‫داﻧﺸﮑﺪه ﻣﻬﻨﺪﺳﯽ ﻣﮑﺎﻧﯿﮏ‬

‫ﺗﺮﻣﻮدﯾﻨﺎﻣﯿﮏ ﭘﯿﺸﺮﻓﺘﻪ‬
‫ﻣﺮوري ﺑﺮ ﺗﺮﻣﻮدﯾﻨﺎﻣﯿﮏ ﮐﻼﺳﯿﮏ‬

‫‪1‬‬
References:
 Bejan A., Advanced engineering thermodynamics-Wiley (2016)
 Bejan A., Thermal design and optimization (1996)
 Wark K., Advanced Thermodynamics for Engineers (1994)
 Dincer, I. Exergy, Energy, Environment and Sustainable
Development (2004)
 Callen, Thermodynamics and an introduction to thermostatics
(1985)

Extended References:
 Van Wylen - Fundamentals of Thermodynamics (8th Edition)
 Van Wylen, John Wiley & Sons, Fundamentals of Statistical
Thermodynamics, R.E. Sonntag, G.J.
 J.S.Hsieh, Principles of Thermodynamics,, McGraw Hill
 J. Hatsopoulos and H.J. keenan, Principles of General
Thermodynamics
Table of Contents:

 The First Law

 The Second Law

 Entropy Generation, Or Exergy Destruction

 Single-phase Systems

 Exergy Analysis

 Multiphase Systems

 Power Generation

 Refrigeration

 Entropy Generation Minimization

9-1

The Simple Ideal Rankine Cycle

4
© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,1998
9-2
Rankine Cycle: Actual Vapor Power Deviation
and Pump and Turbine Irreversibilities
(a) Deviation of actual vapor power cycle from the ideal Rankine cycle.
(b) The effect of pump and turbine irreversibilities on the ideal Rankine cycle.

• (Fig. 9-4)

5
9-3
Effect of Lowering Condenser Pressure
on the Ideal Rankine cycle

6
9-4
Effect of Increasing Boiler Pressure on the
Ideal Rankine cycle

7
9-5

The Ideal Reheat Rankine Cycle

8
9-6
Ideal Regenerative Rankine Cycle
with Open Feedwater Heater

9
9-9

An Ideal Cogeneration Plant

12
9-10

Schematic and T-s Diagram

(Fig. 9-23)

13
9-9

An Ideal Cogeneration Plant

12
9-10

Schematic and T-s Diagram

(Fig. 9-23)

13
 A supercritical Rankine cycle.

Today many modern steam power

plants operate at supercritical
pressures (P > 22.06 MPa) and
have thermal efficiencies of about
40% for fossil-fuel plants and 34%
for nuclear plants.

14
9-11

Mercury-Water Binary Vapor

Cycle
(Fig. 9-24)

15
9-12

Combined Gas-Steam Power Plant

16
Brayton Cycle
Our study of gas power cycles will involve the study of those heat engines in which
the working fluid remains in the gaseous state throughout the cycle. We often study
the ideal cycle in which internal irreversibilities and complexities (the actual intake of
air and fuel, the actual combustion process, and the exhaust of products of
combustion among others) are removed.

We will be concerned with how the major parameters of the cycle affect the
performance of heat engines. The performance is often measured in terms of the
cycle efficiency.

Wnet
 th 
Qin
17
Air-Standard Assumptions

In our study of gas power cycles, we assume that the working fluid is air, and the air
undergoes a thermodynamic cycle even though the working fluid in the actual power
system does not undergo a cycle.

To simplify the analysis, we approximate the cycles with the following assumptions:
•The air continuously circulates in a closed loop and always behaves as an ideal gas.

•All the processes that make up the cycle are internally reversible.

•The combustion process is replaced by a heat-addition process from an external

source.

•A heat rejection process that restores the working fluid to its initial state replaces the
exhaust process.

•The cold-air-standard assumptions apply when the working fluid is air and has
constant specific heat evaluated at room temperature (25oC or 77oF).

18
The closed cycle gas-turbine engine

19
The T-s and P-v diagrams for the
Closed Brayton Cycle

Process Description
1-2 Isentropic compression (in a
compressor)
2-3 Constant pressure heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion (in a turbine)
4-1 Constant pressure heat rejection

20
Recall processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic, so

Since P3 = P2 and P4 = P1, we see that

T2 T3 T4 T3
 or 
T1 T4 T1 T2
The Brayton cycle efficiency becomes
T1
 th , Brayton  1 
T2
Is this the same as the Carnot cycle efficiency?

Since process 1-2 is isentropic,

21
Since P3 = P2 and P4 = P1, we see that
( k 1) / k
T4  1 
 
T3  rp 
( k 1) / k (1.4 1) /1.4
1  1
T4  T3    1100 K    659.1 K
r 6
 p 
kJ
wturb  C p ( T3  T4 )  1005
. (1100  659.1) K
kg  K
kJ
 442.5
kg
We have already shown the heat supplied to the cycle per unit mass flow in process
2-3 is m 2  m 3  m
m 2 h2  Q in  m 3h3
Q in
qin   h3  h2
m
kJ
 C p (T3  T2 )  1005
. (1100  492.5) K
kg  K
kJ 26
 609.6
kg
Example

The ideal air-standard Brayton cycle operates with air entering the compressor at 95
kPa, 22oC. The pressure ratio rp is 6:1 and the air leaves the heat addition process at
1100 K. Determine the compressor work and the turbine work per unit mass flow,
the cycle efficiency, the back work ratio, and compare the compressor exit
temperature to the turbine exit temperature. Assume constant properties.

Apply the conservation of energy for steady-flow and neglect changes in kinetic and
potential energies to process 1-2 for the compressor. Note that the compressor is
isentropic.
E in  E out
m 1h1  Wcomp  m 2 h2
The conservation of mass gives
m in  m out
m 1  m 2  m

23
Note that the net work is zero when
k /( k 1)
 T3 
rp  1 and rp   
 T1 
For fixed T3 and T1, the pressure ratio that makes the work a maximum is obtained
from:
dwnet
0
drp
This is easier to do if we let X = rp(k-1)/k
1
wnet  C p T3 (1  )  C p T1 ( X  1)
X
dwnet
 C p T3[0  ( 1) X 2 ]  C p T1[1  0]  0
dX
Solving for X

30
Then, the rp that makes the work a maximum for the constant property case and fixed
T3 and T1 is

For the ideal Brayton cycle, show that the following results are true.
•When rp = rp, max work, T4 = T2
•When rp < rp, max work, T4 > T2
•When rp > rp, max work, T4 < T2

The following is a plot of net work per unit mass and the efficiency for the above
example as a function of the pressure ratio.
280 0.60

260 0.55

0.50
240
0.45
220
0.40
wnet kJ/kg

th,Brayton
200 T1 = 22C
0.35
180 P1 = 95 kPa
0.30
T3 = 1100 K
160
t = c = 100% 0.25
140 0.20
r p,max
120 0.15
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
31
Pratio
Since P3 = P2 and P4 = P1, we see that
( k 1) / k
T4  1 
 
T3  rp 
( k 1) / k (1.4 1) /1.4
1  1
T4  T3    1100 K    659.1 K
r 6
 p 
kJ
wturb  C p ( T3  T4 )  1005
. (1100  659.1) K
kg  K
kJ
 442.5
kg
We have already shown the heat supplied to the cycle per unit mass flow in process
2-3 is m 2  m 3  m
m 2 h2  Q in  m 3h3
Q in
qin   h3  h2
m
kJ
 C p (T3  T2 )  1005
. (1100  492.5) K
kg  K
kJ 26
 609.6
kg
The net work done by the cycle is
wnet  wturb  wcomp
kJ
 (442.5  19815
. )
kg
kJ
 244.3
kg
The cycle efficiency becomes
wnet
 th , Brayton 
qin
kJ
244.3
kg
  0.40 or 40%
kJ
609.6
kg

27
The back work ratio is defined as

win wcomp
BWR  
wout wturb
kJ
19815.
kg
  0.448
kJ
442.5
kg

Note that T4 = 659.1 K > T2 = 492.5 K, or the turbine outlet temperature is greater
than the compressor exit temperature. Can this result be used to improve the cycle
efficiency?

