Filter >4
D15 Backfill
Other considerations:
D50 Filter < 25
D50 backfill
D15 Filter < 20
D15 Backfill
These equations are used to select the filter material
Wall settlements
 Immediate settlement in granular soil
 Consolidation settlement in cohesive soils
Differential settlement
 Heel settlement is larger when there is substantial
increase in backfill
 Toe settlements are produced by lateral earth pressure.
To minimise toe settlements ground may be
strengthened using sand piles, rock columns, grouting
or structural piles
Differential settlements along the length of wall may
produce cracks in the wall. This can be watched during
construction itself and preemptive action may be taken
such as ensuring proper compaction of the ground.

1.5 Sheet Pile retaining
walls

Definition of sheet pile walls
Sheet pile walls are walls constructed to retain earth,
water or any other fill material. They are generally used
for the following:
1. Water front structures
2. Building diversion dams such as coffer dams
3. River bank protection
4. Retaining sides of cuts made in earth

Sheet pile wall materials
 Sheet pile walls may be constructed using
1) Timber
2) Reinforced concrete
3) Steel

Types of Sheet retaining walls
Sheet walls may be split into 3 groups each with its
separate method of analysis. The groups are:
a) Cantilevered walls
b) Walls with single strut or anchor
c) Walls with multiple struts

Failure of sheet retaining walls
 Collapse of side walls
 Foundation failure
 Heave due to water pressure
 Settlement due to ground water lowering
 Seepage carrying fine into base of excavation

1. Cantilever walls
1.
Direction of
wall movenent
Excavation
Active pressure
Passive pressure

Rankine active and passive
pressures
Direction of wall 𝝈𝒗
movement Active
𝝈𝒉
𝝈𝒗 Wall frictionless-
𝝈𝒉 principal stresses are
vertical and horizontal

Rankine Active and passive
pressure
For most walls the long term, fully drained condition
governs stability
Use effective stress strength criterion with c=0
The effective lateral stresses on the wall are then
1−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑
ACTIVE 𝜎ℎ = 𝜎 = 𝑘𝑎 𝜎𝑣
1+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 𝑣
1+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑
PASSIVE 𝜎ℎ = 𝜎𝑣 = 𝑘𝑝 𝜎𝑣
1−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑

Cantilever wall stability
Geometry
x
d
Point of rotation

Pressure Diagram
Active
Passive
Active Passive

 Design calculations are required to determine the
depth of penetration d of the wall.
 Because the depth of the point of rotation is also
unknown 2 equations are required to obtain a solution.
These are moment and force equilibrium
𝐹= 0
𝑀=0
To simplify this the depth of penetration is taken as the
depth of penetration d of the wall.

𝜎ℎ = 𝑘𝑎 𝛾(𝑋 + 𝐻)
PA1
𝜎ℎ = 𝑘𝑝𝛾𝑋 𝜎ℎ = 𝑘𝑝𝛾(𝑋 + 𝐻)
PP 1
PP 2
PA2
𝜎ℎ = 𝑘𝑝𝛾(𝐷 + 𝐻)
𝜎ℎ = 𝑘𝑎 𝛾𝐷

Equilibrium of cantilever sheet
piles
 For equilibrium the moments of the active and passive
pressures on or about the point of Reaction R must
balance 𝑀= 0
 The depth calculated should be increased by at least
20 to 30% to allow for uncertainties in the analysis.
Pa
H+D D
Pp1 3
D/3
Pp2
𝑘𝑝 𝛾𝐷
Geotechnical Engineering 1 𝑘𝑎 𝛾(𝐻 + 𝐷) 119
Analysis of cantilever sheet piles-
procedure
 Select a point O arbitrary
 Calculate the active and passive earth pressures
 Calculate the pore water pressure
 Determine the depth by summing points about O
 Determine d=1.2 to 1.3 do
 Calculate R by summing forces horizontally over the
depth (H+do)
 Determine net passive resistance between d and d o
 Check that R is greater than the net passive resistance

If not extend the depth of embankment and determine
the new R
Penetration depth, d
Approximate penetration depth of sheet piling
RELATIVE DENSITY DEPTH, D
Very loose 2.0 H
Loose 1.5 H
Firm 1.0 H
Dense 0.75 H

Example: An excavation 5.5m deep in cohesionless soil is
supported by a vertical cantilever sheet pile wall. The piling
extends to a depth 3.6m below the bottom of the
excavation. The density of the soil is 19.2KN/m3 and 𝜑=
33deg. The water table may be assumed to be below the
bottom of the piles.
a)Find the thrust on the wall per horizontal metre,
neglecting wall friction.
b)Find also what proportion of the maximum passive
resistance is being mobilised on the embedded portion of
the piles, stating clearly any simplifying assumptions made

Cantilever wall serviceability
 Considerable movement of the wall is required to
mobilise the limiting passive stresses
 The movements required to reach the active and
passive conditions depend on the soil type
 For example for retaining walls of height H, the
movements required are
SAND CLAY: CLAY:
normaly over
consolidated consolidated
Active Passive Active Passive Active Passive
Movement 0.001H 0.05H- 0.004H Large 0.025H 0.025H
0.1H
Cantilever wall –effects of
surchage
) 𝝈𝒔
𝜎𝑣 = 𝜎𝑠 + 𝛾𝑧
𝜎ℎ = 𝑘𝑎 (𝜎𝑠 + 𝛾𝑧)

1.6 Braced excavations

Struts are compression members used to provide
temporary support to in-situ retaining walls in deep
excavations.
`Wale
`Sheet wall
Strut

 Two types of braced cuts commonly used in
construction work
 One type uses the soldier beam which is a vertical steel
or timber beam driven into the ground before
excavation
 Laggings, which are horizontal timber planks, are
placed between soldier beams as the excavation
proceeds.
 When the excavation reaches the desired depth, wales
and struts (horizontal steel beams)are installed.
 The struts are horizontal compression members.

 Figure below shows another type of braced excavation.
In this case, interlocking sheet piles are driven into the
soil before excavation.
 Wales and struts are inserted immediately after
excavation reaches the appropriate depth. A majority
of braced cuts use sheet piles.

Traditional braced excavation
pressure diagrams
Stiff-hard Soft to
Sands fissured clays Medium clays
A
0.25Z 0.25Z
B
Z
0.50Z
0.75Z
C
D
0.25Z
0.65kagZ 0.2gZ to 1.0kagZ

Ka=tan2(45-F/2) 04 gZ ka = 1 –m4Cu/gZ
Example 1: A trench in sand of depth 6.5m is to be supported by timbering with
horizontal struts at 1m, 3m and 5m below ground level, with the bottom strut at
1.5m above bottom of excavation and spaced at 2m intervals. Determine the
estimated strut forces induced. Soil properties 𝜸= 20KN/m3, 𝜑= 35deg.
Example2: A braced excavation is required in a soft clay, as shown in Figure below. A

stiff clay layer is located 5.9 m from the surface. Determine the load on the struts
per meter length and the factor of safety against bottom heave. The length of the
excavation is 12 m.
0.3m
𝛾=19KN/m3
1.8m 𝜑=25deg.
Cu/𝜎=0.24
1.8m
1.8m
0.4m
6m
Figure: Base
heave Stability

2. Slope stability

2 Slope stability
1. Introduction
2. Slope failure mechanisms
3. Stability analysis
4. Field investigations for data input
5. Slope monitoring techniques
6. Slope maintenance and restoration
7. Flexible Stabilisation
8. Slope reinforcement

2.1 Introduction
 In all slopes there is an inherent tendency to
degrade to a flatter and more stable angle.
 Once mass movement occurs failure occurs
 The forces which cause instability are associated
with gravity and seepage.
 The stability of any slope made of soil material
depends on the shear strength of the soil.
 The shear strength is in turn a function of friction
and cohesion of the soil 𝜏 = 𝐶 + 𝜎 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑

Berlin (2009)

Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (2012)

California (2016)

Sink hole: Guatemala City, Republic of Guatemala (2010)
Gabion wall – Gokwe, Zimbabwe

Tailings dams

Tailings also called mine dumps, slimes, refuse or leach
residue or slickens, are the materials left over after the
process of separating the valuable fraction from the
uneconomic fraction.
Tailings dams are A tailings dam is the physical

structure that holds in, or impounds, the tailings
pond, which serves the dual role of containing the
ground-rock tailings from the ore-milling and
separation process and recycling the water to be
reused in processing.

