Tomographic Filters in Image Reconstruction: A Dissertation

TOMOGRAPHIC FILTERS IN IMAGE RECONSTRUCTION
A DISSERTATION
Submitted In partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of the degree
of
MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY
in
SOLID STATE ELECTRONIC MATERIALS
By
SATISH RAJ GOYAL
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE
ROORKEE- 247 667 (INDIA)
JUNE, 2005
CANDIDATE'S DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the work which is being presented in this dissertation entitled
"TOMOGRAPHIC FILTERS IN IMAGE RECONSTRUCTION" in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of "Master of Technology" in
Solid State Electronic Materials submitted in the Department of Physics, Indian
Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee is an authentic record of my own work carried
out from August 2004 to May 2005 under the supervision and guidance of Dr. Tanuja
Srivastava, Department of Mathematics, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee and Dr.
S.K. Barthwal, Department of Physics, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee.
I have not submitted the matter embodied in this dissertation work for the award
of any other degree.

Date: 2g 3 -t e gods ( atish Raj Coyal)
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidate is correct to the best of
my knowledge.
(Tanuja Sriv stava) (S.K. Barthwal)

Associate Professor Associate Professor
Department of Mathematics Department of Physics
IIT Roorkee IIT Roorkee
Roorkee-247667 Roorkee — 247667
INDIA INDIA
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
With great pleasure, I express my sincere and profound gratitude to my supervisor, Dr.
Tanuja Srivastava, Department of Mathematics Institute of Technology Roorkee
and Dr. S.K.Barthwal, Department of Physics, Indian Institute of Technology
Roorkee, for his erudite and invaluable guidance throughout my dissertation work. His
gratitude, analytical and methodical way of working has inspired me and under his
guidance I have learned a lot.
I am extremely grateful to Prof. Jagdish Rai, Head of Department and Prof. R.
Nath, Course Coordinator of M.Tech. (SSEM), Department of Physics, Indian Institute of
Technology, Roorkee, for providing me all the necessary facilities, continuing support,
and encouragement.
I am also thankful to all my friends and classmates for their help, co-operation
and a constant inspiration at every stage of my dissertation work.

Date: 29 e 2 oa /
Satish Raj Goyal)
Abstract
In this report, we have studied in details about the different computer
tomographic. imaging techniques. Tomographic imaging refers to the reconstruction of
two-dimensional cross-sectional images of an object from their projections with the use
of X-rays. The technique is developed based on the Fourier Slice Theorem and is
implemented with the filtered backprojection algorithm. We have used two algorithms for
carrying out tomographic imaging - the parallel beam and the fan beam reconstruction
algorithm. Some sinograms are created for a Shepp-Logan Head Phantom image and then
reconstructed these images from the projections using backprojection, filtered
backprojection. Some filters were used for both filtered versions of the reconstruction
techniques. The application of these algorithms has been simulated by the development
of two MATLAB models
In this work, different projection methods for image reconstruction from fan
projections were carried out. To this goal, a geometrical relation between parallel and fan
beam projections was first formulated. This geometrical relation provided the basis for
the reconstruction of an image from its fan projection using conventional reconstruction
methods, such as filtered backprojection.
iv
CONTENTS
Candidate's declaration ......................................................... ..........................I.... I.... i
Certificate................................................................................................ i i
Acknowledgements ...........................................
Abstract...................................................................................................................... iv
Contents.................................................................................................................... v
...
List of Figures ..............................
Listof Tables ............................................................................................................ Xii
Table of Contents
1.Introduction ................................................................................. P. 1
2.Conceptual Background .................................................................. P. 5
2.1 Introduction ........................................................................ P. 5
2.2 Tomographic Imaging ........................................:.................... P. 5
2.3 Design Considerations ............................................................. P. 9
3.Reconstruction Techniques ............................................................... P. 13
3.1 Introduction ........................................................................ P. 13
3.2 Projection ...........................................................................P. 13
3.3 Backprojection .....................................................................P. 13
3.4 Fourier reconstruction ............................................................ P. 15
3.5 Filtered backprojection ............................................................ P. 17