What happens to th, win /wout, and wnet as the pressure ratio rp is increased?
Consider the T-s diagram for the cycle and note that the area enclosed by the cycle is
the net heat added to the cycle. By the first law applied to the cycle, the net heat
added to the cycle is equal to the net work done by the cycle. Thus, the area
enclosed by the cycle on the T-s diagram also represents the net work done by the
cycle.
28
We define the regenerator effectiveness regen as the ratio of the heat transferred to
the compressor gases in the regenerator to the maximum possible heat transfer to
the compressor gases.
qregen , act  h5  h2
qregen , max  h5'  h2  h4  h2
qregen , act h5  h2
 regen  
qregen , max h4  h2
33
For ideal gases using the cold-air-standard assumption with constant specific heats,
the regenerator effectiveness becomes
T5  T2
 regen 
T4  T2
Using the closed cycle analysis and treating the heat addition and heat rejection as
steady-flow processes, the regenerative cycle thermal efficiency is
qout
 th , regen  1
qin
h h
 1 6 1
h3  h5
Notice that the heat transfer occurring within the regenerator is not included in the
efficiency calculation because this energy is not heat transferred across the cycle
boundary.

Assuming an ideal regenerator regen = 1 and constant specific heats, the thermal
efficiency becomes (take the time to show this on your own)

34
Then, the rp that makes the work a maximum for the constant property case and fixed
T3 and T1 is

For the ideal Brayton cycle, show that the following results are true.
•When rp = rp, max work, T4 = T2
•When rp < rp, max work, T4 > T2
•When rp > rp, max work, T4 < T2

The following is a plot of net work per unit mass and the efficiency for the above
example as a function of the pressure ratio.
280 0.60

260 0.55

0.50
240
0.45
220
0.40
wnet kJ/kg

th,Brayton
200 T1 = 22C
0.35
180 P1 = 95 kPa
0.30
T3 = 1100 K
160
t = c = 100% 0.25
140 0.20
r p,max
120 0.15
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
31
Pratio
Regenerative Brayton Cycle

For the Brayton cycle, the turbine exhaust temperature is greater than the
compressor exit temperature. Therefore, a heat exchanger can be placed between
the hot gases leaving the turbine and the cooler gases leaving the compressor. This
heat exchanger is called a regenerator or recuperator. The sketch of the
regenerative Brayton cycle is shown below.

32
We define the regenerator effectiveness regen as the ratio of the heat transferred to
the compressor gases in the regenerator to the maximum possible heat transfer to
the compressor gases.
qregen , act  h5  h2
qregen , max  h5'  h2  h4  h2
qregen , act h5  h2
 regen  
qregen , max h4  h2
33
For ideal gases using the cold-air-standard assumption with constant specific heats,
the regenerator effectiveness becomes
T5  T2
 regen 
T4  T2
Using the closed cycle analysis and treating the heat addition and heat rejection as
steady-flow processes, the regenerative cycle thermal efficiency is
qout
 th , regen  1
qin
h h
 1 6 1
h3  h5
Notice that the heat transfer occurring within the regenerator is not included in the
efficiency calculation because this energy is not heat transferred across the cycle
boundary.

Assuming an ideal regenerator regen = 1 and constant specific heats, the thermal
efficiency becomes (take the time to show this on your own)

34
When does the efficiency of the air-standard Brayton cycle equal the efficiency of the
air-standard regenerative Brayton cycle? If we set th,Brayton = th,regen then

Recall that this is the pressure ratio that maximizes the net work for the simple
Brayton cycle and makes T4 = T2. What happens if the regenerative Brayton cycle
operates at a pressure ratio larger than this value?
35
For fixed T3 and T1, pressure ratios greater than this value cause T4 to be less than
T2, and the regenerator is not effective.

What happens to the net work when a regenerator is added?

What happens to the heat supplied when a regenerator is added?

The following shows a plot of the regenerative Brayton cycle efficiency as a function
of the pressure ratio and minimum to maximum temperature ratio, T1/T3.

36
Using qregen, we can determine the turbine exhaust gas temperature at the
regenerator exit.
m 4 a h4 a  Q regen  m 6 h6
m 4 a  m 6  m
Q regen
qregen   h4 a  h6  C p (T4 a  T6 )
m
kJ
73.9
qregen kg
T6  T4 a   737.7 K 
Cp kJ
1.005
kg  K
 664.2 K

46
Heat supplied to cycle

Apply the steady-flow conservation of energy to the heat exchanger for process 5-3.
We obtain a result similar to that for the simple Brayton cycle.
qin  h3  h5  C p (T3  T5 )
kJ
 1005
. (1200  698.1) K
kg  K
kJ
 504.4
kg
Cycle thermal efficiency

The net work done by the cycle is

wnet  wturb  wcomp

kJ kJ
 (464.6  326.2)  138.4
kg kg
47
Summary of Results

Cycle type Actual Actual Actual Ideal Ideal Ideal

regen 0.00 0.65 1.00 0.00 0.65 1.00

comp 0.75 0.75 0.75 1.00 1.00 1.00

turb 0.86 0.86 0.86 1.00 1.00 1.00

qin kJ/kg 578.3 504.4 464.6 659.9 582.2 540.2

wcomp kJ/kg 326.2 326.2 326.2 244.6 244.6 244.6

wturb kJ/kg 464.6 464.6 464.6 540.2 540.2 540.2

wcomp/wturb 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.453 0.453 0.453

th 24.0% 27.5% 29.8% 44.8% 50.8% 54.7%

39
Compressor analysis

The isentropic temperature at compressor exit is

( k 1) / k
T2 s  P2 
 
T1  P1 
( k 1) / k
P  800kPa (1.4 1) /1.4
T2 s  T1  2   300 K ( )  543.4 K
 P1  100kPa
To find the actual temperature at compressor exit, T2a, we apply the compressor
efficiency
wisen , comp h2 s  h1 T2 s  T1
 comp   
wact , comp h2 a  h1 T2 a  T1
1
T2 a  T1  (T2 s  T1 )
 comp
1
 300 K  (543.4  300) K
0.75
 624.6 K
40
Since the compressor is adiabatic and has steady-flow
wcomp  h2 a  h1  C p (T2 a  T1 )
kJ kJ
 1.005 (624.6  300) K  326.2
kg  K kg
Turbine analysis

The conservation of energy for the turbine, process 3-4, yields for constant specific
heats (let’s take a minute for you to get the following result)

Wturb  m (h3  h4 a )
Wturb  mC
 p (T3  T4 a )
Wturb
wturb   C p (T3  T4 a )
m

41
Since P3 = P2 and P4 = P1, we can find the isentropic temperature at the turbine exit.
( k 1) / k
T4 s  P4 
 
T3  P3 
( k 1) / k
 P4  100kPa (1.41) /1.4
T4 s  T3    1200 K ( )  662.5 K
 P3  800kPa
To find the actual temperature at turbine exit, T4a, we apply the turbine efficiency.

wact , turb h3  h4 a T3  T4 a
 turb   
wisen , turb h3  h4 s T3  T4 s
T4 a  T3   turb (T3  T4 s )
 1200 K  0.86(1200  662.5) K
 737.7 K  T2 a

42
The turbine work becomes
wturb  h3  h4 a  C p (T3  T4 a )
kJ
 1.005 (1200  737.7) K
kg  K
kJ
 464.6
kg
The back work ratio is defined as
win wcomp
BWR  
wout wturb
kJ
326.2
kg
  0.70
kJ
464.6
kg

43
Regenerator analysis

To find T5, we apply the regenerator effectiveness.

T5  T2 a
 regen 
T4 a  T2 a
T5  T2 a   regen (T4 a  T2 a )
 624.6 K  0.65(737.7  624.6) K
.K
 6981

44
To find the heat transferred from the turbine exhaust gas to the compressor exit gas,
apply the steady-flow conservation of energy to the compressor gas side of the
regenerator.

m 2 a h2 a  Q regen  m 5h5
m 2 a  m 5  m
Q regen
qregen   h5  h2 a
m
 C p (T5  T2 a )
kJ
 1005
. .  624.6) K
(6981
kg  K
kJ
 73.9
kg

45
Using qregen, we can determine the turbine exhaust gas temperature at the
regenerator exit.
m 4 a h4 a  Q regen  m 6 h6
m 4 a  m 6  m
Q regen
qregen   h4 a  h6  C p (T4 a  T6 )
m
kJ
73.9
qregen kg
T6  T4 a   737.7 K 
Cp kJ
1.005
kg  K
 664.2 K

46
Heat supplied to cycle

Apply the steady-flow conservation of energy to the heat exchanger for process 5-3.
We obtain a result similar to that for the simple Brayton cycle.
qin  h3  h5  C p (T3  T5 )
kJ
 1005
. (1200  698.1) K
kg  K
kJ
 504.4
kg
Cycle thermal efficiency

The net work done by the cycle is

wnet  wturb  wcomp

kJ kJ
 (464.6  326.2)  138.4
kg kg
47
The cycle efficiency becomes
wnet
 th , Brayton 
qin
kJ
138.4
kg
  0.274 or 27.4%
kJ
504.4
kg

48
Other Ways to Improve Brayton Cycle Performance

Intercooling and reheating are two important ways to improve the performance of the
Brayton cycle with regeneration.