Causes of tailings dam failures
1. Overtopping
2. Subsidence
3. Erosion
4. Earth quake
5. Seepage
6. SLOPE STABILITY FAILURE

Merriespruit, South Africa
Hungary, (2010)

Brazil (2015)
Hungary (2010)

Key points:
• Overstressing of a slope or reduction in shear strength of
the soil may cause rapid or progressive displacements.
•The stability of slopes may be evaluated by comparison of
the forces resisting failure with those tending to cause
rapture along the assumed slip surface.
•The ratio of these forces is the factor of safety
Weight (W)
Normal force (N)

𝜶 Fstabilising

Types of slopes
Slope
Natural Artificial
Worn or cut Built or deposited Built Cut
Hillside and Screens and Embankments Cuttings and

valley slopes pediment slopes and dams unsupported
excavations
Coastal and Slide and Tips and

river cliffs f low slopes soil heaps

2.2 Slope failure
mechanisms

2.2 Slope Failure mechanisms
Principal modes of failure in soil or rock are:
 Rotation on a curved slip surface approximated
by a circular arc
 Translation on a planar surface whose length is
large compared to depth below ground and
 Displacement of a wedge-shaped mass along
one or more planes of weakness
 Other modes of failure include toppling of rock
slopes, falls, block slides, lateral spreading,
earth and mud flow in clayey and silty soils and
debris flows in coarse-grained soils
Modes of slope failure
Non-Circular slip
Circular slip
Compound slip
Translational slip

Factors to consider in instability
Reduced shear strength in slopes
Increases in shear stresses in slopes

Factors that cause increases in
shear stresses in slopes
Removal of support
a. Erosion
 By streams and rivers
 By glaciers
 By action of waves or marine currents
 By successive wetting and drying (e.g winds, freezing)
b. Natural slope movements e.g falls, slides,
settlements)
c. Human activity
 Cuts and excavation
• Removal of retaining walls or sheet piles
•Drawdown of bodies of water (e.g lakes, lagoons)
d. Overloading
i) By natural causes
• Weight of precipitation (e.g rains, snow)
• Accumulation of materials because of past landslides
ii) By human activity
• Construction of fill
• Buildings and other overloads at the crest
• Water leakage in culverts, water pipes and sewers
e. Transitory effects e.g earthquakes

f. Removal of underlying materials that provided
support
• By rivers or seas
•By weathering
•By underground erosion due to seepage (piping), solvent
agents
•By human activity (excavation or mining)
•By loss of strength of the underlying material
g. Increase in lateral pressure

• By water in cracks and fissures
•By freezing of water in the cracks
•By expansion of clays
Factors that cause reduced shear strength in slopes
a) Factors inherent in the nature of the materials
 Composition
 Structure
 Secondary or inherited structures
 Stratification
b) Changes caused by weathering and physiochemical activity
 Wetting and drying process
 Removal of cementing agents
c) Effect of pore pressure
d) Changes in structure
 Stress release
 Structural degradation

Effect of water on soils
 Dry sand grains form a pile
 The slope angle is determined by the angle of repose
i.e the steepest angle at which a pile of unconsolidated
grains remains- controlled by the frictional contact
between the grains

• Slightly wet soils exhibit a very high angle of repose
•Because surface tension between the water and the grains
tends to hold the grains in place
Wet Sand
Angle of repose
Surface tension of thin film

of water holds grains
together, increasing angle of
repose

• When the material becomes saturated with water, strength
reduces to very small values.
•Material tends to flow like a fluid.
•Water gets between the grains and eliminates grain to grain
frictional contact.

Typical features of unstable slopes
 The presence of linear cracks, depressions and bulges
on natural slopes
 The presence of deformed trees and utility poles with
trunks bent in random directions
 The existence of springs on slopes and outcrop of
water bearing strata
 The existence of slicken sides and deformed layers of
clays (these can be best observed in trial pits or by
breaking down undisturbed tube samples)

California
2.3 Slope stability analysis

2.3 Slope stability Analysis
Stability analysis requirements
 All phases of construction
 The end of construction
 The long term condition
 Natural disturbances such as flooding and
earthquakes
 Rapid drawdown (for water- retaining structures like
earth dams)

Analysis Overview
 Slope stability analyses involves a comparison of the
gravity induced stresses in a slope to the available soil
strength and any externally provided resistance (e.g
retaining walls).
 Available static equilibrium methods solve for oe or
more of the three equations of equilibrium: horizontal
force, vertical force and moment.
 Availability and speed of personal computers has
made the use of methods of analysis that satisfy all
equations of equilibrium feasible for practicing
engineers.

Proper analysis of the static stability of a slope
requires:
 representation of the slope configuration
External loading conditions
Distribution of earth materials
Subsurface water conditions
Material densities
Material strengths
Procedure for estimating stability
There are 3 steps in estimating stability:
1. Estimate disturbing forces
The components are:
 Gravity acting on body of soil
 Super imposed loads if any
 Seepage force due to water flow if any
 Earthquake forces ( not dealt with in this course)
2. Shear strength of soil

Determine the number, thickness and average strength
Parameters of each soil layer
Soil strength equation
Total strength 𝜏𝑓 = 𝐶 + 𝜎𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑
Effective strength 𝜏𝑓 ′ = 𝑓𝐶 + (𝜎 − 𝑈)𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑
Tf is the shearing resistance of the soil
Include a factor of safety F to limit the maximum mobilised

shearing resistance on a failure plane
T = Tf
F
3. Select the appropriate analysis – Limit state
equilibrium
• Determines the overall stability of the sliding mass
•Method is used to analyse various potential failure
surfaces to determine which has the lowest F
This method of analysis is generally not sensitive to the
chosen shape of failure surface
•A circular arc is chosen because it is the simplest to
analyse and is sufficiently accurate
NB: The computed critical failure arc may not coincide

with the actual failure surface , however their factor of
safety (F) values will be similar.
Limit equilibrium method
 A common mode of slope failure is a rotational slip
along an approximately circular failure surface.
At failure: T = Cu+𝝈tan𝝋= Cu….........(1)

T = Cu …………….(2)
F 𝜽
x
R
T = Cu/F
L

Equating moments about O:
Wx = CuLR …….(3)
F
F = CuLR
Wx
Where L is the length of slip surface = R𝜃
F = R 2 Cu𝜃……..(4)
Wx
= Resisting Moment
Disturbing Moment

Tension cracks
 Tension cracks must be considered, and the possibility
that these cracks may fill with water.
 Water in a tension crack will significantly reduce F.
O
𝜃𝑐
R yc
dt
Pw Zc
Wt

2𝐶𝑢
𝑍𝑐 =
𝛾
•It is likely that the tension crack will fill with water – this
creates an extra thrust adding to the disturbing moment
𝑃𝑤 = 0.5𝛾𝑤 𝑧𝑐2𝑦𝑐 ……..(5)
•The tension crack reduces the weight of the arc to Wt and
its lever arm to dt and the sector angle to 𝜃𝑐 radians
F = Cu R 2𝜃𝑐 (π /180)
Wtdt + 0.5𝜸𝒘 zc 2yc

Example 1
A cutting with side slopes 1 .0 vertical: 1.5 Horizontal is excavated in saturated clay to a
vertical height of 10m as shown below. Determine the factor of safety of slip AB :
a) Assuming no development of tension crack
b) Allow for tension crack but with no water
c) Tension crack filled with water
Cu = 40KN/m2
𝜸=18.5KN/m3
5m x1 = 6.54m
R X2 =5.86m
6.7m Q yc
R
w pw
x zc
10m
10m
10m
10m
10m
Qc
R

Example 2
A slope has a height of 9.1m and the slope face is inclined at 2:1 (H:V) ratio. Assume a
wedge type analysis where the slip surface is planar through the toe of the slope and is
inclined at 3;1 (H:V) ratio. The total unit weight of the slope material g = 19.8KN/m3.
using the undrained shear strength parameters of C = 3.4KPa and 𝝋 = 29deg.
Calculate the factor of safety

Example 3:
A 45deg. Slope is excavated to a depth of 8m in a deep layer of saturated clay of unit
weight 19KN/m3, the relevant shear strength parameters are C= 65KN/m2 and 𝝋= 0
Determine the:
a) Factor of safety for the trial surface specified in the figure below
b) Minimum factor of safety of this slope
O
12.1m
3.5m 89.5
8m
4.5mW

METHOD OF SLICES
 This method divides the slope into vertical slice and
analyses each one seperately.
 The base of each slice is assumed to be a straight line
 The factor of safety must be calculated for several trial
circles and the minimum value taken.
 It is the basis of all numerical analysis program