0
V
4. Mathematical Theory of Tomography ................................................... P. 21
4.l Projection Data or Radon Transform ............................................ P. 21
4.2 The Fourier Slice Theorem .......................................................P. 25
4.3 Reconstruction Algorithm for Parallel Projections ............................P. 30
4.4 Reconstruction Algorithm for Fan Projections ................................. P. 38
5. Development of Software Models ......................................................P. 45
5.] Introduction ......................................................................... P. 45
5.2 Use of MATLAB and Matrices .................................................. P. 45
5.3 Computer Implementation of the Parallel Beam Reconstruction Model .... P. 46
5.3.1 Generation of Cross-sectional Images .............................. P. 46
5.3.2 Generation of Parallel Projections .....................................P. 46
5.3.3 Generation of Filtered Projections ....................................P. 48
5.3.4 Image Reconstruction by Backprojection Algorithm ............. P. 50
5.4 Computer Implementation of the Fan Beam Reconstruction Model ........ P. 50
5.4.1 Generation of Cross-sectional Images .............................. P. 50
5.4.2 Generation of Fan Projections ....................................... P. 51
5.4.3 Generation of Filtered Projections ...................................P. 51
5.4.4 Image Reconstruction by Weighted-Backprojection Algorithm. P. 53
6. Results and Discussion .................................................................... P. 54
6.1 Image Reconstruction Using Fanbeam Projection ............................. P. 55
6.1.1 Radon Transform (Sinogram) ........................................P. 55
vi
6.1.2 Back Projection ......................................................... P. 55
6.1.3 Filtered Back Projection for 128*128 Image Size .................. P. 55
6.1.4 Filtered Back Projection For Image Size Of 256*256 ............. P. 61
6.1.5 Filtered Back Projection for Image Size of 512*512 ............... P. 61
6.2 Image Construction Using Parallel Beam Projection .......................... P. 66
6.2.1 Radon Transform (Sinogram) ......................................... P. 66
6.2.2 Back Projection ......................................................... P. 66
6.2.3 Filtered Back Projection For 128* 128 Image Size ................. P. 66
6.2.4 Filtered Back Projection For 216*216 Image Size ................. P. 70
6.2.5 Filtered Back Projection For 512*512 Image Size ........:........ P. 70
6.3 Comparison of Images Generated ................................................ P. 70
7. Conclusion and Future Work ............................................................. P. 75
8.References ................................................................................... P...76
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figurel.l: Two projections are shown of an object consisting of a 2
pair of cylinders
Figure2.1: Model for implementing tomographic imaging in a real 7
system
Figure2.2: Generation of projection of a cross-section of an object 9
with a parallel beam of X-rays
Figure2.3: A parallel beam projection of a cross-section.f(x, y) of an 9
object
Figure2.4: Parallel projections are taken by measuring a set of parallel 11
rays for a number of different angles
Figure2.5: A fan beam projection is collected if all the rays meet at 12
one location
Figure3.1: The Shepp and Logan Head Phantom 15
Figure 3.2: Radon transform of the Phantom 15
Figure 3.3: Backprojection results for 1, 4, 12 and 180 projections) 15
Figure 3.4: Reconstruction of the 2- dimensional Fourier transform 17
Figure 3.5: Fourier reconstruction results for 1, 4, 12 and 180 projections) 17
viii
Figure 3.6: Filtered Backprojection results for 1, 4, 12 and 180 projections) 19
Figure 3.7: Backprojection results after filtering for 1, 4, 12 19
and 180 projections
Figure4.l : Radon transformation 23
Figure4.2: Fourier Slice Theorem defines the relation between the 30
1-D Fourier transform of a projection and the 2-D Fourier
transform of an object along a radial line
Figure4.3: The filtered projection is backprojected on the image plane 34
Figure4.4 : The ideal filter response. This is sometimes called the ramp filter, 38
or the Ram-Lak filter [from 6]
Figure4.5: Magnitude response of backprojection filters. l=Ram-Lak (ramp), 38
2=Shepp-Logan,3=Cosine,and4=Hamming