49
The T-s diagram for this cycle is shown below.

Sketch the P-v diagram

50
Intercooling

When using multistage compression, cooling the working fluid between the stages
will reduce the amount of compressor work required. The compressor work is
reduced because cooling the working fluid reduces the average specific volume of
the fluid and thus reduces the amount of work on the fluid to achieve the given
pressure rise.

To determine the intermediate pressure at which intercooling should take place to

minimize the compressor work.

For the adiabatic, steady-flow compression process, the work input to the compressor
per unit mass is
4 3 0
2 4
wcomp =  v dP =  v dP   v dP   v dP
1 3
1 2

51
For the isentropic compression process
k k
wcomp = ( P2 v2  Pv1 1)  ( P4 v4  P3v3 )
k -1 k -1
k kR
 R(T2  T1 )  (T4  T3 )
k -1 k -1
k
 R T1 (T2 / T1  1)  T3 (T4 / T3  1) 
k -1
( k 1) / k ( k 1) / k
k    P2     P4  
 R T1     1  T3     1 
k -1    P1     P3  
    
Notice that the fraction kR/(k-1) = Cp.

Can you obtain this relation another way? Hint: apply the first law to processes 1-4.

52
 The air-standard Otto cycle is the ideal cycle that approximates the spark-ignition
combustion engine.

Process Description
1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Constant volume heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion
4-1 Constant volume heat rejection 60
The P-v and T-s
diagrams are

61
Reheating

When using multistage expansion through two or more turbines, reheating

between stages will increase the net work done (it also increases the
required heat input). The regenerative Brayton cycle with reheating was shown
above.

The optimum intermediate pressure for reheating is the one that maximizes the
turbine work. Following the development given above for intercooling and assuming
reheating to the high-pressure turbine inlet temperature in a constant pressure
steady-flow process, we can show the optimum reheat pressure to be

P7  P6 P9
or the pressure ratios across the two turbines are equal.

P6 P7 P8
 
P7 P9 P9

55
Terminology for Reciprocating Devices

The following is some terminology we need to understand for reciprocating engines—

typically piston-cylinder devices. Let’s look at the following figures for the definitions
of top dead center (TDC), bottom dead center (BDC), stroke, bore, intake valve,
exhaust valve, clearance volume, displacement volume, compression ratio, and
mean effective pressure.

56
The compression ratio r of an engine is the ratio of the maximum volume to the
minimum volume formed in the cylinder.
V max VBDC
r 
V min VTDC
The mean effective pressure (MEP) is a fictitious pressure that, if it operated on the
piston during the entire power stroke, would produce the same amount of net work as
that produced during the actual cycle.

Wnet wnet
MEP  
Vmax  Vmin vmax  v min

57
 The Otto cycle efficiency becomes
T1
 th , Otto  1
T2
Is this the same as the Carnot cycle efficiency?

Since process 1-2 is isentropic,

where the compression ratio is r = V1/V2 and

1
 th , Otto  1  k 1
r 65
 Otto Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Spark-Ignition Engines

Consider the automotive spark-ignition power cycle.

Processes
Intake stroke
Compression stroke
Power (expansion) stroke
Exhaust stroke

Often the ignition and combustion process begins before the completion of the
compression stroke. The number of crank angle degrees before the piston reaches
TDC on the number one piston at which the spark occurs is called the engine timing.
What are the compression ratio and timing of your engine in your car, truck, or
motorcycle?

59
 The air-standard Otto cycle is the ideal cycle that approximates the spark-ignition
combustion engine.

Process Description
1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Constant volume heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion
4-1 Constant volume heat rejection 60
The P-v and T-s
diagrams are

61
 Thermal Efficiency of the Otto cycle:

Wnet Qnet Qin  Qout Qout

 th     1
Qin Qin Qin Qin
Now to find Qin and Qout.

Apply first law closed system to process 2-3, V = constant.

Thus, for constant specific heats,

Qnet , 23  U 23
Qnet , 23  Qin  mCv ( T3  T2 )

62
 Apply first law closed system to process 4-1, V = constant.

Thus, for constant specific heats,

Qnet , 41  U 41
Qnet , 41   Qout  mCv ( T1  T4 )
Qout   mCv ( T1  T4 )  mCv (T4  T1 )
The thermal efficiency becomes

Qout
 th , Otto  1
Qin
mCv ( T4  T1 )
 1
mCv ( T3  T2 ) 63
 ( T4  T1 )
 th , Otto  1
( T3  T2 )
T1 ( T4 / T1  1)
 1
T2 (T3 / T2  1)
Recall processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic, so

T2 T3
Since V3 = V2 and V4 = V1, we 
see that T1 T4
or
T4 T3

T1 T2 64
 The Otto cycle efficiency becomes
T1
 th , Otto  1
T2
Is this the same as the Carnot cycle efficiency?

Since process 1-2 is isentropic,

where the compression ratio is r = V1/V2 and

1
 th , Otto  1  k 1
r 65
We see that increasing the compression ratio increases the thermal efficiency.
However, there is a limit on r depending upon the fuel. Fuels under high temperature
resulting from high compression ratios will prematurely ignite, causing knock.

66
Example

An Otto cycle having a compression ratio of 9:1 uses air as the working fluid. Initially
P1 = 95 kPa, T1 = 17oC, and V1 = 3.8 liters. During the heat addition process, 7.5 kJ
of heat are added. Determine all T's, P's, th, the back work ratio, and the mean
effective pressure.

Process Diagrams: Review the P-v and T-s diagrams given above for the Otto cycle.

Assume constant specific heats with Cv = 0.718 kJ/kg K, k = 1.4.

Process 1-2 is isentropic; therefore, recalling that r = V1/V2 = 9,

67
The first law closed system for process 2-3 was shown to reduce to (your homework
solutions must be complete; that is, develop your equations from the application of
the first law for each process as we did in obtaining the Otto cycle efficiency
equation)
Qin  mCv ( T3  T2 )
Let qin = Qin / m and m = V1/v1
RT1
v1 
P1
kJ
0.287 ( 290 K ) 3
kg  K m kPa

95 kPa kJ
m3 68
 0.875
kg
 Qin v1
qin   Qin
m V1
m3
0.875
kg
 7.5kJ
.  10 3 m3
38
kJ
 1727
kg
Then, qin
T3  T2 
Cv
kJ
1727
kg
 698.4 K 
kJ
0.718
kg  K
 3103.7 K 69
Using the combined gas law (V3 = V2)
T3
P3  P2  9.15 MPa
T2
Process 3-4 is isentropic; therefore,

k 1 k 1 1.4 1
 V3  1 1
T4  T3    T3    (3103.7) K  
 V4  r 9
 1288.8 K

70
 Process 4-1 is constant volume. So the first law for the closed system gives, on a
mass basis,

Qout  mCv ( T4  T1 )
Qout
qout   Cv (T4  T1 )
m
kJ
 0.718 (1288.8  290) K
kg  K
kJ
 717.1
kg
The first law applied to the cycle gives (Recall ucycle = 0)

wnet  qnet  qin  qout

kJ
 (1727  717.4)
kg
kJ
 1009.6
kg 71
Refrigeration Cycles

81
The vapor compression refrigeration cycle is a common method for transferring heat
from a low temperature to a high temperature.