𝜽
T
N

Bishop’s simplified method
 The soil mass above a trial failure surface is divided
into slices by vertical planes. Each slice is taken as
having a straight line base.
 Iterative methods have to be used to solve for the
factor of safety. The method has been shown to
produce factor of safety values within a few percent of
the "correct" values.
 The factor of safety is given by
 F = Resisting Moment
 Disturbing Moment
1 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝛼
𝐹= ( 𝑐 ′𝑏 + 𝑊 − 𝛾𝑤 𝑧𝑏 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑 )
𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 1+ 𝐹′
Where:
F– factor of safety
W– Weight of soil mass( densitysoil x area of slice(Lxb)
𝜶– Angle at slice base
c’ – soil cohesion
b- width of slice
H- Height of slice
z- height of water level
g- density of water
𝝋– Angle of internal friction of soil
F’- assumed safety factor

Example A: Use the Bishop’s simplified method of slices to determine the factor of
safety for the slope detailed in the figure below. The unit weight of the soil is
20KN/m3. The characteristic values of shear strength parameters are c=0, 𝝋= 33deg.
52o
48m
2
17.5m 1

1 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝛼
𝐹= ( 𝑐 ′𝑏 + 𝑊 − 𝛾𝑤 𝑧𝑏 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑 )
𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 1+ 𝐹′
Slice b L z A ao W Wsina cb gw zb (W- gw zb)tan Φ sec a 1+ tanatan Φ/ F sec a (2+ 3) x 4

No. (m) (m) (m) m2 (KN) (KN) (Try F= 1,1) 1+tanatan Φ/ F
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
F = (5)
(1)

Swedish method of slices
 For effective stress analysis
(𝐶𝐿 + 𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 − 𝑈 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑)
𝐹=
𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
Where;
C = Cohesion
L = length of slice bottom
U = Pore water pressure
W = weight of soil mass
𝝋 = angle of internal friction

For the slope profile shown below, the ground water regime is
represented by steady seepage with pore pressures given by the
water table level shown. Determine the factor of safety on the
slip surface shown using
(a) the Swedish method of slices
(b) Bishop’s simplified method. The unit weight of the soil
material is 22kN/m3, c = 3 KPa and 𝝋 = 26°
(c) What safety factor will you adopt, explain

(𝐶′ + 𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 − 𝑈 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑)
𝐹=
𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
Slice b L h z 𝜶o A W Wcos𝜶 U CL Wsin𝜶 (Wcos𝜶 – U) (1)+(2)

No. (m) (m) (m) (m) (m2 (KN/m) (KN/m) (KN/m) (KN/m) (KN/m) tan𝝋 (KN/m)
(KN)/m
(1) (2)

2.4 Field investigations to obtain
input for Slope stability Analysis

In-situ testing
 There is a wide variety of different tests that can be
used for evaluating the properties of the soil in the
slope.
 It is often preferable to do an in situ test in an attempt
to measure a particular parameter, rather than obtain a
sample and do a laboratory test
 Sampling results in disturbances (reduces strength
and stiffness)
 Sometimes only best (strongest) material is recovered-
not representative of overall insitu material.
Insitu testing
 Typical parameters that may be obtained either
directly or indirectly from in-situ tests
 Strength
 Stiffness
 Permeability
 Relative density
 Pore pressure

Types of in-situ tests
 Some of the most common types:
 Penetration tests
a) Dynamic (hammered in using drop weight) –e.g
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
b) Static (pushed in smoothly using hydraulics)- e.g Cone
Penetration Test (CPT)
 Vane shear test (for strength of soft clays)
 Dilatometer test (DMT)
 Pressuremeter test (PMT) or self-boring test SBP)
 Plate bearing test
 Screw plate test
Types of insitu tests
 Types used depend on geographical location (and on
predominant soil types)
 In Zimbabwe mainly Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
 In S.A and U.S.A mainly SPT
 In Australia mainly Cone Penetration Test (CPT) and
sampling
 In S.E Asia and Japan mainly SPT
 Offshore engineering mainly CPT with some sampling
 Europe – CPT (Except France- Menard pressuremeter
test

Assessment of In Situ Testing
Advantages Disadvantages
Rapid No sample recovered (except SPT)
Indirect measurement related through
Inexpensive calibration
Difficult desposits can be tested Complex data reduction
Insitu stress, pore fluid, temperature Relies heavily on empirical correlations
conditions
Real-time measurements Unknown boundary conditions
Reproducible results Unknown drainage conditions
Large volume of soil tested Strain- rate effects
Continous or semi- continous
profiling Non-uniform strains applied
Specialised equipment and skilled
operators often required

Standard penetration test

Cone penetration test

Pressure meter test

Dilatometer test

Vane shear

In-situ tests

Capabilities of the Most Common In Situ Tests
Parameter SPT CPT PMT DMT FV
Soil profiling . … - . -
Soil identification … .. - - -
Relative density .. … - . -
Horizontal stress dh - .. (sands) .. . -
Friction angle Fsands .. … .. . -
Undrained strengthclays . … . . ..
Coefficient of consolidation, Ch - .. - - -
Liquefaction resistance .. … - - -
. Provides crude estimate of property
. .Provides acceptable estimate of property
. . . Provides reliable means of estimating property

2.5 Slope monitoring techniques

Instrumentation
 Geotechnical engineering involves lots of uncertainty
in the soil properties used in the designs and theories
 Instrumentation is a popular method used to verify the
theories , assumptions, construction methods as well
as slope monitoring
 In general three primary quantities are measured in
monitoring programs for traditional geotechnical
projects: loads and stresses, deformations and pore
pressures

Instrumentation
 Various instruments and methods may be used to
determine
 The size of a slope instability
 How rapid it is moving
 The depth of failure plane
 The direction of movement
 The location of ground water in the slope
 The water pressure in the unstable slope material.

Why instrument civil works structures
 Ensure life-cycle performance of critical structures.
 Support preventive and predictive maintenance
programs for key components.
 Establish nominal conditions and loads.
 Provide real-time information or alerts in extreme
events or conditions.
 To monitor the performances of earth and earth
supported structures

Basic definitions
 Instrument: An instrument is a sensor plus other
transducers as required and a data display element
 Sensor: is a technological device that detects/senses a
signal, physical conditions and chemical compounds.
It is also defined as any device that converts a signal
from one form to another. Sensors are mostly electrical
or electronic.
 Transducer: A device that converts energy from one
form to another.

What kind of sensors can be used?
 Pore pressure sensors
 Accelerometers
 Earth pressure sensors
Load cells
 Strain gauge bridges- axial, shear, moment, torque
 Cameras

Sensors to measure displacement
 LVDT – Linear variable differential transformer
 LPT- Linear potentiometer
 Integration of accelerometer data
 Video camera
 Laser sensor
 Digital encoder

Slope instability Measurement
Options available
 Pore pressures (Piezometers, pressure cells)
 Displacements ( Extensometers, LVDTs, strain and
crack gauges)
 Movement ( GPS systems and laser sensors)
 Orientation Angle and Tilt ( Inclinometers , tilt
meters)
 Dynamic motions (Accelerometers, Geophones ,
Seismographs)

Inclinometers
 First, a well in installed. The well is constructed
vertically
 Next, the inclinometer is lowered
 If the well is properly installed, then the inclinometer
readings would show that the well is vertical.

Standpipe Piezometers
 Piezoimeters are used to monitor piezometric water
levels.
Typical applications include:
 Monitoring pore water pressure to determine the
stability of slopes, embankments and landfill dykes.
 Monitoring ground improvement techniques such as
vertical drains, sand drains and dynamic compaction.
 Monitoring dewatering schemes for excavations and
underground openings.
 Monitoring seepage and ground water movement in
embankments, landfill dikes, and dams
 Monitoring water drawdown during pumping tests.