Figure4.6: A equiangle fan configuration 41
Figure4.7: L is the distance of the pixel at location (x,y) from the source 43
S. [from 4]
Figure5.1: One cross-section of the object from different portions of 48
the lead particles
Figure5.2: The columns are summed to obtain the projection at each angle 50
Figure5.3: The fan projections are formed by summing the values in the 53
cross-sectional matrix along the rays in the fan at each angle of
rotation
Figure 6.1: (a) original phantom image (b) radon transform for fanbeam 56
projection
ix
Figure 6.2: (a) originalphantom with image size 128* 128. Backprojection 57
of image with sensor spacing (b) = 2.0 (c) = 1.0 (d) = 0.1.
Figure 6.3: (a) original phantom with image size 128* 128. Filtered back 58
projection of reconstructed image with projection 90, D = 200
and sensor spacing = 0,1(b) Ram-Lak filter (c) Shepp filter (d)
Hamming filter (e) Hann filter (f) Cosine filter
and sensor spacing = 0.1 (b) Ram-Lak filter (c) Shepp filter (d)
Hamming filter (e) Hann filter (f) Cosine filter
and sensor spacing = 0,1(b) Ram-Lak filter (c) Shepp filter
(d) Hamming filter (e) Hann filter (f) Cosine filter
Figure 6.6: (a) original phantom with image size 256*256. Filtered back 62
and sensor spacing = 0.1 (b) Ram-Lak filter (c) Shepp filter
and sensor spacing = 0.1 (b) Ram-Lak filter (c) Shepp filter
x
and sensor spacing = 0.1(b) Ram-Lak filter (c) Shepp filter
Figure 6.9: (a) original phantom with image size512*512. Filtered back 65
and sensor spacing = 0.1(b) Ram-Lak filter (c) Shepp filter
Figure 6.10: (a) original phantom with image size 128* 128. Radon transform 67
with different projection angle (b) = 18 (c) = 36 (d) = 90
Figure 6.11: (a) original phantom with image size 128* 128. Backprojection 68
of image with different projection angle (b) 18 (c) 36 (d) 90.
projection of reconstructed image with projection angle 180
using (b) Ram-Lak filter (c) Shepp filter (d) Hamming filter
(e) Hann filter (f) Cosine filter
xi
LIST OF TABLE
Table 6.1: Root of sum of squares of differences for the five filters for image 73
size 128* 128 for different value of D
size 256*256 for different value of D
size 512* 512 for different value of D
Table 6.3: Root of sum of squares of differences for the five filters for different 74
image sizes
xii
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Tomography deals with the cross-sectional imaging of an object from either
transmission or reflection data collected by illuminating the object from different
directions [4].This technique has a significant impact on areas, which involve image
processing. Nowadays, most of the imaging systems rely on the reconstruction of an
image from its projection through the process of computed tomography (CT) [5].CT is a
technique, which finds its utilization mostly in medical imaging applications.The aim is
to create cross-sectional images of the subject by means of measuring its reflectivity or
transmissivity to certain physical phenomena.CT has revolutionized healthcare because it
is a non-invasive diagnostic technique. Reconstructing the subject is possible by taking
projections from a number of positions and angles. In essence CT is an approach to create
2D-information from a lot of 1D-projections (and the rotation and translation data for
those projections) [3].
Fundamentally, tomographic imaging is associated with reconstructing an image
from its projections. In the strict sense of the word, a projection at a given angle is the
integral of the image in the direction specified by that angle, as illustrated in Figure 1.1.
However, projection means the information derived from the transmitted energies, when
an object is illuminated from a particular angle. The term "diffracted projection" may be
used when energy sources are diffracting, as is the case with ultrasound and microwaves.
Figurel.l: Two projections are shown of an object consisting of a pair of cylinders
[131.
Tomography has found widespread application in many scientific fields, including
physics, chemistry, astronomy, geophysics, and, of course, medicine. While X-ray CT
may be the most familiar application of tomography, tomography can be performed, even
in medicine, using other imaging modalities, including ultrasound, magnetic resonance,
nuclear medicine, and microwave techniques.
Although, from a purely mathematical standpoint, the solution to the problem of
how to reconstruct a function from its projections dates back to the paper by Radon in
1917, the current excitement in tomographic imaging originated with Hounsfield's
invention of the x-ray computed Tomographic scanner for which he received a Nobel
prize in 1972. He shared the prize with Allan Cormack who independently discovered
some ofthe algorithms. His invention showed that it is possible to compute high-quality
cross-sectional images with an accuracy now reaching one part in a thousand in spite of
the fact that the projection data do not strictly satisfy the theoretical models underlying
the efficiently implementable reconstruction algorithms. His invention also showed that it
is possible to process a very large number of measurements (now approaching a million
for the case of x-ray tomography) with fairly complex mathematical operations, and still
get an image that is incredibly accurate.
It is perhaps fair to say that the breakneck pace at which x-ray computed
tomography images improved after Hounsfield's invention was in large measure owing to
the developments that were made in reconstruction algorithms. Hounsfield used algebraic
techniques, which was able to reconstruct noisy looking 80 x 80 images with an accuracy
of one part in a hundred. This was followed by the application of convolution-back
projection algorithms, first developed by Ramachandran and Lakshminarayanan [16] and
later popularized by Shepp and Logan [171, to this type of imaging. These later
algorithms considerably reduced the processing time for reconstruction, and the image
3
produced was numerically more accurate. As a result, commercial manufacturers of x-ray
tomographic scanners started building systems capable of reconstructing 256 x 256 and
512 x 512 images that were almost photographically perfect (in the sense that the
morphological detail produced was unambiguous and in perfect agreement with the
anatomical features). Regarding the enormous success of x-ray computed tomography, it
is not surprising that in recent years much attention has been focused on extending this
image formation technique to nuclear medicine and magnetic resonance on the one hand
and ultrasound and microwaves on the other. In nuclear medicine, the works are being
carried out in reconstructing a cross-sectional image of radioactive isotope distributions
within the human body; and in imaging with magnetic resonance for reconstructing the
magnetic properties of the object. In both these areas, the problem can be set up as
reconstructing an image from its projections of the type. This is not the case when
ultrasound and microwaves are used as energy sources. Although the aim is the same as
with x-rays, viz., to reconstruct the cross-sectional image of, say, the attenuation
coefficient. X-rays are non-diffracting, i.e., they travel in straight lines, whereas
microwaves and ultrasound are diffracting. When an object is illuminated with a
diffracting source, the wave field is scattered in practically all directions, although under
certain conditions one might be able to get away with the assumption of straight line
propagation; these conditions being satisfied when the inhomogeneities are much larger
than the wavelength and when the imaging parameter is the refractive index. For
situations when one must take diffraction effects (inhomogeneity caused scattering of the
wave field) into account, tomographic imaging can in principle be accomplished with the
algorithms [13].
4
CHAPTER 2
CONCEPTUAL BACKGROUND
2.1 Introduction
Tomographic imaging is a technique that allows the reconstruction of images for
objects that cannot be easily seen by human eyes. The technique is widely utilized in
different fields and its impact in diagnostic medicine has been revolutionary [13].The
digital tomographic technique has also been used in the construction industry for
providing non-destructive inspection of reinforced concrete structures to detect the
presence of flaws.To implement the technique in a real system, a model as shown in
Figure 2.1 has to be built. It includes the use of an X-ray source and an X-ray detector.
Upon collecting the intensity of the attenuated X-rays at an X-ray detector, the
tomographic imaging technique can then be applied to the system for reconstructing the
three-dimensional image.
2.2 Tomographic Imaging ,
Tomography is a technique used for reconstructing the image of some objects. However,
the technique ' does not generate the three-dimensional images directly. In fact,
tomographic imaging refers to the reconstruction of two-dimensional cross-sectional
images of an object from the projection data acquired by illuminating the object with
some energy source from many different directions. By stacking up these cross-sectional
images, the three-dimensional image of the object can be reconstructed.