The above figure shows the objectives of refrigerators and heat pumps. The purpose
of a refrigerator is the removal of heat, called the cooling load, from a low-
temperature medium. The purpose of a heat pump is the transfer of heat to a high-
temperature medium, called the heating load. When we are interested in the heat
energy removed from a low-temperature space, the device is called a refrigerator.
When we are interested in the heat energy supplied to the high-temperature space,
the device is called a heat pump. In general, the term heat pump is used to describe
the cycle as heat energy is removed from the low-temperature space and rejected82 to
the high-temperature space.
74
Thermal efficiency of the Diesel cycle

Wnet Qout
 th , Diesel   1
Qin Qin
Now to find Qin and Qout.

Apply the first law closed system to process 2-3, P = constant.

Thus, for constant specific heats

Qnet , 23  U 23  P2 (V3  V2 )
Qnet , 23  Qin  mCv (T3  T2 )  mR (T3  T2 )
Qin  mC p ( T3  T2 ) 75
The Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle

The vapor-compression refrigeration cycle has four components: evaporator,

compressor, condenser, and expansion (or throttle) valve. The most widely used
refrigeration cycle is the vapor-compression refrigeration cycle. In an ideal vapor-
compression refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant enters the compressor as a saturated
vapor and is cooled to the saturated liquid state in the condenser. It is then throttled
to the evaporator pressure and vaporizes as it absorbs heat from the refrigerated
space.

The ideal vapor-compression cycle consists of four processes.

Ideal Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle

Process Description
1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Constant pressure heat rejection in the condenser
3-4 Throttling in an expansion valve
4-1 Constant pressure heat addition in the evaporator

86
 Cv ( T4  T1 )
 th , Diesel  1
C p ( T3  T2 )
1 T1 (T4 / T1  1)
 1
What is T3/T2 ?
k T2 (T3 / T2  1)

PV
3 3 PV
 2 2 where P3  P2
T3 T2
T3 V3
  rc
T2 V2
where rc is called the cutoff ratio, defined as V3 /V2, and is a measure of the
duration of the heat addition at constant pressure. Since the fuel is injected
directly into the cylinder, the cutoff ratio can be related to the number of degrees
that the crank rotated during the fuel injection into the cylinder.

77
 What is T4/T1 ?
PV
4 4 PV
 1 1 where V4  V1
T4 T1
T4 P4

T1 P1
Recall processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic, so
k k k k
PV  PV
1 1 2 2 and PV  PV4 4 3 3

Since V4 = V1 and P3 = P2, we divide the second equation by the first equation and
obtain

78
 1 T1 (T4 / T1  1)
 th , Diesel  1
Therefore, k T2 ( T3 / T2  1)
1 T1 rck  1
 1
k T2 (rc  1)
k
1 r 1
c
 1 k 1
r k (rc  1)

79
When rc > 1 for a fixed r,  th , Diesel   th , Otto .

But, since rDiesel  rOtto ,  th , Diesel   th , Otto .

80
 Q&L m&(h1  h4 ) h1  h4
COPR  &  
W net , in m&(h2  h1 ) h2  h1
kJ
(238.41  101.61)
kg

kJ
(278.23  238.41)
kg
 3.44
The tons of refrigeration, often called the cooling load or refrigeration effect, are
Q&L  m&(h1  h4 )
kg kJ 1Ton
3 (238.41  101.61)
min kg 211 kJ
min
 1.94Ton
TL
COPR , Carnot 
TH  TL
(20  273) K

(43.79  (20)) K
 3.97 90
Another measure of the effectiveness of the refrigeration cycle is how much input
power to the compressor, in horsepower, is required for each ton of cooling.

The unit conversion is 4.715 hp per ton of cooling.

W&net , in 4.715

QL& COPR
4.715 hp

3.44 Ton
hp
 1.37
Ton

91
The performance of refrigerators and heat pumps is expressed in terms of coefficient
of performance (COP), defined as
Desired output Cooling effect QL
COPR   
Required input Work input Wnet ,in
Desired output Heating effect Q
COPHP    H
Required input Work input Wnet ,in

Both COPR and COPHP can be larger than 1. Under the same operating conditions,
the COPs are related by
COPHP  COPR  1

Can you show this to be true?

Refrigerators, air conditioners, and heat pumps are rated with a SEER number or
seasonal adjusted energy efficiency ratio. The SEER is defined as the Btu/hr of heat
transferred per watt of work energy input. The Btu is the British thermal unit and is
equivalent to 778 ft-lbf of work (1 W = 3.4122 Btu/hr

Refrigeration systems are also rated in terms of tons of refrigeration. One ton of
refrigeration is equivalent to 12,000 Btu/hr or 211 kJ/min. How did the term “ton of
cooling” originate?
83
Reversed Carnot Refrigerator and Heat Pump

Shown below are the cyclic refrigeration device operating between two constant
temperature reservoirs and the T-s diagram for the working fluid when the reversed
Carnot cycle is used. Recall that in the Carnot cycle heat transfers take place at
constant temperature. If our interest is the cooling load, the cycle is called the Carnot
refrigerator. If our interest is the heat load, the cycle is called the Carnot heat pump.

84
The standard of comparison for refrigeration cycles is the reversed Carnot cycle. A
refrigerator or heat pump that operates on the reversed Carnot cycle is called a
Carnot refrigerator or a Carnot heat pump, and their COPs are
1 TL
COPR , Carnot  
TH / TL  1 TH  TL
1 TH
COPHP , Carnot  
1  TL / TH TH  TL

Notice that a turbine is used for the expansion process between the high and low-
temperatures. While the work interactions for the cycle are not indicated on the
figure, the work produced by the turbine helps supply some of the work required by
the compressor from external sources.

Why not use the reversed Carnot refrigeration cycle?

•Easier to compress vapor only and not liquid-vapor mixture.
•Cheaper to have irreversible expansion through an expansion valve.

85
The Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle

The vapor-compression refrigeration cycle has four components: evaporator,

compressor, condenser, and expansion (or throttle) valve. The most widely used
refrigeration cycle is the vapor-compression refrigeration cycle. In an ideal vapor-
compression refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant enters the compressor as a saturated
vapor and is cooled to the saturated liquid state in the condenser. It is then throttled
to the evaporator pressure and vaporizes as it absorbs heat from the refrigerated
space.

The ideal vapor-compression cycle consists of four processes.

Ideal Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle

Process Description
1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Constant pressure heat rejection in the condenser
3-4 Throttling in an expansion valve
4-1 Constant pressure heat addition in the evaporator

86
Other Refrigeration Cycles

Cascade refrigeration systems

Very low temperatures can be achieved by operating two or more vapor-compression

systems in series, called cascading. The COP of a refrigeration system also
increases as a result of cascading.

94
The ordinary household refrigerator is a good example of the application of this cycle.

Q L h h
COPR   1 4
Wnet ,in h2  h1
Q H h h
COPHP   2 3
Wnet ,in h2  h1
88
Example

Refrigerant-134a is the working fluid in an ideal compression refrigeration cycle. The

refrigerant leaves the evaporator at -20oC and has a condenser pressure of 0.9 MPa.
The mass flow rate is 3 kg/min. Find COPR and COPR, Carnot for the same Tmax and
Tmin , and the tons of refrigeration.

Using the Refrigerant-134a Tables, we have

State 2 
State1  kJ 
 h  238.41 Compressor exit kJ
Compressor inlet   1
kg  h2 s  278.23
  P2 s  P2  900 kPa  kg
T1  20o C   s  0.9456 kJ kJ  T2 s  43.79 C
o

x1  1.0   1 kg  K s2 s  s1  0.9456 
kg  K 

State 3  kJ State 4 
 h  101.61   x4  0.358
Condenser exit   3
kg Throttle exit 
  kJ
P3  900 kPa   kJ T4  T1  20o C   s4  0.4053
s3  0.3738  kg  K
x3  0.0   kg  K h4  h3 


89
 Q&L m&(h1  h4 ) h1  h4
COPR  &  
W net , in m&(h2  h1 ) h2  h1
kJ
(238.41  101.61)
kg

kJ
(278.23  238.41)
kg
 3.44
The tons of refrigeration, often called the cooling load or refrigeration effect, are
Q&L  m&(h1  h4 )
kg kJ 1Ton
3 (238.41  101.61)
min kg 211 kJ
min
 1.94Ton
TL
COPR , Carnot 
TH  TL
(20  273) K

(43.79  (20)) K
 3.97 90
Another measure of the effectiveness of the refrigeration cycle is how much input
power to the compressor, in horsepower, is required for each ton of cooling.

The unit conversion is 4.715 hp per ton of cooling.