Stand pipe piezometers
 The standpipe piezometer shown below is for
monitoring static water levels
 The borehole is sealed to prevent passage of water
from the top sand layer to the bottom sand layer

Standpipe piezometer

Instrumentation of excavated and
natural slopes
Parameter to be measured Instruments
Surface deformation • Crackmeters
•Tiltmeters
Subsurface deformation • Inclinometers
• Extensometers
•Piezometers
Groundwater pressure • Piezometers
Ground heaving at toe • Horizontal/ inclined extensometers

Slope survey

Ground penetration radar

Advanced systems
Slope Stability Radar (SSR)
 Used to assess overall slope stability over an extended
period and to critically monitor slopes that may
become unsafe
 Allows assessment of movement rates across multiple
slope areas from long ranges, with alarm capability to a
central location
 Used mainly in mines to improve safety and
production through precise and continuous slope
monitoring

Slope stability
radar(SSR)

Advanced capabilities of SSR
 Advanced analysis tools allow for long term trending
and hazard identification
 Reporting tools allow easy data collection,
presentation and export for further analysis and
reporting
 Photographs of the scan area allow user-friendly
identification and interpretation of slope movements

2.6 Slope Maintenance and
Restoration

Slope maintenance
 Many slope failures can be prevented or minimised by
careful and knowledgeable maintenance practices
 The most common practices are:
1. Hazard avoidance
2. Grading to improve slope stability
3. Reinforcement of the slope or improvement of the
soil within the slope
4. Reinforcement of the structure built on the slope to
tolerate the anticipated displacement- retaining
structure

Hazard avoidance- What not to do
 Not excavate the toe of a slope
 Not remove any lateral support for a slope or
embankment
 Not perform any type of excavation or earth work that
would permit water to pond in the slope area
 Not load the top of fill- as this ass driving force to the
slope
 Not block any drainage structure, including ditches,
pipes or culverts
 Not divert water towards the slide or slope – Water is
the primary cause of most slope failures
Surface maintenance
a) Erosion
 Regularly inspect erosion control elements such as
all ditches, slope paving, rip-rap, vegetation
 Maintain interception ditches
 Slopes should be reseeded immediately after repairs
 Curbs, dikes or berms that are not properly
maintained may permit surface water to erode soil
slopes. These should be repaired and maintained in
proper working order.

b) Vegetation
 Vegetation should be used to control erosion
 Trees and shrubs help to beautify the slope by
providing a green belt
 Grass roots hold the soil in place, preventing it from
being transported by moving water
 Water loving plants may be planted in wet areas to
absorb the excess moisture in plant growth , thereby
reducing the likelihood of a landslide
 Root systems of trees and shrubs not only hold the soil
in place but also help to reinforce the slope.

Vegetated slope

Small slide maintenance
When a small slide has occurred a number of things
can be done to prevent the slide from becoming worse
or slow or stop slide movement. These include:
 Directing surface waters away from the slide area-
using pipes or paved ditches
 If there is excess water in the slide area, provide some
form of drainage
 Ditches and pipes are best for draining ponded surface
water

 Establish vegetation to absorb some excess water and
prevent erosion
Sealing surface cracks to prevent water from saturating the
slopes
Flattening side slope
 Removing materials that are very weak or a re susceptible
to water (hard to dry) should be removed if possible and
replaced with material having a higher shear strength
Movement of all known slides or unstable areas should be
regularly monitored- helps to determine if maintenance
efforts are working.

Methods used to modify slope
profile
1.Slope flattening
 Regrading and flattening the slope of a highway fill
or cut slope is a primary and economical method
used to repair small failures
 Typically the failed slope is regraded so the new slope
is 3H:1V or 4H:1V
 The procudure entails the removal of failed material
partially or completely (cut slightly below the failure
plane to remove as much soil as possible

2. Earth and Rock Berms
Earth and rock berms are used to provide a
counterweight in the toe area of a slope.

3. Benching
 Applied where slope flattening is difficult.
 It helps to control erosion and catch debris of small
slides

4. Retaining structures
 Retaining structures offer lateral support
 They are generally placed at the toe of the distressed
area or slope.
 Typical structures used in slide correction include:
1. Concrete walls: Gravity, semi-gravity, cantilever,
counterfort
2. Eath and rock buttress
3. Crib walls
4. Piles
5. Reinforced slopes: soil nails or geogrids

Retaining structures

Geosynthetics

Stabilisation Methods
 A grading solution is not always feasible due to
physical constraints such as property-line location,
location of existing structures, the presence of steep
slopes and/or the presence of very low strength soil
 In such cases, stabilisation methods may be used to
increase the shear strength of soils in the slope
 Methods may be broadly divided into groups as
follows:
Mechanical stabilisation
Chemical stabilisation

Stabilisation methods
1. Mechanical stabilisation
 Compaction
 Densification and drainage
2. Chemical stabilisation
 Lime stabilisation
 Lime-fly ash stabilisation
 Cement stabilisation
 Asphalt stabilisation
 Waste by-products (kiln,dust e.tc)

2.7 Reinforced slope

Slope reinforcement
 There are Four main methods which are used to
reinforce slopes:
 Anchors
 Piles
 geosynthetics,
 Nails

Geotechnical nails

Slope reinforcement
 With the exception of piles, reinforcement requires an
estimation of the pullout resistance available to the
reinforcement.
 This available pullout resistance depends on the
amount of bonded length behind the slip surface (in
the passive zone) or in front of the slip surface (in the
active zone).

Soil nails
 Soil nails (steel reinforcement) are installed in regular
patterns to provide reinforcement to soils for lateral
earth retention
 The nails are drilled and grouted into the soil to
provide reinforcement.
 They can be installed with a slope protection and
drainage system. The nails are then bonded to the soil
over the entire length.

Drilling soil nails

Soil nail construction

Soil nail- shotcrete

Completed soil nail slope
Soil nail capabilities
Advantages Disadvantages
Cost effective Lack of bending resistance
Quick construction Difficult to construct on slope with high
Wall flexibility groundwater
Reduction in cut excavation Utility conflicts
Can be used in areas of limited head
room ground displacements
Incoporation of temporay support in final durability of shotcrete with respect to
structure freeze thaw
soil face must exhibit sufficient stand up
time

Geologic applicability
 Stiff to hard fine grain with a P.I less than 15
 Dense to very dense granular soils with some apparent
cohesion
 Weathered rock with no weakness planes and well
graded glacial soils
 Poorly graded loose soils with cobble and boulders
 Soils susceptible to liquefaction or collapse after
introduction of water
 Water table behind the wall increases the difficulty of
construction.

Conditions not appropriate for soil nails
 Organic soils
 Rubble fills
 Cohesive soils LL>50 , PI>20
 Cohesionless soils of uniform size
 Cohesionless soils of low strength
 Below permanent groundwater table
 Anywhere stand up time is not sufficient

Design of soil nails
 Design considerations:
1) The spacing between the first row and the top of the
wall Sv <1.2m
o
2) The spacing between the deepest row and the

bottom of the wall Sv must be in the range 0.7m-
n
1.2m
2
3) Vertical and horizontal spacing of nails S xS < 4m
v h
4) Soil nail length L ; between 0.6H and 1.2H

5) Pull out resistance µ = po

Example: Design a soil nail system for the configuration shown below
50KPa
L =13.3m
C= 42Kpa
9m 𝜸=18.8KN/m3
𝝋= 𝟐𝟓𝒐
Fs = 1.5

3. Geosynthetics

3. Geosynthetics
1. Types of geosynthetics
2. Functions of geosynthetics
3. Reinforcement
4. Separation
5. Erosion control
6. Drainage
7. Containment

Geosynthetics
 The term “geosynthetic” is made up of two words:
“geo” which means earth related and “synthetic” which
signifies man-made.
 A geosynthetic is a polymeric product and is defined as
a “planar material which is used in contact with soil,
rock or other geotechnical material as an integral part
of a man made project, structure or system”

Geosynthetics
 Geosynthetics have a wide range of generic names
which are based on their structure, these include
geomembranes, geotextiles, geonets, geomats,geocells,
geogrids, geosynthetic clay liners, geocomposites,
geopipes.
 Other geosynthetics cannot be assigned to any
category and these are called geo-others.

3.1 Types of Geosynthetics

Geotextiles
Non- woven geotextile Woven geotextile
As the name suggests geotextiles are manufactured from

textiles
They are predominantly products of polypropylene,
polyester and polyethylene.
Geotextiles are classified into three main categories
namely nonwoven, woven and knitted geotextiles
Geogrid
 A geogrids is a “geosynthetic formed by a regular

network of integrally connected elements with
apertures greater than 6.35mm to allow interlocking
with surrounding soil, rock, earth and other
surrounding materials
 Geogrids are used almost exclusively for reinforcement

Geonets
 Geonets are manufactured by bonding parallel strands

that intersect at a constant angle of either 45o or 90o
 Geonets are manufactured from high density
polyethylene.
 When geonets are laminated with geotextiles on one or
both surfaces they are referred to as geocomposites
and used as a filter and/or separator
Geomembrane
 a membrane is a thin, pliable, waterproof material.

 Geomembranes are partially impermeable because it is
not possible for a material to be absolutely impermeable.
 Their primary function is containment as a liquid or
vapour barrier or both
Geosynthetic Clay Liner
 Geosynthetics which comprise of clay bonded to a layer of

geosynthetic materials are known as geosynthetic clay liners
 The clay type used in the manufacture of GCL is sodium
bentonite.
 They are used as a composite component beneath a
geomembrane or by themselves in environmental or
containment applications
Geocells
 Geocells are also known as cellular holding systems.