cube
Three
dimensional
object cylinder
X-ray detector
. ---------
,*` la.m..._.___._
Attenuated -ray from source
X-ray
liquid
Figure2.1: Model for implementing tomographic imaging in a real system
0
In practice, X-rays have been widely used as the energy source for tomographic
imaging. X-rays are non-diffracting. They suffer from attenuation as they propagate in a
straight line through an object. The level of this attenuation is dependent on how much of
the energy is absorbed by the object particles that it passes through. Therefore, by
measuring the intensity of photons remaining in the X-rays after propagating through an
object, the density of the object particles can be determined. If an object is illuminated
with a beam of X-rays in one direction and the intensity of the X-rays is measured on the
other side of the object, one can obtain the projection of a cross-section of the object.
Figure 2.2 shows how this can be done with a parallel beam of X-rays.
The figure demonstrates how some X-rays are passed through a cross-section
f(x,y) of the object in a parallel manner from an angle. The parallel beam projection
obtained for the cross-section f(x,y) is shown in Figure 2.3. Later in the report, it will be
shown that this projection is in fact the Radon transform of the cross-section f(x,y) by
combining a set of line integrals.
If the X-ray source is now rotated around the object, at a fixed degree increment
at a time, a new projection of the cross-section can be obtained at each angle. In this way,
a number of projections can be obtained for the same cross-section. Figure 2.4 shows
how the projections of the cross-section f(x,y) in Figure 2.2 can be acquired at three
different angles. Having a sufficient number of projections taken, one can then perform a
series of Fourier transform, filtering and inverse Fourier transform on the projections.
These are then inserted into the image plane using an algorithm called backprojection in
order to reconstruct the image of one cross-section.
7
X-ray detector
Attenuated
X-rays
One cross section `,~~, Parallel beam of X-rays from

represented by f (x,y) source
Figure2.2: Generation of projection of a cross-section of an object with a parallel

beam of X-rays.
Projection Pe
f (x, y)
Parallel beam of X-rays from

source
Figure2.3: A parallel beam projection of a cross-section f(x, y) of an object. [201
8
Another type of projection is known as fan beam projection. The projection is
formed by a single source placed in a fixed position according to the detectors. Figure 2.5
shows how fan beam projections are measured [13].
The reconstruction algorithm used is dependent on how the projection data are
measured. In Section 4, the reconstruction algorithms for the two projection types,
parallel beam and fan beam projections, will be discussed. The details of Fourier
transform, inverse Fourier transform and filtered backprojection algorithm will also be
explained.
2.3 Design Considerations
There is no simple way to implement tomographic imaging in a real system. To
design such a system, different technical issues that affect the system's performance have
to be carefully considered. Thus, in this project, a number of parameters have been
identified for investigation. These are the followings:
• The number of projections used for each cross-section
• The number of pixels used for representing the cross-sectional images (the image
size)
A couple of additional parameters have been considered for the fan beam reconstruction
algorithm (see Section 4.4):
• The number of detectors used for obtaining the fan projections
• How far the X-ray source should be placed away from the object [20].
7
P02(t)
Figure2.4: Parallel projections are taken by measuring a set of parallel rays for a
number of different angles 1171.
10