W&net , in 4.715

QL& COPR
4.715 hp

3.44 Ton
hp
 1.37
Ton

91
Actual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle

92
Heat Pump Systems

93
Other Refrigeration Cycles

Cascade refrigeration systems

Very low temperatures can be achieved by operating two or more vapor-compression

systems in series, called cascading. The COP of a refrigeration system also
increases as a result of cascading.

94
‫‪ ‬ﺷﺮﮐﺘﻬﺎي ﻓﻌﺎل در زﻣﯿﻨﻪ ﺗﻮﻟﯿﺪ ‪ LNG‬در ﻣﻘﯿﺎس ﮐﻮﭼﮏ ﺗﺎ ﻣﺘﻮﺳﻂ‬
‫‪ ‬ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻫﺎي ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ در زﻣﯿﻨﻪ اﯾﺴﺘﮕﺎه ﻫﺎي ﻣﻘﯿﺎس ﮐﻮﭼﮏ‬
‫‪ ‬ﻧﻤﻮﻧﻪ ﻫﺎﯾﯽ از ﭼﻨﺪ اﯾﺴﺘﮕﺎه ﻣﻘﯿﺎس ﮐﻮﭼﮏ‬
‫‪ ‬اﺳﺘﺎﻧﺪارد ﺳﺎزي ﻣﺎژوﻟﻬﺎ‬
‫‪ ‬اﺳﺘﺎﻧﺪاردﻫﺎ و ﮐﺪﻫﺎي ﻣﻄﺮح در زﻣﯿﻨﻪ ﻃﺮاﺣﯽ‬
‫‪ ‬ﺗﺠﻬﯿﺰات ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻣﺎﯾﻊ ﺳﺎزي‬
‫‪ ‬ﺑﺮآورد ﻫﺰﯾﻨﻪ ﻫﺎ از ﭼﻨﺪ ﻣﺮﺟﻊ ﺑﺮاي اﯾﺴﺘﮕﺎه ﻫﺎي ﻣﻘﯿﺎس ﮐﻮﭼﮏ‬
‫‪ ‬ﺷﮑﺴﺖ ﭘﺮوژه و زﻣﺎن ﺑﻨﺪي ﺑﺮاي راه اﻧﺪازي اﯾﺴﺘﮕﺎه ﻧﻤﻮﻧﻪ‬

‫‪102‬‬
Multipurpose refrigeration systems

A refrigerator with a single compressor can provide refrigeration at several

temperatures by throttling the refrigerant in stages.

96
Liquefaction of gases

Another way of improving the performance of a vapor-compression refrigeration

system is by using multistage compression with regenerative cooling. The vapor-
compression refrigeration cycle can also be used to liquefy gases after some
modifications.

97
Gas Refrigeration Systems

The power cycles can be used as refrigeration cycles by simply reversing them. Of
these, the reversed Brayton cycle, which is also known as the gas refrigeration cycle,
is used to cool aircraft and to obtain very low (cryogenic) temperatures after it is
modified with regeneration. The work output of the turbine can be used to reduce the
work input requirements to the compressor. Thus, the COP of a gas refrigeration
cycle is
qL qL
COPR  
wnet , in wcomp , in  wturb , out

98
Absorption Refrigeration Systems

Another form of refrigeration that becomes economically attractive when there is a

source of inexpensive heat energy at a temperature of 100 to 200oC is absorption
refrigeration, where the refrigerant is absorbed by a transport medium and
compressed in liquid form. The most widely used absorption refrigeration system is
the ammonia-water system, where ammonia serves as the refrigerant and water as
the transport medium. The work input to the pump is usually very small, and the COP
of absorption refrigeration systems is defined as
Desired output Cooling effect QL Q
COPR     L
Required input Work input Qgen  Wpump ,in Qgen

99
Thermoelectric Refrigeration Systems

A refrigeration effect can also be achieved without using any moving parts by simply
passing a small current through a closed circuit made up of two dissimilar materials.
This effect is called the Peltier effect, and a refrigerator that works on this principle is
called a thermoelectric refrigerator.

100
liquefaction Process

101
‫‪ ‬ﺷﺮﮐﺘﻬﺎي ﻓﻌﺎل در زﻣﯿﻨﻪ ﺗﻮﻟﯿﺪ ‪ LNG‬در ﻣﻘﯿﺎس ﮐﻮﭼﮏ ﺗﺎ ﻣﺘﻮﺳﻂ‬
‫‪ ‬ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻫﺎي ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ در زﻣﯿﻨﻪ اﯾﺴﺘﮕﺎه ﻫﺎي ﻣﻘﯿﺎس ﮐﻮﭼﮏ‬
‫‪ ‬ﻧﻤﻮﻧﻪ ﻫﺎﯾﯽ از ﭼﻨﺪ اﯾﺴﺘﮕﺎه ﻣﻘﯿﺎس ﮐﻮﭼﮏ‬
‫‪ ‬اﺳﺘﺎﻧﺪارد ﺳﺎزي ﻣﺎژوﻟﻬﺎ‬
‫‪ ‬اﺳﺘﺎﻧﺪاردﻫﺎ و ﮐﺪﻫﺎي ﻣﻄﺮح در زﻣﯿﻨﻪ ﻃﺮاﺣﯽ‬
‫‪ ‬ﺗﺠﻬﯿﺰات ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻣﺎﯾﻊ ﺳﺎزي‬
‫‪ ‬ﺑﺮآورد ﻫﺰﯾﻨﻪ ﻫﺎ از ﭼﻨﺪ ﻣﺮﺟﻊ ﺑﺮاي اﯾﺴﺘﮕﺎه ﻫﺎي ﻣﻘﯿﺎس ﮐﻮﭼﮏ‬
‫‪ ‬ﺷﮑﺴﺖ ﭘﺮوژه و زﻣﺎن ﺑﻨﺪي ﺑﺮاي راه اﻧﺪازي اﯾﺴﺘﮕﺎه ﻧﻤﻮﻧﻪ‬

‫‪102‬‬
‫ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﻪ ﻓﻦ آوري ﻫﺎي ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺗﻮﻟﯿﺪ ‪LNG‬‬

‫‪105‬‬
‫ﺷﺒﯿﻪ ﺳﺎزي ﺑﺎ ﻧﺮم اﻓﺰار ‪Hysys‬‬

‫‪113‬‬
‫ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﻪ ﻓﻦ آوري ﻫﺎي ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺗﻮﻟﯿﺪ ‪LNG‬‬

‫‪105‬‬
‫)‪Single Mixed Refrigerant (SMR‬‬

‫‪ ‬ﻣﺒﺮد ﻣﺨﻠﻮط ﺗﮏ ﻣﺒﺪﻟﻪ راﯾﺞ ﺗﺮﯾﻦ و ارزاﻧﺘﺮﯾﻦ ﻓﺮاﯾﻨﺪ ﺗﻮﻟﯿﺪ ‪ LNG‬اﺳﺖ‪.‬‬

‫‪ ‬ﻣﺨﻠﻮط ﮔﺎزﻫﺎي ﻣﺒﺮد ﺷﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﺘﺎن‪ ،‬اﺗﺎن‪ ،‬ﭘﺮوﭘﺎن‪ ،‬ﭘﻨﺘﺎن‪ ،‬و ﻧﯿﺘﺮوژن اﺳﺖ‪.‬‬
‫‪ ‬ﺗﺮﮐﯿﺒﺎت اﯾﻦ ﻣﺨﻠﻮط ﺑﺎﯾﺪ ﺑﻪ ﮔﻮﻧﻪ اي ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ﮐﻪ ﻣﻨﺤﻨﯽ ﻣﺸﺨﺼﻪ آن ﺑﺎ ﻣﻨﺤﻨﯽ ﻣﺸﺨﺼﻪ ﮔﺎز ﻃﺒﯿﻌﯽ ﻣﻨﻄﺒﻖ ﺷﻮد‪ .‬ﻫﺮ ﭼﻪ اﯾﻦ‬
‫اﻧﻄﺒﺎق ﺑﯿﺸﺘﺮ ﺷﻮد ﺑﺎزده ﺳﯿﮑﻞ ﺗﺒﺮﯾﺪ ﺑﯿﺸﺘﺮ ﺧﻮاﻫﺪ ﺷﺪ‪.‬‬