 They are filled with soil or concrete for erosion control,
soil stabilisation, channel protection and structural
reinforcement.
Geocomposites
Geocomposite - geotextile and geonet Geocomposite-geotextile and geopipe
 Geocomposites are formed by bonding two or more layers of

geosynthetics that perform different functions.
 They are mostly used for drainage, filtration and erosion control.
 Some examples of geocomposites are geotextile-geomembrane,
geotextile-geonet geotextile-geogrid and geotextile-geomat.

Geomat
 A geomat is a three dimensional structure made from

polymeric monofilaments or other elements.
 They are used to prevent erosion during revegetation.
Smart geotextiles
 Emerging materials on the market are “smart geotextiles” which

comprise of fibre optics embedded onto a geotextile fabric
 The fibre optics are sensing elements which monitor stress,
strain, temperature and moisture changes in buried geotextiles.
 Smart geotextiles have high interface friction properties with
tailings hence they also improve the stability of the tailings
impoundments.
 They are a long term monitoring solution for tailings dams that
have ceased to be of use.

Geotubes
 Geotubes are geotextile containers which are used for

erosion control in marine areas.
 Mines use for storing, dewatering and consolidation of
tailings.
 Mines also use geotubes for recovery of metals which will
still be in the tailings and for treatment of acid mine
drainage.
Geo- others
Geo- others: Fibre roll
A fibre roll is a rolled tube of an erosion control blanket. It can be

made of either wood excelsior, rice or wheat straw, or coconut fibre.

Types of geosynthetics
 Geotextile
 Geogrid
 Geonet
 Geomembrane
 Geosynthetic clay liner
 Geocells
 Geocomposites
 Geomats
 Geotubes
 Geo-others

3.2 Functions of
geosynthetics

Erosion control
•One of the fastest growing segments of the geosynthetics industry is erosion

control.
•The myriad products (many are geocomposites of some type) all provide
stabilization of the immediate surface soil to prevent soil particle migration
and mass movement due to water flow.
•This function can in fact combine filtration, separation, reinforcement and
sometimes barrier during performance in erosive environments.
Erosion control
Scour protection in Coastal areas - Geotubes

Filtration
 A geosynthetic will perform a filtration function if it allows

liquid (water) to pass while controlling the soil or
particulate migration
 The geotextile, therefore must be located between the soil
being retained and the open drain material, perforated
pipe or drainage geosynthetic
 Typically geotextiles are used.
Separation
 A geotextile will perform a separation function if the

geotextile is located between two dissimilar soils or
between a soil and a man-made material and if the
geotextile prevents mixing of the two dissimilar materials
i.e. a fine grain soil and a coarse soil.
 All types of geotextiles and composites (i.e. woven and
nonwoven geotextiles as well as composites) that have
minimum strength requirements can perform this function

Separation

Drainage
 A geosynthetic that is thick and permeable in its plane

will provide a planar conduit for fluid (or gas) flow.
 This function of planar flow is usually performed by a
geosynthetic designed for planar flow such as a geonet,
geonet composite, structured (drain) geomembrane,
thick coarse fiber geotextile, geocomposite (geomat) or
wick drain.
Reinforcement
 For soils with low bearing capacity reinforcement can be used to

enhance the soil’s shear strength
 Soil is strong in compression (when confined but weak tension).
 Geosynthetics which can be used for reinforcement are:
Geogrids, Geotextiles and Geocomposites
However geogrids are specifically manufactured for reinforcement.
Reinforcement - Subgrade

Reinforcement - Slope

Barrier
 A geosynthetic of very low permeability will provide an

effective barrier to fluid migration from one area to another
as in an upstream lining on the face of a dam.
 It should be noted that geomembranes are the only
geosynthetic that can perform this function.

Functions of geosynthetics
 Reinforcement
 Drainage
 Separation
 Protection
 Barrier
 Erosion control
 Filtration

Functions of geosynthetics

Factors to consider when selecting a
geosynthetic
 Function
 Cost
 Raw material
 Manufacturing process
 Experience
 Type

3.3 Reinforcement

Reinforcement
 Soil is strong in compression (when confined) but
weak in tension, the purpose of using geosynthetics for
reinforcement is to provide tensile resistance
 The geosynthetic used to reinforce slopes should
satisfy both the strength and the soil interaction
requirements.
 The strength requirement is governed by the Long
Term Design Strength (LTDS). The LTDS is
determined by applying partial factors of safety which
account for chemical and biological durability,
installation damage and creep to the ultimate
strength. The reduction factors decrease the ultimate
strength to a safe level.
Reinforcement
 The reduction factors decrease the ultimate strength to a safe
level.
 The factors are conservative and can result in a LTDS of up to
16 times less than the ultimate strength.
where TULT = ultimate tensile strength of the geosynthetic

RFCR = reduction factor due to creep
RFID = reduction factor due to installation damage
RFD = reduction factor due to durability
FS(OVERALL) = overall factor of safety

Reduction factor values

Reduction factor values of geogrids

Example 1
a) What is the allowable geogrid tensile strength to be
used in the construction of an unpaved road
separating stone base from sub-grade soil if the
ultimate strength of the geogrid is 80kN/m, FS = 1.2
b) What is the allowable geogrid tensile strength to be
used in the construction of a permanent wall
adjacent to a major highway if the ultimate strength
of the geogrid is 70kN/m, FS = 1.5

Coefficient of direct sliding Cds and the
pullout coefficient Ci
 The soil-geosynthetic interaction properties are governed
by the coefficient of direct sliding Cds and the pullout
coefficient Ci. Cds is applied to the calculation of the safety
factor of a block of soil mass sliding over a geosynthetic
layer
 Ci is used to determine the embedment length which is the
length of geosynthetic which must be extended beyond the
critical surface for full anchorage of the reinforcement
 Geosynthetic manufacturers provide Cds and Ci values for
specific soils. These values should only be used for
preliminary design purposes, the actual values should be
determined from laboratory tests.
Coefficient of direct sliding Cds and the
pullout coefficient Ci

3.1.1 Geosynthetics reinforced
walls

Geosynthetics Reinforced walls
 A reinforced wall has a slope greater than 70deg.
Types of geosynthetics reinforced walls include:
 Timber facings –railroad ties or other large treated
timbers on which the geosynthetic is attached by
batten strips and/or held by friction when placed
between the timbers.
Articulated precast concrete panels – discrete precast
concrete panels with inserts for attaching the
geosynthetic. Many aesthetically pleasing designs are
possible.
 Full height precast panels – Concrete panels
temporarily supported until backfilling is complete.
These types of walls are challenging due to the vertical
stresses developed on the geogrid connections to the
wall after removal of the panel support.
Cast in place concrete panels – Panels that are often
attached to wraparound walls that are allowed to settle
and after a few moths are covered with a cst-in place
facing panel
Gabion facing - Polymers or steel- wire baskets filled
with stone in which the geosynthetic is held between
the baskets and fixed with rings and/or friction.

Design of reinforced wall

Design of geosynthetic reinforced wall
1. External stability involves checks for
(A) Sliding
(B) Overturning
(C) Bearing capacity
2. Internal stability involves checks for
(D) Spacing
(E) Embedment length
(F) Rankine length

Design of reinforced wall example
Design a 7m high geogrid reinforced wall. The allowable factor
of safety is 1.4. The geogrid’s ultimate tensile capacity is
160kN/m and the reduction factors amount to 4. C i = 0.75, Cds =
0.8

3.1.2 Geosynthetics reinforced
slopes

Design of geosynthetics reinforced
slopes : Procedure
1. Determine the factored friction angle
A factor-of-safety FS should be applied to the soil peak friction angle to
account for variability in soil properties and uncertainty in slope geometry
and loading. For routine slopes a value of FS = 1.5 is typical
The factored soil friction angle φf is
2. Calculate the equivalent slope height H’

3. Determine the force coefficient k from Chart 1 using the
slope angle and the factored friction
Chart 1
4. Determine the horizontal force P that must be resisted by the geosynthetic
layers:
5. Calculate the number of geosynthetic layers that are required to counter

force P:
6. Calculate the maximum allowable vertical spacing for the geosynthetic

using where z is the distance from the top
7. Determine the number of geosynthetic layers, n:

8. Determine the length of the geosynthetic from the Chart :
i. If
ii. If
Or taper the length from at the base to at the crest

Geosynthetic reinforced slope example 1
i. For the configuration below determine a suitable
reinforcement for a geotextile whose ultimate tensile
strength is 180kN/m, RfID = 1.3, RFCR = 2.5, RFD = 1.2
There is no ground water (i.e ru = 0). The factor of
safety is 1.5
ii. How would your solution change if there was no
surcharge

3.1.3 Reinforced Veneer covers

Veneer cover soils
 Whenever a lined slope ; geomembrane, GCL, or
compacted clay is covered with soil, a stability
calculation should be made to assess the potential for
sliding failure of the soil on the barrier layer.
 This includes;
i. Landfill liners with leachate collection sand or gravel
above them
ii. Surface impondment liners where the cover soil is
placed over the geomembrane to shield it from
ultraviolet light, heat degradation and damage
Veneer cover soils
iii. Landfill covers that have top soil and protection soil
placed over the geomembrane.
 In all cases the soil is relatively thin 0.3-1.0m. Hence
the sliding stability of such a veneer of cover soil is the
issue.
 Due to the typically low shear strength of the covering
soil to the liner material numerous stability problems
have risen.