P02(t)
Poi (t)
Figure2.5: A fan beam projection is collected if all the rays meet at one location[17].
When determining the appropriate parameters used for a system, there are
tradeoffs between various aspects concerning the system's performance. Increasing the
number of projections improves the quality and the accuracy of the reconstructed images
but it significantly increases the memory usage of the system as well as the time for data-
processing; increasing the size of the image gives better resolution, but this again
increases the memory usage and processing time; increasing the size of the particles also
helps reducing the errors of the reconstructed image. Hence, balancing between the
various factors is necessary for achieving an efficient system. To investigate the effects
on the reconstruction process caused by varying the values of the parameters listed above,
various experiments have been performed on the software models developed. The
following aspects of the reconstruction process have been studied:
• Processing time
• System memory usage
• Signal-to-noise ratio of the reconstructed images
• Accuracy of the reconstructed image after image segmentation
The performance of the reconstruction models have been analyzed based on the
experimental results. The analysis has evaluated the relationship between the various
parameters and the performance of the system. Thus, given some requirements by the
client or some physical constraints in a real situation, such as the limitation in the size of
the lead particles and the number of detectors, suggestions can be made for designing an
optimal combination of parameters that provides the system with the greatest efficiency.
12
CHAPTER 3
RECONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES
3.1 Introduction
As mentioned in the previous chapters, there are several mathematical methods
for reconstructing CT geometry. Some of them are backprojection, filtered
backprojection and Fourier reconstruction. To demonstrate these techniques a phantom
image is simulated in MATLAB (6.5.0 & 7.1.0). The Shepp and Logan head phantom is
used as an example image for our analysis of the reconstruction techniques. This image is
a standard for the comparison of algorithms and is shown in Figure 3.1. [17]
3.2 Projection
From this image the Radon transform is calculated to simulate a measurement of
the phantom. The resulting image contains the same data as if the phantom is measured
with a CT setup. This results in the graph depicted in Figure 3.2. The horizontal axis is
the angle 0 at which the image is projected. The vertical axis is the radius, with the centre
of rotation at zero.
3.3 Backprojection
Backprojection is based on a projection of image intensities along lines at various
angles. This is basically the reverse of the procedure depicted in Figure 3.1. Each column
of projection data is back projected in the reconstructed image at the appropriate angle.
13
Figure3.1: The Shepp and Logan Head Phantom
Figure 3.2: Radon transform of the Phantom
Figure 3.3: Backprojection results for 1, 4,12 and 180 projections
14
picture of Figure 3.3. Total reconstruction is done by adding all the columns of the radon
transform for every angle. In the sequence in Figure 3.3 can be seen that for every added
projection at a different angle the reconstructed image becomes more detailed. For a total
of 180 angles the image certainly looks like the original, but unfortunately has some kind
of blur or glow around it. To get a better reconstruction we shall look at some other
algorithms and see that this blur is due to an overabundance of low frequencies in the
image.
3.4 Fourier Reconstruction
A totally different approach to image reconstruction is a technique using the
Fourier transform. For an explanation of this method we need the result of a theorem
called the Fourier Slice theorem. Here we shall simply
Theorem: the 1-dimensional Fourier transform of a projection at angle 0 of the
original image equals a slice of the 2-dimensional Fourier transform of the image at that
same angle[3].
The procedure for the reconstruction is now clear. First the Fourier transform of every
projection is taken and the 2-dimensional transform is built with these slices. This is done
by placing the transformed projections at the right angle and interpolating to get the full
image. This step is depicted in Figure 3.4. Finally, to get the original image back, a 2
dimensional inverse Fourier transform is applied to this image. The resulting image is
15
v
Frequency domain
Figure 3.4: Reconstruction of the 2- dimensional Fourier transform [15]
Figure 3.5: Fourier reconstruction results for 1, 4, 12 and 180 projections
16
displayed in Figure 3.5 for an increasing number of projections used. As can be seen,
there are, especially with fewer projections used, still some artefacts remaining. The last
A image however comes fairly close to the original phantom.
The main source of error in this method comes from the interpolation to build the 2-
dimensional Fourier transform. As can be seen in Figure 3.4 the data points at a large
radius are widely spaced apart, while at the centre they crowd together. Since the points
become sparser further away from the centre, there will be a greater error in the high
frequency components of the resulting image. This makes a good reconstruction difficult
to implement.
3.5 Filtered Backprojection
While the Fourier Slice theorem gives a basis for the reconstruction of the image
data, the algorithm above has some disadvantages. The most widely used method for
reconstructing the projected data is filtered backprojection. The idea behind this
algorithm is that when we consider just a single projection, the theorem says that the
Fourier transform of that projection is a line in the 2-dimensional Fourier transform of the
original image. When all the lines from the projections at different angles are added in the
Fourier domain, the 2D-Fourier transform is reconstructed. (Actually a star-shaped
pattern of lines, which can be interpolated to result in the complete Fourier transform.) So
far, this is only the summary of the Fourier reconstruction technique. But considering the
linearity of the Fourier transform, the summing over all the projections can also be done
in the space domain, instead of the Fourier domain. This is what is done in
backprojection, however, we have seen that this results in a blur. By using a filter this
17
Figure 3.6: Filtered Backprojection results for 1, 4,12 and 180 projections
Figure 3.7: Backprojection results after filtering for 1, 4,12 and 180 projections
18
blur can be removed. The filtering part of the backprojection algorithm is done before the
backprojection. A simple ramp filter that weighs the frequency with f (w) = Iwl , for
w E [-w, w] is sufficient to get good results. Often this filter is supplemented with another
filter that filters out some of the higher frequencies, in order to suppress the noise in the
measurements.
Filter specifies the filter to use for frequency domain filtering. Filter is a string
that specifies any of the following standard filters.
• 'Ram-Lak' - The cropped Ram-Lak or ramp filter (default). The frequency
response of this filter is I w 1. Because this filter is sensitive to noise in the
projections, one of the filters listed below may be preferable. These filters
multiply the Ram-Lak filter by a window that de-emphasizes high frequencies.
• 'Shepp-Logan' - The Shepp-Logan filter multiplies the Ram-Lak filter by a sin
function.
• 'Cosine' - The cosine filter multiplies the Ram-Lak filter by a cosine function.
• 'Hamming' - The Hamming filter multiplies the Ram-Lak filter by a Hamming
window.
• 'Hann' - The Hann filter multiplies the Ram-Lak filter by a Hann window [22].
3.6 Comparison between Backprojection and Filtered Backprojection
The difference between backprojection and filtered backprojection is the filtering
process that takes place before projecting. As can be seen in Figure 3.3 this reconstructed
image is very blurred. Instead of filtering each projection line, the filtering step can also
19
be performed afterwards, when the image already is reconstructed. The filter now has to
be a 2-dimensional frequency filter and is just a deblurring filter. The result of filtering
the images after the backprojection can be seen in Figure 3.7. Note that there still is a
difference with the images when filtered in advance [3].
20
CHAPTER 4
MATHEMATICAL THEORY
OF
r
TOMOGRAPHY
4.1 Projection Data or Radon Transform
The following theorem by Radon shows that image reconstruction from
projection is possible:
The value of a 2-D function at an arbitrary point is uniquely obtained by the
integrals along the lines of all directions passing the point.
Tomographic methods such as Computerised Tomography (CT) do not generate
three dimensional images of an object directly. Instead sectional two-dimensional images
are reconstructed from a set of projections.
This theorem proves that a 2-D object (actually, transparence distribution) is
reconstructed from projections obtained by the rotational scanning shown in the previous
section.
The Radon transformation shows the relationship between the 2-D object and the
projections. Let us consider a coordinate system shown in Figure 4.1. The function P0 (t)
is a projection of f(x, y) on the axis t of 0 direction. The function PB (t) is obtained by the
integration along the line whose normal vector is in 0 direction. The value PB (0) is
defined that it is obtained by the integration along the line passing the origin of (x, y)
coordinate.
21
I +ysin 0
Figure4.1: Projection data [131
22
Since the points on the line whose normal vector is in 0 direction and passing the
origin of (x, y) coordinate satisfy
We get
xcos0+ysin0=0 (4.1)
The integration along the line whose normal vector is in 9 direction and that
passes the origin of f(x, y) coordinate means the integration of f(x, y) only at the points
satisfying equation (4.1), PB (0) is expressed using the S function as follows:
(4.2)
Similarly, it follows from equation (4.1) that the lines whose normal vector is in 9
direction and whose distance from the origin is t satisfy the following equation:
(x-t cos 0) cos 0 + (y-t sin 0) sin 0 = 0 (4.3)
i, e.
x cos 0+ y sin 0— t=0 (4.4)
Since this line is obtained by moving the line passing the origin by t cos 0 in x
direction and t sin 0 in y direction. Thus similarly to equation (4.2) we get
PB (t) =f (B, t) line f (x, y) ds (4.5)
where ds are some differential path length and f (x, y) is the function describing the 2-D
distribution of absorption coefficients in our imaged object. Mathematically a projection
can be described by the Radon transform.
P0(t)=J J f(x,y)S(xcos0+ysin0-t)dxdy (4.6)
23
PB (t) is called a projection, and for the sake of generality our imaged property is
represented by the two-dimensional function f (x, y). The Dirac delta function (8 (x))
"picks" out rectilinear paths that are parallel to the set of projections [9].
Line-Integral
Although the Radon transformation expresses the projection by the two-
dimensional integral on the x, y-coordinate, the projection is more naturally expressed by
an integral of one variable since it is a line integral. Let us consider rewriting equation
(4.6) to an integral of one variable.
Since the t, s-coordinate along the direction of projection is obtained by rotating
the x, y-coordinate by 0, the relationship between two directions is expressed as follows:
t 1cos0 sin B x
(4.7)
sJ—sin
= 8cos B y
Thus we get the following relationship between (t, s) and (x, y):
t=xcos0+ysin0 1 (48)
s=-xsin0+ycos0
x=tcos0- ssin0
(4.9)
y=tsine+scose
Substituting equation (4.9) into equation (4.6), it follows that the argument of the
6 function is
xcos 0 +ysin 0—t
=(tcos0—ssin0)cos9+(tsin9+scos0) sin 8—t
=t(cos2 0+sin2 0)—tsin9cosO+tsin&cos9—t
24