‫‪106‬‬
 ‫‪Extensions of Single Mixed‬‬
‫‪Refrigerant‬‬
‫‪ ‬اﯾﻦ ﻓﺮاﯾﻨﺪ ﻧﺮخ ﺳﺮﻣﺎﯾﺶ زﯾﺎدي اﯾﺠﺎد ﻣﯽ ﮐﻨﺪ ﮐﻪ ﻣﻨﺠﺮ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺼﺮف ﺗﻮان ﺑﺎﻻي ﮐﻤﭙﺮﺳﻮر ﺧﻮاﻫﺪ ﺷﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪ ‬اﻟﺒﺘﻪ دو ﻣﺮﺣﻠﻪ اي ﮐﺮدن ﻓﺮاﯾﻨﺪ ﺗﺮاﮐﻢ و اﺳﺘﻔﺎده از ﺳﺮد ﮐﺮدن ﻣﯿﺎﻧﯽ ﻣﯽ ﺗﻮاﻧﺪ ﮐﺎر ﻣﺼﺮﻓﯽ ﺟﻬﺖ ﺗﺮاﮐﻢ را ﮐﺎﻫﺶ دﻫﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪ ‬ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺗﺮاﮐﻢ در ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ‪ Niche LNG‬ﮐﻤﺘﺮ ﺧﻮاﻫﺪ ﺑﻮد‪.‬‬
‫‪ ‬ﺑﻪ ﻣﻨﻈﻮر اﻓﺰاﯾﺶ ﺑﺎزدﻫﯽ ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻣﯽ ﺗﻮان از ﯾﮏ ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﭘﯿﺶ ﺳﺮد ﮐﻦ اوﻟﯿﻪ ﻫﻢ اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ﻧﻤﻮد ﮐﻪ اﯾﻦ اﻣﺮي ﻣﺘﺪاول‬
‫اﺳﺖ‪ .‬ﻣﺒﺮد ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﭘﯿﺶ ﺳﺮدﮐﻦ ﻋﻤﻮﻣﺎ ﭘﺮوﭘﺎن اﺳﺖ ﺗﺎ ﻃﯽ آن دﻣﺎي ﮔﺎز ﺑﻪ ﺣﺪود ‪ -35‬ﺳﺎﻧﺘﯿﮕﺮاد ﻗﺒﻞ از ﭼﺮﺧﻪ‬
‫ﺳﺮﻣﺎﯾﺶ اﺻﻠﯽ ﻣﯽ رﺳﺪ‪.‬‬

‫‪107‬‬
‫ﺷﺒﯿﻪ ﺳﺎزي ﺑﺎ ﻧﺮم اﻓﺰار ‪ Hysys‬و ﺑﻬﯿﻨﻪ ﺳﺎزي در ‪MATLAB‬‬

‫‪APCI‬‬

‫‪116‬‬
‫‪Dual nitrogen refrigerant‬‬

‫ﺑﺮﺧﯽ ﻣﺤﺎﺳﻦ ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﺳﺮﻣﺎﯾﺶ ﻧﯿﺘﺮون‪:‬‬

‫‪ ‬اﺟﺰاي ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﺳﺎده اﺳﺖ و ﺗﻌﺪاد ﺗﺠﻬﯿﺰات ﻣﻮرد ﻧﯿﺎز‪ ،‬زﯾﺎد ﻧﯿﺴﺖ‬
‫‪ ‬راه اﻧﺪازي و ﻧﮕﻬﺪاري ﮐﻢ ﻫﺰﯾﻨﻪ ﺗﺠﻬﯿﺰات‬
‫‪ ‬ﺗﮑﻔﺎز ﺑﻮدن ﺳﯿﮑﻞ – ﻓﻘﻂ در ﻓﺎز ﮔﺎزي ﺧﻮاﻫﺪ ﺑﻮد‪.‬‬
‫‪ ‬اﯾﻤﻨﯽ ﻋﻤﻠﮑﺮد اﯾﻤﻦ در ﻓﺸﺎر ﺑﺎﻻ و ﻗﺎﺑﻠﯿﺖ ﺗﺮاﮐﻢ دو ﻣﺮﺣﻠﻪ اي و ﻏﯿﺮﻗﺎﺑﻞ اﺷﺘﻌﺎل ﺑﻮدن ﻧﯿﺘﺮوژن‬

‫‪109‬‬
‫‪Niche LNG‬‬

‫ﻣﺒﺮد در ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﺗﺒﺮﯾﺪ‪ ،‬ﮔﺎز ﻣﺘﺎن و ﻧﯿﺘﺮوژن در دو ﭼﺮﺧﻪ‬

‫ﻣﺠﺰاﺳﺖ‪ .‬ﯾﮏ ﺳﯿﮑﻞ ﺑﺴﺘﻪ و دﯾﮕﺮي ﺑﺎز اﺳﺖ ﮐﻪ داراي‬
‫ﻓﺸﺎر و ﻓﺮاﯾﻨﺪ ﻣﺘﻔﺎوﺗﻨﺪ وﻟﯽ در ﻓﺮآﯾﻨﺪ ﺳﺮدﺳﺎزي‬
‫ﻫﻤﺎﻫﻨﮓ ﻫﺴﺘﻨﺪ‪.‬‬

‫در ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻓﺸﺎر ﺑﺎﻻ اﻧﺪازه ﻟﻮﻟﻪ ﻫﺎ و ﺷﯿﺮﻫﺎ و دﯾﮕﺮ‬

‫ﺗﺠﻬﯿﺰات ﮐﻮﭼﮑﺘﺮ اﺳﺖ و اﯾﻦ ﺳﯿﮑﻞ در ﻣﻮاردي ﮐﻪ‬
‫ﻣﺤﺪودﯾﺖ ﻓﻀﺎ وﺟﻮد دارد ﻣﺰﯾﺖ دارد‪.‬‬

‫ﻫﺮ دو ﺳﯿﺎل ﻋﺎﻣﻞ در ﻃﯽ ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﺗﮏ ﻓﺎز ﻣﯽ ﻣﺎﻧﻨﺪ و‬

‫ﻣﺴﺎﯾﻞ ﺟﺮﯾﺎن دو ﻓﺎز و ﻧﯿﺎز ﺑﻪ ﺗﺠﻬﯿﺰات ﻣﺮﺑﻮط ﺑﻪ ﻓﺎز‬
‫ﻣﺎﯾﻊ وﺟﻮد ﻧﺪارد‪.‬‬

‫‪110‬‬
‫ﻣﻌﯿﺎرﻫﺎي اﻧﺘﺨﺎب ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﺑﺮ ﺣﺴﺐ ﻇﺮﻓﯿﺖ‬
‫ﺗﻮﻟﯿﺪ‬

‫‪119‬‬
‫ﺷﺒﯿﻪ ﺳﺎزي ﻫﺎي ﻋﺪدي ﭼﺮﺧﻪ‬
‫ﺗﺮﻣﻮدﯾﻨﺎﻣﯿﮑﯽ‬

‫‪112‬‬
‫ﻣﯿﺰان ﺳﺮﻣﺎﯾﻪ ﮔﺬاري ﻣﻮرد ﻧﯿﺎز ﺑﺮاي ﺑﺨﺸﻬﺎي‬
‫ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ‬

‫‪123‬‬
Dual N2 ‫ و‬NicheLNG ‫ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﻪ ﭼﺮﺧﻪ‬

114
‫ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﻪ ﺗﻮان ﻣﺼﺮﻓﯽ در ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ‪ N2‬ﻣﺪل ﺷﺮﮐﺖ ‪TOTAL‬‬

‫‪126‬‬
‫ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﻪ ﺗﻮان ﻣﺼﺮﻓﯽ در ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻣﺨﻠﻮط ﻣﺒﺮدﻫﺎ ﻣﺪل ‪APCI‬‬

‫‪127‬‬
‫ﻧﻤﻮدار ﻣﯿﺰان ﺳﺮﻣﺎﯾﺶ ﺑﺮ ﺣﺴﺐ ﮐﺎﻫﺶ دﻣﺎ در دو ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ‬

‫‪128‬‬
‫ﻣﻌﯿﺎرﻫﺎي اﻧﺘﺨﺎب ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻣﻨﺎﺳﺐ‬

‫‪ ‬وزن و ﺣﺠﻢ ﮐﻢ ﺗﺠﻬﯿﺰات ﺑﺎ ﺗﻮﺟﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺤﺪودﯾﺖ ﻫﺎي ﻓﻀﺎ و وزن‬