Veneer cover soils
 The driving forces creating the instability are
gravitational forces, equipment loads, surcharge loads,
seepage forces and/or seismic forces.
 Each must be carefully considered in the context of
site specific conditions.

Analysis of veneer cover soils
 Consider a cover soil placed directly on a geomembrane or other
barrier at a slope angle
 Two discrete zones can be visualised. There is a small passive wedge
near the toe of the slope resisting a long thin active wedge extending
the length of the slope.
 It is assumed that at the
cover soil is of uniform
thickness and of constant
weight

 At the top of the slope we anticipate a tension crack in the cover
soil, this breaks continuity with the remaining cover at the crest
 Resisting the tendency to slide is the interface friction and/or
adhesion of the cover
soil to the specific type of
Underlying geomembrane

 By taking free body diagrams of the passive and active wedges with
the approriate forces being applied, the formulation of the factor of
safety results.
 The resulting equation is not an explicit solution of the safety factor
and must be solved using
quadratic equation.

 The resulting FS is given by

Veneer cover soil example
.
 The allowable safety factor is 1.3

Veneer reinforcement
 Geosynthetics can be used to reinforce veneer cover
soils
 A geogrid embedded in its own anchor trench at the
top of the slope is placed directly on the
geomembrane.
 Soil backfilling with light weight construction
equipment proceeds from the toe to the crest of the
slope.
 AS backfill is placed the geogrid is tensioned and
depending on the strength of the reinforcement some
or all of the gravitational stress of the soil is resisted.
 The soil is assumed to be in contact with the geomembrane (acting
through the apertures of the geogrid.
 The reinforcement is functioning at its allowable value (reduction
factors should be applied to the ultimate value)
 An additional vector is included in the active wedge i.e T the
geogrid tension.
 The interwedge force T
Acting on the active wedge is

 The interwedge force Ea Acting on the active wedge

Veneer reinforcement example (cont.)
 For the previous example what is the resulting factor of safety
if the veneer soil is reinforced with a geogrid with Tult =
150kN/m and cumulative reduction factors amounting to 4.5

3.4 Separation

Separation

Seperation

Separation

Separation

Situations that require separation
 Between subgrade and stone base in unpaved or paved
roads, airfieds
 Between subgrade and ballast in railroads
 Between old and new asphalt layers
 Between landfills and stone base courses
 Between foundation and embankment soils for
roadway fills
 Between foundation and embankment soils for earth
rock dams
 Beneath foundation subgrade layers of buildings
 Beneath sport and athletic fields

Overview of application
 In road applications a geosynthetic can adequately
perform the separation function if it meets the
following conditions:
i. Burst resistance
ii. Tensile strength
iii. Puncture resistance
iv. Impact tear resistance

Burst resistance
 Consider a geotextile on a soil subgrade with stone of
average particle diameter da placed above it
 If the stone is uniformly sized there will be voids
within it that will be available for the geotextile to
enter
 This entry is caused by the simultaneous action of the
traffic loads being transmitted to the stone , through
the geotextile and into the underlying soil
 The stressed soil then pushes the geotextile up into the
voids within the stone.

Burst resistance

Burst resistance
 The factor of safety for burst resistance is given by the
expression
Where:
ptest = burst pressure of the geosythetic at failure (kPa)
p’ = stress on geotextile (kPa)
da = average stone diameter (mm)

Burst resistance example
 Given a truck with 700kPa tire inflation pressure on a
poorly graded aggregate layer consisting of 50mm
maximum sized stone, what is the factor of safety
using a geotextile beneath the aggregate having an
ultimate burst strength of 2000kPa

Tensile strength
 While performing the seperation function the
geosynthetic will be subjected to a tensile force which
may cause it to spread laterally
 To resist the stress the geosynthetic should possess
adequate tensile strength
 The required tensile strength is given by the
expression
 Where: Treqd = required grab tensile force, p’ = applied pressure (N)

 dv = maximum void diameter = 0.33da (m)
 = strain function of the deformed geosynthetic

Tensile strength example
 Given a building load 250kPa on a stone subgrade
consisting of 50mm maximum sized stone with a
geotextile beneath it. Calculate:
a) The required grab tensile stress on the geotextile
b) The factor of safety for a geotextile whose tensile
strength is 300kN with cumulative reduction factors
of 2.
Use a value of = 0.52

Puncture resistance
 The geotextile must always survive the installation
process
 Sharp stones, tree stumps, roots, miscellaneous debris
and other items either on the ground surface beneath
the geotextile or placed could puncture through the
geosynthetic and when loads are imposed.
 The minimum strength required for the geosynthetic
to resist these loads is given by: 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑑 = 𝑝′𝑑𝑎2 𝑆1𝑆2𝑆3
 Where Freqd = required tensile force for puncture to be resisted
 da = average diameter of puncturing aggregate or sharp object(mm)
 p’ = pressure exerted on the geotextile (N)

 s1 = protrusion factor of the puncturing object
 s2 = scale factor to adjust the puncture test value to the actual
 s3 = shape factor to adjust puncture probe to the actual shape
of puncturing object
Puncture resistance example
What is the factor of safety against puncture of a geotextile from
a subrounded 25mm diameter stone on the ground surface
mobilised by a load of 550kPa. The geotextile has an ultimate
puncture strength of 300kN. Values of scale, shape and
protrusion factors are provided in the table below

Puncturing object S1 S2 S3
Angular and relatively large 0.9 0.8 0.9
Angular and relatively small 0.6 0.6 0.7
Sub-rounded and relatively large 0.7 0.6 0.6
Sub-rounded and relatively small 0.4 0.4 0.5
Rounded and relatively large 0.5 0.4 0.4
Rounded and relatively small 0.2 0.2 0.3

Impact (tear) resistance
 As with the puncture requirement the geosynthetic
must withstand the impact of various objects.
 The most obvious one is that of falling objects (stone).
Construction equipment and materials can cause or
contribute to impact damage on geosynthetics
 The problem addresses the energy mobilised by a free-
falling object of known weight and height of drop
 Rarely will an object be intentionally impelled onto an
exposed geotextile with an additional force, so only
gravitational energy will be assumed

Impact resistance modification factor

Impact (tear) resistance
 To develop a design procedure assume a free falling object
varying in diameter from 25-600mm falling from a height of
0.5 to 5m. The impact energy E;
 Where da = diameter of object (mm)

h = height of fall (m)
Impact resistance example
What energy is mobilised by a free falling rock of 300mm size
falling 1.5m onto a geotextile? The geotextile is supported
by a poor subsoil having an unsoaked CBR strength of 4.0. If the
geotextile has an allowable impact strength of 36J what is the
factor of safety

3.5 Erosion control

Types of erosion control
geosynthetics
 Erosion control geosynthetics are divided into two
main categories:
1. TERMS - Temporary erosion and revegetation
materials
2. PERMS – Permanent erosion and revegetation
materials