=o ' (4.10)
Since the translation from the x, y- coordinate to the t, s- coordinate yields no
expansion or shrinkage, we get dx dy = di' ds. Thus we get from equation (4.6)
Po (t)= J f f(tcos0—ssin0,tsine+scos0) 5(0)dtds (4.11)
Since the 8-function in equation (4.6) is a function of variable t, we get
00
f 5(0)dt=1 (4.12)
-00
It follows from the above that the Radon transformation PB (t) in equation (4.6) is
translated into the following integral of one variables,
PB (t)= f f(tcose—ssin0,tsin0+scos0)ds (4.13)
This equation expresses the sum of f(x, y) along the X-ray pass whose distance
from the origin is t and whose normal vector is in 0 direction. This sum, PB (t) is called
ray-sum
4.2 Fourier Slice Theorem [221
In this session we will first derive the Fourier Slice Theorem and then proceed
with the application of this theorem to result in a reconstruction algorithm called filtered
backprojection.
First, we derive the Fourier Slice Theorem by taking the one-dimensional Fourier
transform of a parallel projection and noting that it is equal to a slice of the two-
dimensional Fourier transform of the original object. It follows that given the projection
25
data; it should then be possible to estimate the object by simply performing a two-
dimensional inverse Fourier transform.
We start by defining the two-dimensional Fourier transform of the object function
as
F (u, v) = j J f (x, y) ei 2 dx dy (4.14)
Likewise define a projection at an angle 0, PB (t), and its Fourier transform by
WI
Se (w) = f Pe (t) e2 dt (4.15)
The simplest example of the Fourier Slice Theorem is given for a projection at 0
= 0. First, consider the Fourier transform of the object along the line in the frequency
domain given by v = 0. The Fourier transform integral now simplifies to
F (u 0) = $ $ f (x y) e' 2 ~ ' r dx dy (4.16)
but because the phase factor is no longer dependent on y we can split the integral into two
parts,
F (u, 0) = J j f (x, y) dy e i 2'r "x dx. (4.17)
From the definition of a parallel projection, the reader will recognize the term in
brackets as the equation for a projection along lines of constant x or
P©=o (x) = f f (x, y) dy. (4.18)
Substituting this in the formula for F (u, 0) we find
26