‫‪ ‬اﻧﻌﻄﺎف ﭘﺬﯾﺮي ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﺗﺮﮐﯿﺒﺎت ﮔﺎز ﺗﻐﺬﯾﻪ ورودي ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ‬
‫‪ ‬ﻗﺎﺑﻠﯿﺖ راه اﻧﺪازي ﺳﺮﯾﻊ و ﺗﻮﻗﻒ در ﻣﻮاﻗﻊ ﺿﺮوري‬
‫‪ ‬ﻋﻤﻠﮑﺮد ﺳﺎده و در ﻋﯿﻦ ﺣﺎل ﺑﻬﯿﻨﻪ‬
‫‪ ‬ﻫﺰﯾﻨﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺻﺮﻓﻪ راه اﻧﺪازي و ﺗﻌﻤﯿﺮ و ﻧﮕﻬﺪاري‬
‫‪ ‬ﻫﺰﯾﻨﻪ ﮐﻢ ﺗﺒﺪﯾﻞ ‪ LNG‬ﺑﻪ ﮔﺎز‬

‫‪118‬‬
‫ﻣﻌﯿﺎرﻫﺎي اﻧﺘﺨﺎب ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﺑﺮ ﺣﺴﺐ ﻇﺮﻓﯿﺖ‬
‫ﺗﻮﻟﯿﺪ‬

‫‪119‬‬
130
 ‫ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﻪ ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻫﺎي ﺗﺒﺮﯾﺪ ﺗﺮاﮐﻤﯽ و ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻣﺨﻠﻮط ﻣﺒﺮدﻫﺎ‬

‫در ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻣﺨﻠﻮط ﻣﺒﺮدﻫﺎ ﻓﻀﺎي ﺑﯿﺸﺘﺮي ﻧﺴﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻧﯿﺘﺮوژن ﻧﯿﺎز ﻣﯽ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪ .‬ﻓﺸﺎر‬
‫‪Compact‬‬ ‫در ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻧﯿﺘﺮوژن ﺑﺎﻻﺗﺮ اﺳﺖ و ﻫﻤﭽﻨﯿﻦ ﺑﺮ ﺧﻼف ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻣﺨﻠﻮط ﻣﺒﺮدﻫﺎ‪ ،‬اﺷﺘﻌﺎل ﭘﺬﯾﺮ‬
‫ﻧﯿﺴﺖ‪.‬‬

‫‪Efficiency‬‬ ‫ﺑﺎزدﻫﯽ ﺑﺎﻻي ﺗﺮﻣﻮدﯾﻨﺎﻣﯿﮑﯽ در ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻣﺨﻠﻮط ﻣﺒﺮدﻫﺎ‬

‫ﺗﻌﺪاد ﺑﺎﻻي ﺗﺠﻬﯿﺰات و ﭘﯿﭽﯿﺪﮔﯽ در ﻣﺒﺮد ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻣﺨﻠﻮط ﻣﺒﺮدﻫﺎ‪ ،‬ﻫﻤﭽﻨﯿﻦ ‪Start up‬‬
‫‪Operation‬‬ ‫ﮐُﻨﺪ و ﻧﯿﺎز ﺑﻪ ‪flare‬‬

‫‪Safety‬‬ ‫اﯾﻤﻦ ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﺑﺮ اﺳﺎس ﻧﻮع ﻣﺒﺮد ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻧﯿﺘﺮوژن ﻣﯽ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ ﮐﻪ ﻣﺒﺮد ﻗﺎﺑﻠﯿﺖ اﺣﺘﺮاق ﻧﺪارد‪.‬‬

‫‪121‬‬
Liquefaction processes
Specifications

122
‫ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﻪ ﺑﯿﻦ ﺳﺮﻣﺎﯾﻪ ﮔﺬاري در ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻫﺎي ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺑﺮاي اﯾﺴﺘﮕﺎه ﻫﺎي ﻇﺮﻓﯿﺖ ﮐﻢ‬

‫‪132‬‬
‫اﻃﻼﻋﺎت ﮐﻠﯽ راﺟﻊ ﺑﻪ ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻫﺎ در اﯾﺴﺘﮕﺎه‬
‫ﻫﺎي ‪MINI LNG‬‬
‫‪124‬‬
‫ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﻪ ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻫﺎي ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻣﺎﯾﻊ ﺳﺎزي ‪ LNG‬ﺑﺎ ﻇﺮﻓﯿﺖ ‪ 50‬ﺗﻦ در‬
‫روز‬
‫ﻇﺮﻓﯿﺖ ﺗﻮﻟﯿﺪ‪ :‬روزاﻧﻪ ‪ 50‬ﺗﻦ ‪LNG‬‬
‫در اﯾﻦ ﺧﺼﻮص روﺷﻬﺎي ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﯽ ﭘﯿﺸﻨﻬﺎد ﺷﺪه اﺳﺖ وﻟﯽ ﺷﺎﺧﺼﺘﺮﯾﻦ آﻧﻬﺎ ﻋﺒﺎرﺗﻨﺪ از‪:‬‬
‫‪SMR ‬‬
‫‪C3/MR ‬‬
‫‪N2 Expander ‬‬

‫‪125‬‬
‫ﻣﺸﺨﺼﺎت ﺗﺮﮐﯿﺐ ﻣﺒﺮدﻫﺎي اﺣﺘﻤﺎﻟﯽ‬

‫‪134‬‬
‫ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﻪ ﺗﻮان ﻣﺼﺮﻓﯽ در ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻣﺨﻠﻮط ﻣﺒﺮدﻫﺎ ﻣﺪل ‪APCI‬‬

‫‪127‬‬
‫ﻧﻤﻮدار ﻣﯿﺰان ﺳﺮﻣﺎﯾﺶ ﺑﺮ ﺣﺴﺐ ﮐﺎﻫﺶ دﻣﺎ در دو ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ‬

‫‪128‬‬
‫ﻧﻤﺎﯾﯽ از ﯾﮏ ﻣﺨﺰن ذﺧﯿﺮه‬

‫‪137‬‬
130
‫ﻣﺒﺪل ﺣﺮارﺗﯽ دﻣﺎ ﭘﺎﯾﯿﻦ‬

‫‪140‬‬
‫ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﻪ ﺑﯿﻦ ﺳﺮﻣﺎﯾﻪ ﮔﺬاري در ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻫﺎي ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺑﺮاي اﯾﺴﺘﮕﺎه ﻫﺎي ﻇﺮﻓﯿﺖ ﮐﻢ‬

‫‪132‬‬
142
‫ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻫﺎي ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ روش ﺗﺒﺮﯾﺪ ﻣﺨﻠﻮط ﻣﺒﺮدﻫﺎ ﺑﺪون ﭘﯿﺶ ﺳﺮﻣﺎﯾﺶ ﻣﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﺑﺮاي اﯾﺴﺘﮕﺎه‬
‫ﺗﻮﻟﯿﺪ ‪ LNG‬در ﻣﻘﯿﺎس ﮐﻮﭼﮏ‬