TERMS
 TERMS are defined as natural and/or synthetic
products which provide temporary erosion control and
facilitate vegetative establishment.
 The natural products are completely biodegradable
while the polymer products are partially degradable.
The following are some of the TERM products:
i. Straw mulch
ii. Hydraulic mulch stabilisers
iii. Erosion control meshes and nets
iv. Erosion control blankets
v. Fiber rolls
TERMS
Straw mulch can be applied by hand but when the
surface area is too great a blower machine may be
used. A tackifier (e.g anionic emulsified asphalt) is
used to fix the straw in position, securing can also
be done with a degradable mesh.
Straw mulch cannot be applied on slopes of 4:1 or
greater, the light weight and smooth texture of soil
will lead to complete failure of the system on steep
slopes
Straw mulch
Hydraulic mulchi s a one step process of seeding,
mulching and fertilizing.
It contains soil stimulants that encourages the
growth of mycorryhizal organisms which provide
plants with more nutrients.
It consists of a mixture of shredded wood fibre and a
stabilising emulsion or tackifier.
It is not suitable in places that experience heavy
Hydraulic mulch rainfall and should not be applied during the rainy
season
TERMS
Erosion control blankets can either be made from
geotextile synthetics such as polypropylene, polyester,
natural material such as straw, coconut fibre, aspen
fibre or jute or a combination of the two.
The purpose of the material is to reduce the water

velocity and protect the slope from wind effects
When used with seed they protect new vegetation
which in turn minimises slope erosion
Erosion control blanket
A fibre roll is a rolled tube of an erosion control
blanket. It can be made of either wood excelsior,
rice or wheat straw, or coconut fibre.
The rolls are encased into a netting of the desired
shape. Fibre rolls are placed at the toe and face of
slopes and function by containing and slowing
down water long enough for sediments to settle
out
Fibre roving system
PERMS
 When site conditions require reinforced vegetation or
revetment systems PERMS (Permanent erosion and
revegetation materials) are used.
 PERMS are further classified into two types namely:
Soft Armor Systems when vegetation is reinforced and
Hard Armor systems when non-vegetated inert
materials are installed

PERMS
SOFT ARMOR SYSTEM HARD ARMOR SYSTEM
UV stabilised fibre roving system Geocellular Containmemt System
Erosion control revegetation mats Fabric formed revetments
Turf reinforced mats Concrete Block systems
Discreet length geofibres Gabions
Vegetated geocellular containment Rip rap
system
Vegetated concrete block system
Silt fence

Hard armor system
Geo cellulars are permeable three dimensional
cellular confinement systems that provide erosion
control on slopes
The 3D structure provides a ‘blanket of cells on the
slope surface which can be filled with a variety of
materials such as sands, gravel and stones which in
turn improves resistance to rainwater run-off on
steep or unstable slopes exposed to severe hydraulic
or mechanical stresses
Geo-cellular containment
system These are hand placed concrete blocks filled
with sand, gravel, stones or cobbles. A
geotextile which acts a separator must be
placed on the prepared soil below the blocks.
The finished mat can bend and torque by

virtue of the blocks being articulated with
joints, weaving patterns or cables
Concrete block system
Hard armor system
Fabric formed revetments consist of geotextiles
sewn together by means of drop stitch or gathered
in discrete spacings by sewing. These two layers
are inflated in their field position by pumping
with a flowable grout or concrete mix
For slopes subject to severe underscore or
consolidation, rectangular concrete blocks are
cast in place and linked together by reinforcing
Fabric formed revetments cables if required
It consists of quarried dense rock which is placed
on top of a geofabric. The role of the geofabric is
to filter out sediments as well as to separate the
rock from the substrate soil.
It is used to stabilise slopes that are unstable due
to seepage and to slow the velocity of
concentrated run off which in turn increases the
potential for infiltration
Riprap
Hard armor system
These are wire baskets filled with hand placed
stone. The basket material can either be
galvanised steel or a suitable plastic geogrid.
gabions require a geotextile to be placed behind
them to act as a filter and separator for the
backfill soil.
Flexibility is what gives gabions their greatest
advantage. They yield to earth movements but
remain structurally sound unlike rigid structures
Gabion which fail
Gabions act as self draining units which bleed off
groundwater relieving hydrostatic heads. Also
the gabion’s efficiency increases with age; silt and
vegetation which collects in the rockfill forms a
naturally permanent structure and may be used
to remove sediments from the water

Soft armor system
•It is designed to be seeded and then filled with soil.
It enhances the plant’s natural ability to protect the
soil from erosion
•They are placed on the ground with the soil filling
above the material
•Provides better vegetable entanglement and higher
performance
•Light weight, thicker mat
•Seeding done during installation
Turf reinforced mat
A polymeric honeycombed three dimensional
cell system filled with soil and vegetation
(Shukla,2006).
It is used to combat erosion on slopes up to 45o.
The preamble nature of the geotextile allows
water to flow freely between cells therefore
encouraging drainage and vegetation growth,
Vegetated geo cellular system providing further erosion resistance

Soft armor system
It consists of hand placed concrete blocks which are
filled with soil on site and vegetated.
It is used for tough erosion control problems and
suitable for all slopes. Its rugged composition means
that it will withstand weather and remain durable
over time
It is applicable onsite with difficult access where
preassembled materials needing heavy equipment
cannot be used
Vegetated concrete block
It’s a sediment barrier made of geotextile fabric which
is held up by wooden or metal posts driven into the
ground such that its inexpensive and relatively easy to
move .
The geotextile ponds sediment laden storm water
causing sediment to be retained by the settling
process. It retains soil on disturbed land to allow
revegetation and permanent soil stabilisation to
Silt fence begin.
Geosynthetic silt fence
 Silt fences consist of above ground textiles attached
vertically onto posts to prevent sediment-carrying
sheet runoff from entering into downstream creeks,
rivers or sewer systems
 The bottom of the silt trench is embedded in a small
anchor trench
 The posts to which the geotextile is attached are
usually at 1.5m to 3.0m spacing
 Since the geotextile is exposed to sunlight it must be
U-V stabilised

Geosynthetic silt fence design
1. The maximum slope length that can be contained by a
single silt fence is obtained from the following equation for
a given slope angle
Lmax = slope length
= slope inclination as measured by its steepness
For greater slope lengths a set of cascading silt fences must be
used.
2. The runoff flow rate is determined as Q =CIA
C is the surface runoff normally taken as
Q = CIA
3. Make an assumption about the number of storm events that
the silt fence should contain

4. Determine the height of the silt fence
5. Determine the required strength of geotextile which is a
function of the spacing as illustrated below

6. Select the right type of post using the figure below

Silt fence example
 Design a silt fence for a 60m long relatively smooth
surface construction site and the average slope
inclination is 5%. The 10 year recurring single storm
intensity is 100mm/hr

3.6 Drainage

Drainage

Drainage
 The term “drain’’ means to draw out liquid.
 All geotextiles , geonets and drainage geocompositses
can drain out liquids

Drainage mechanisms
 There are three main drainage mechanisms:
1. Gravity drainage
2. Pressure drainage
3. Capillary migration

Gravity drainage
 For gravity drainage problems the driving force is the slope at
which the geotextile is placed
 The hydraulic parameter of major concern is the
transmissivity
 Using Darcy formula the required transmissivity can be
determined
 = kt q = kiA
Where k = permeability q = ki(t x w)
t = geotextile thickness q = kt (i x w)
kt = reqd = q/iw
i = gradient of flow
w = width of geosynthetic
Gravity drainage example
A 10m high zoned earth dam will be used as an irrigation reservoir
with the dam cross-section as shown in the figure below. A geotextile
is being considered as a chimney drain and drainage gallery. The
geotextile under consideration is a 2000g/m2 nonwoven needle
punched geotextile with . Use cumulative reduction
factors of 3.0. What factor of safety does this geotextile have for the
amount of flow seeping through the core wall which is clayey silt of
permeability , q = 1.5x10−4 𝑚2 /min

Pressure drainage
 Transmissivity is the key parameter in both gravity and pressure
drainage.
 In this sense the two are similar the main difference is that in
pressure drainage the water will flow from locations of higher to
locations of low pressure regardless of the geotextile’s orientation
 For a geotextile placed beneath a surcharge fill on a fine-grained
compressible foundation soil:

Capillary migration
 The upward movement of water in fine grained soils
presents problems in:
1. Cold regions- low temperatures cause moisture to
rise above the stationery water table level. This rise
results in frozen layers (ice lenses) which will expand
lifting any structure placed above it. The
phenomenon is called frost heave
Remedies for frost heave involve a capillary break or
cut-off placed horizontally at a depth beneath the
lowest elevation of the freezing isotherm.
Sands and gravels have been used but geotextiles
offer an attractive and cost effective alternative

Use of a thick nonwoven needle punched geotextile is
easily placed and can be readily graded to drain the
rising water away . Several laboratory studies and case
histories of geosynthetics used in this manner exist
ii. In hot regions – deserts and arid regions there is a similar

problem of capillary rise. As the groundwater rises it brings
dissolved salts with it. As this salt laden water reaches the
surface it kills vegetation but most importantly it attacks
foundations of both stone and reinforced concrete making
these usually adequate structural materials very friable.