-f e' z Ir ux
M
F (u, 0) P90 (x) (4.19)
The right-hand side of this equation represents the one-dimensional Fourier
transform of the projection PO=o; thus we have the following relationship between the
vertical projection and the 2-D transform of the object function:
F (u, 0) = SB=o (u). (4.20)
This is the simplest form of the Fourier Slice Theorem. Clearly this result is
independent of the orientation between the object and the coordinate system. If for
example the coordinate system is rotated by an angle 0, the Fourier transform of the
projection is equal to the two dimensional Fourier transform of the object along a line
rotated by 0. This leads to the Fourier Slice Theorem which is stated as [12]:
The Fourier transform of a parallel projection of an image f (x, y) taken at angle 0
gives a slice of the two-dimensional transform, F (u, v), subtending an angle 0 with the u-
axis.
The derivation of the Fourier Slice Theorem can be placed on a more solid
foundation by considering the (t, s) coordinate system to be a rotated version of the
original (x, y) system as expressed by
t=xcosO+ysin9
(4.21)
s=-xsinO+ycose
x=tcos0- ssin0
(4.22)
y=tsin0+scosO
In the (t, s) coordinate system a projection along lines of constant t is written
PB (t) = f f (t, s) ds (4.23)
27

and its Fourier transform is given by
So (w) =J Pe (t) e2'

wr di'. (4.24)
Substituting the definition of a projection into the above equation we find
SB (w) _ J f (t, s) ds i'2

Wt
dt. (4.25)
This result can be transformed into the (x, y) coordinate system by using the
relationships in equation (4.25), the result being
S© (w) = J f .f(x, Y) f 2 ?rw(Xcase+ys(ne)

dxdy. (4.26)
The Fourier Slice Theorem states that the one-dimensional Fourier transform of a
parallel projection of an image f(x ,y) taken at angle 0 is equal to a slice of the two-
dimensional Fourier transform of the original image f(x ,y). As illustrated in Figure 4.2, if
the projection of the image taken at angle 0 is Fourier transformed, it is equal to the
values of F(u ,v) along the radial line AB [20].
The right-hand side of this equation now represents the two-dimensional Fourier
transform at a spatial frequency of (u = w cos 0, v = w sin 0) or
So (w) = F (w, 6) = F (w cos 6, w sin 9). (4.27)
28
Projection
ouriei
ru
Space Domain ,L IJUIIIUIII
Figure4.2: Fourier Slice Theorem defines the relation between the 1-D Fourier
transform of a projection and the 2-D Fourier transform of an object along a radial
line [15].
29
This equation is the essence of straight ray tomography and proves the Fourier
Slice Theorem.
f (x, Y) = $ J f (u, v) d 2 du dv. (4.28)