‫‪143‬‬
 ‫ﻧﺤﻮه ذﺧﯿﺮه ﺳﺎزي ‪LNG‬‬
‫ﻣﻨﺎﺑﻊ ذﺧﯿﺮه ﺑﺮاي اﯾﻦ ﮐﺎر ﻋﺒﺎرﺗﻨﺪ از‪:‬‬
‫‪ -1‬ﻣﺨﺎزن ذﺧﯿﺮه ﺑﺎ ﺳﻄﻮح ﻓﻮﻻدي داﺧﻞ و ﺧﺎرج و ﻋﺎﯾﻖ ﭘﺮﻟﯿﺖ ﻣﻨﺒﺴﻂ ﺷﺪه ﺑﻌﻨﻮان ﻋﺎﯾﻖ و ﮐﻒ‬
‫ﮐﺎﻣﻼ ﻋﺎﯾﻖ ﺷﺪه‬
‫‪ -2‬ﻣﺨﺎزن ﺑﺎ دﯾﻮاره داﺧﻠﯽ ﻓﻠﺰي ﺧﺎرﺟﯽ ﺑﺘﻮﻧﯽ‬
‫ﺑﺎ ﺗﻮﺟﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺣﺠﻢ ﮐﻢ ﻣﻮرد ﻧﻈﺮ )‪ 200-100‬ﻣﺘﺮ ﻣﮑﻌﺐ( ﻣﺨﺎزن ذﺧﯿﺮه ﻧﻮع اول ﭘﯿﺶ ﺑﯿﻨﯽ ﻣﯽ ﺷﻮد‬
‫ﺑﺎ ﺗﻮﺟﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻣﺎﯾﻊ ﺑﺎ دﻣﺎي ﺣﺪود ‪ -160 C‬در ﻻﯾﻪ داﺧﻠﯽ و ﮐﻒ ﻣﺨﺰن از ﻓﻮﻻد ‪ 9% Ni‬ﺑﺎ اﺳﺘﺎﻧﺪارد‬
‫‪ ASTM A553‬ﯾﺎ ﻣﻌﺎدل آن اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ﻣﯿﺸﻮد‪ .‬اﻟﮑﺘﺮود ﺟﻮﺷﮑﺎري ﻧﯿﺰ ﯾﮑﯽ از ﮔﺮﯾﺪﻫﺎي‬
‫‪ INCONEL‬اﺳﺖ‪ .‬ﺑﺎ ﺗﻮﺟﻪ ﺑﻪ ﻧﯿﺎز ﺑﻪ ﻣﻘﺎوﻣﺖ ﺑﻪ ﺿﺮﺑﻪ در دﻣﺎي ﺑﺴﯿﺎر ﭘﺎﯾﯿﻦ‪ ،‬اﯾﻦ ﺗﺴﺖ در دﻣﺎي ‪-‬‬
‫‪ 196C‬در اﯾﺮان ﻗﺎﺑﻞ اﻧﺠﺎم ﻣﯽ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪.‬‬

‫‪135‬‬
‫اﺳﺘﺎﻧﺪارد ﺗﺴﺖ ﻣﺨﺎزن ذﺧﯿﺮه‬

‫‪136‬‬
146
 ‫اﺳﺘﺎﻧﺪاردﻫﺎي ﻣﺮﺗﺒﻂ‬

‫اﺳﺘﺎﻧﺪاردﻫﺎي ﻣﻮﺟﻮد در راﺑﻄﻪ ﺑﺎ ﻓﺮاﯾﻨﺪ ‪ LNG‬ﻣﺮﺑﻮط ﺑﻪ اﻟﻤﺎﻧﻬﺎي ﭘﺮوﺳﻪ ﻣﯽ ﺑﺎﺷﻨﺪ و ﺑﻌﻀﯽ‬ ‫•‬
‫از آﻧﻬﺎ ﻋﺒﺎرﺗﻨﺪ از‪:‬‬
‫ﻣﺨﺎزن ذﺧﯿﺮه ‪LNG‬‬ ‫‪ API 625‬و ‪BS EN14620 part 1,2‬‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ﻧﺼﺐ و راه اﻧﺪازي ﭘﻠﻨﺘﻬﺎي ‪ LNG‬در‬ ‫‪BS EN 1473‬‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ﺧﺸﮑﯽ‬
‫ﻣﺸﺨﺼﺎت ﮐﻠﯽ ‪LNG‬‬ ‫‪EN 1160‬‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ﻋﺎﯾﻘﮑﺎري و ﺗﺴﺘﻬﺎي آب ﺑﻨﺪي‬ ‫‪EN 12066‬‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ﻃﺮاﺣﯽ ‪PIPING‬‬ ‫‪EN 13480‬‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ﭘﺮﻟﯿﺖ ﻋﺎﯾﻘﮑﺎري ﻣﺨﺎزن‬ ‫‪ASTM C549‬‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ﺗﺴﺘﻬﺎي ﺿﺮﺑﻪ در دﻣﺎي ﺑﺴﯿﺎر ﮐﻢ‬ ‫‪ EN 10045‬و ‪EN875‬‬ ‫‪‬‬

‫‪138‬‬
‫ﺗﺠﻬﯿﺰات اﺻﻠﯽ ﻣﻮرد ﻧﯿﺎز و ﭼﺎﻟﺸﻬﺎي ﭘﯿﺶ رو‬

Kind of Mixture
Screw Cryogenic Heat
Special Pumps Refrigerant
Compressor Exchanger
Components

Special
Storage Tanks Materials
Welding

139
‫ﻣﺒﺪل ﺣﺮارﺗﯽ دﻣﺎ ﭘﺎﯾﯿﻦ‬

‫‪140‬‬
 Small Scale
Liquefiers,
Operating and
Planned

147
142
‫ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻫﺎي ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ روش ﺗﺒﺮﯾﺪ ﻣﺨﻠﻮط ﻣﺒﺮدﻫﺎ ﺑﺪون ﭘﯿﺶ ﺳﺮﻣﺎﯾﺶ ﻣﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﺑﺮاي اﯾﺴﺘﮕﺎه‬
‫ﺗﻮﻟﯿﺪ ‪ LNG‬در ﻣﻘﯿﺎس ﮐﻮﭼﮏ‬

‫‪143‬‬
‫ﭼﻨﺪ اﯾﺴﺘﮕﺎه ﻧﻤﻮﻧﻪ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﻫﻤﺮاه ﭼﺮﺧﻪ و‬
‫ﻇﺮﻓﯿﺖ ﺗﻮﻟﯿﺪ‬

‫‪144‬‬
 Small Scale
Liquefiers,
Operating and
Planned

145
146
 Small Scale
Liquefiers,
Operating and
Planned

147
 ‫ﺷﺮﮐﺖ ‪Linde‬‬

‫ﻣﺤﺪوده ﺗﻮﻟﯿﺪ اﯾﺴﺘﮕﺎه ﻣﻘﯿﺎس ﮐﻮﭼﮏ اﯾﻦ ﺷﺮﮐﺖ‬

‫‪ 100‬ﺗﺎ ‪ 1600‬ﺗﻦ ‪ LNG‬در روز‬

‫‪148‬‬
‫اﺳﺘﺎﻧﺪارد ﺳﺎزي ﻣﺎژوﻟﻬﺎ در ﺷﺮﮐﺖ ‪Linde‬‬

‫‪149‬‬
156
‫روﻧﺪ اﻓﺰاﯾﺶ ﻣﯿﺰان ﺗﻘﺎﺿﺎ ﺑﺮاي ﻣﻨﺎﺑﻊ ﻫﯿﺪروﮐﺮﺑﻮري‬
‫ﻣﺴﯿﺮ ﻫﺎي ﺣﻤﻞ درﯾﺎﯾﯽ ‪LNG‬‬

‫‪157‬‬
152
 ‫ﻣﺤﺪوده ﺗﻮﻟﯿﺪ اﯾﺴﺘﮕﺎه ﻣﻘﯿﺎس ﮐﻮﭼﮏ اﯾﻦ ﺷﺮﮐﺖ‬
‫‪ 5‬ﺗﺎ ‪ 400‬ﺗﻦ ‪ LNG‬در روز‬

‫ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﺗﺒﺮﯾﺪ ﻧﯿﺘﺮوژﻧﯽ‬

‫ﭼﺮﺧﻪ ﻣﺨﻠﻮط ﻣﺒﺮدﻫﺎ‬

‫‪153‬‬
154
Hamaworthy ‫ﺷﺮﮐﺖ‬

155
156
‫روﻧﺪ اﻓﺰاﯾﺶ ﻣﯿﺰان ﺗﻘﺎﺿﺎ ﺑﺮاي ﻣﻨﺎﺑﻊ ﻫﯿﺪروﮐﺮﺑﻮري‬
‫ﻣﺴﯿﺮ ﻫﺎي ﺣﻤﻞ درﯾﺎﯾﯽ ‪LNG‬‬

‫‪157‬‬
 ‫ﭘﺮاﮐﻨﺪﮔﯽ ﻣﻨﺎﺑﻊ ﻋﻤﺪه ﺗﻮﻟﯿﺪ‬
‫ﭘﺮاﮐﻨﺪﮔﯽ ﺑﺎزارﻫﺎي ﻋﻤﺪه ﻣﺼﺮف‬

‫ﻣﻘﺎﯾﺴﻪ ﻫﺰﯾﻨﻪ ﻫﺎي اﻧﺘﻘﺎل ‪LNG‬‬

‫‪1600‬‬
‫‪km‬‬
‫‪4000‬‬
‫‪km‬‬

‫‪158‬‬
159