3.7 Containment

Liquid Containment
 Surface impoundments are used for containment of
hazardous and non hazardous liquids

Geomembranes mostly used for
containment
 High density polyethylene HDPE
 Linear low density polyethylene LLDPE
 Polyvinyl chloride PVC

Containment

Containment

Containment

Geomembrane material selection
 The selection of the geomembrane depends on the
material’s chemical resistance This resistance must be
considered for the entire service life of the particular
installation:
i. For potable water storage – service lifetimes of
approximately 20yrs must be considered. This is similar
to general water storage for agricultural use.PVC has
been widely used due to its ease of installation compared
to other materials.
ii. For the storage of liquids containing acids, bases, heavy
metals, salts the chemical resistance chart shown below
should be consulted. For adhesive bounded seams the
seam resistance should be considered

iii.For storage of liquids that are combinations of
industrial process effluents , the most aggressive of the
individual liquids to polymeric materials should be
used for the selection process
iv. For storage liquids that are an unidentifiable or of an

unknown variety e.g from industrial processes that are
in the design stage and not yet on stream or for
leachates of a very heterogeneous nature extreme
conservatism must be used. Because of its chemical
inertness HDPE must is often used

Chemical resistance chart of geomembranes

Liquid containment liners
 Geomembranes are also referred to as pond liners
 There is a major need for and use of geomembranes to
provide liquid containment of surface impoundments
 Before selecting the geomembrane type the desired
liquid volume to be conatined versus the available land
area should be considered
 Such calculations are geometric by nature and result in
a required depth on the basis of assumed sideslope
angles . For a square or rectangular section with
uniform side slopes the general equation for volume is

Liquid containment liners
V = volume of reservoir
H = average height (depth) of the reservoir
W = width at ground surface
L = length at the ground surface
S = slope ratio
The above equation can be solved in a variety of ways and

various design curves can be generated. Such curves are given
below for a side slope of 18.4 deg. Which is 3in 1 and a square
configuration.

Liquid containment design chart
Volume versus area design charts for liquid containment ponds with side
slopes 3H: 1V

Liquid containment (example)
 A square area 125 by 125m is available for constructing a
reservoir for storage of 60 000 000L of industrial
process water. At estimated slopes of 3H: 1V what is the
required average height of the pond

Liquid containment cross sections
 The figure below shows the cross-section of an ideal site
whereby pond construction consists of :
i. Digging a whole
ii. Putting a liner in it
iii. Filling it with the
liquid to be contained
• For ideal conditions with
proper lining material, proper
construction techniques and
maintenance during its service
lifetime it is a straightforward
task. But ideal conditions and
situations are rare

Liquid containment cross sections
 The first complication has to do with atmospheric exposure and
possible damage to the geomembrane.
 To shield the from ozone, ultraviolet light, temp extremes, ice damage,
wind stresses, accidental damage and vandalism a soil cover of at least
300mm thickness is required. In the figure the soil cover extends up out of
the pit and over the liner anchorage areas
 Soil cover is troublesome on side slopes
due to gravitational sloughing and of
cover soil and liquid draw down.

Liquid containment sections
 A geotextile can be placed directly on the prepared soil subgrade
before placing a geomembrane for the following reasons:
1. It provides a clean working area for making field seams
2. It provides added puncture resistance when loads during
construction or from the cover soil are applied
3. It can add frictional resistance to the geomembrane to soil
interface, thereby preventing excessive stresses on the
geomembrane as it enters the anchor trench or allowing for
steepened side slopes
4. If properly selected the geotextile will allow for lateral and upward
scape of subsurface water and gases that rise up beneath the
geomembrane during its service life

Geomembrane line with

Geomembrane line with
geotextile underliner and overliner
geotextile underliner
with soil covering

Double liner with geonet leak Double liner with geonet leak
detection between liners detection between liners and
soil covering

Containment example
Consider a 7m deep geomembrane lined pond that will create a barrier to
rising gases from the biodegradation of the organic silt soil as shown in
the diagram below. The width of the impoundment is 200m, with the
grade rising up from the centre as shown. An estimate of gas generation is
at a pressure of 7.0kPa. Assume that the density of moist
air is . The proposed underliner to be used is a non
woven needle punched geotextile. What is the factor of safety of this
geotextile’s transmissivity for this set of conditions?

3.7.2 Covers

Covers for reservoirs and quasi solids
 Liquid and quasi –solid covers should be covered for the
following reasons:
 Reduce losses due to evaporation
 Savings on chlorine treatment
 Savings on algae control chemicals
 Reduced air pollution for reservoirs holding chemicals and
agricultural waste
 Reduced need for draining and cleaning
 Increased safety against accidental drowning
 Protection from natural pollution
 Protection from intentional pollution
 Temperature control for anaerobic decomposition of
agricultural and organic wastes

Covers

Covers

Covers for reservoirs and quasi- solids
 Geomembrane covers are often used above the surface
of storage reservoirs for liquids and quasi-solids such
as industrial and agricultural sludges.
 They are of fixed, floating or suspended types

Fixed covers
 Fixed covers are used in conjunction with small
diameter tanks whose sides are made of wood,
concrete, steel or wood
 The geomembrane is fixed at the upper edge of the
tank and takes a catenary shape towards the centre.
 Small holes are put in the cover for rainwater drainage,
but snow and wind loads can create a problem

Floating covers
 Floating covers were developed to reduce dead weight
 Formed polymers in the foam of a closed cell structure
of density as low as mg/l have been successfully used
 These lightweight foam liners have been on tanks up
to 15m diameter, and the design and construction is
somewhat unusual
 Small hole are cut into the liner to allow the cover to
drain rainwater and snowmelt accumulating on top of
it.
 The holes also help during installation allowing any air
trapped under the cover to escape.
 A free board of 300mm should be maintained.

Geotechnical Engineering I

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Geotechnical Engineering I

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

FACULTY OF INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND WATER ENGINEERING

COURSE CONVENOR: ENG. S.T. NHANDARA

February – May 2019

Continuous Assessment % Contribution

5 Storey Basement with a 6 storey hospital on top, London (2015)

1.1.3 Soil texture

c) Particle size distribution curves

Soil Type Bulk density kg/m3

These forces allow the material to exhibit shear strength

Where: c– effective cohesion

In a homogenous natural soil deposit, the ratio 𝜎ℎ /𝜎𝑣 is

Ka = Rankine’s coefficient of active pressure

Kp = Rankine’s coefficient of passive pressure

n.g.l 𝑃𝑎 = 0.5𝑘𝑎 𝛾𝐻2 H

Assumes smooth wall

C=0, 𝝋=35, 𝜸=18

Geotechnical Engineering 1 c) Cantilever walls 73

In the design of cantilever retaining walls it is preferred

Note: for e>B/6,Qmin becomes negative. This is not

General design procedure for gravity

n.g.l Width of base (d): 0.4H to 0.7H

H Width of base (c) = 0.5H to 0.7H

(n.g.l) Width of toe(d) = D/2 to D

Geotechnical Engineering 1 100

Geotechnical Engineering 1 101

Geotechnical Engineering 1 102

Geotechnical Engineering 1 109

Geotechnical Engineering 1 110

Geotechnical Engineering 1 111

Geotechnical Engineering 1 112

Geotechnical Engineering 1 113

Geotechnical Engineering 1 114

Geotechnical Engineering 1 115

Geotechnical Engineering 1 116

Geotechnical Engineering 1 117

Geotechnical Engineering 1 118

Geotechnical Engineering 1 120

Geotechnical Engineering 1 121

Geotechnical Engineering 1 122

Geotechnical Engineering 1 124

Geotechnical Engineering 1 125

Geotechnical Engineering 1 126

Geotechnical Engineering 1 127

Geotechnical Engineering 1 128

0.65kagZ 0.2gZ to 1.0kagZ

Example2: A braced excavation is required in a soft clay, as shown in Figure below. A

Geotechnical Engineering 1 136

Geotechnical Engineering 1 137

Geotechnical Engineering 1 138

Geotechnical Engineering 1 139

Geotechnical Engineering 1 143

Geotechnical Engineering 1 144

Geotechnical Engineering 1 147

Geotechnical Engineering 1 152

Geotechnical Engineering 1 153

Tailings dams are A tailings dam is the physical

Geotechnical Engineering 1 154

Geotechnical Engineering 1 158

Geotechnical Engineering 1 161

Geotechnical Engineering 1 164

Normal force (N)

Geotechnical Engineering 1 165