_OD _.0
The above result indicates that by taking the projections of an object function at
angles B1, 02_. .......... Ok and Fourier transforming each of these, we can determine the values
of F(u, v). If an infinite number of projections are taken, then F (u, v) would be known at
all points in the uv-plane. Knowing F (u, v), the object function f (x, y) can be recovered
by using the inverse Fourier transform.
4.3 Reconstruction Algorithm for Parallel Projections
Now based on the Fourier Slice Theorem, we can use this result to establish the
filtered backprojection algorithm. Instead of the Fourier Slice Theorem, the filtered
backprojection algorithm is used for parallel projections in practical implementations.
The algorithm is about generating the reconstruction of a single projection by two main
steps: filtering and backprojecting. The projection is Fourier transformed, filtered and
inverse Fourier transformed. The values are then inserted into their proper places in the
image plane to reconstruct one projection. A summation of the reconstruction of each
single projection leads to the final reconstruction of the cross-sectional image [3].
Let us consider equation (4.6) the formula for the inverse Fourier transform, the
object function, f(x, y).
Exchanging the rectangular coordinate system in the frequency domain, (u, v), for
a polar coordinate system, (w, 0), by making the substitutions
30

u = w cos 0
(4,29)
v=wsin9
and then changing the differentials by using
dudv=wdwd8 (4.30)
we can write the inverse Fourier transform of a polar function as
2,r *o
f(X,y)= J J F.(w, 0)e'2irw(x cos 0+ysin 0) wdwd8. (4.31)
0 0
This integral can be split into two by considering 0 from 00 to 180° and then from
1800 to 3600 and then using the property
F (w, 8+180°) = F (-w, 8) (4.32)
the above expression forf (x, y) may be written as
f (x, y) = j j F (w, 8) wl d2 WI dw d8. (4.33)

n
0 -~
Here we have simplified the expression by setting
t=xcos8+ysin0
where,
d a 1T WI dw.
Q9 (t) = j~ Se (w) w~ (4.34)
-a,
This estimate off (x, y), given the projection data transform SB (w), has a simple
form. The equation (4.34) represents a filtering operation, where the frequency response
of the filter is given by Jwi; therefore Qa (w) is called a "filtered projection". The resulting
projections for different angles 0 are then added to form the estimate off (x, y).
31
The equation (4.34) for f (x, y) calls for each filtered projection, QB, to be
"backprojected". This can be explained as follows. To every point (x, y) in the image
plane there corresponds a value of t = x cos 0 + y sin 0 for a given value of 0, and the
filtered projection QB, contributes to the reconstruction its value at t = x cos 0 + y sin 0. It
is easily shown that for a projection at angle 0, the value oft is the same for all (x, y) on a
line with angle 0. Therefore, the filtered projection, QB, will make the same contribution
to the reconstruction at all of these points.
Therefore, one could say that in the reconstruction process each filtered
projection, QB, is smeared back, or backprojected, over the image plane.
For a given value of angle Oi, every point (x,y) on the image plane corresponds to
a value of t on the projection plane which is defined by equation (4.4). Thus, the values
on the filtered projection can then be smeared back, or backprojected, on their
corresponding locations on the image plane. As shown in Figure 4.3, for the angle Or, the
value of the filtered projection at t is backprojected onto all the (x,y) values along the line
AB. In the same way, the values at all t on the filtered projection plane are smeared back
onto the image plane to reconstruct the projection taken at angle Oi. By backprojecting
the values of Qe(t) taken at different angles Oi and summing them up, the original image
can be recovered [7].
If we substitute the Fourier transform of the projection at angle 0, Se (w), for the
two dimensional Fourier transform F (w, 0), we get
f(x,y)= j Qe(xcos9 +ysinO)dO (4.35)

0
32
Figure4.3: The filtered projection is backprojected on the image plane[17]
33

In practice, only a finite number of samples will be taken from a projection, so a
discrete approximation of the integral in equation (4.35) is applied in practice
f (x, y) =K~K 1 QBi(xcos8i+ysin9i) (4.36)
where, K is the number of projections PB(t) taken.
Tomographic filter
In actual application the equation (4.34) becomes
00
Qe (t) = JSo (w) Iwl h(w)e2"""` .dw (4.37)
where, h(w), a function defined on bounded domain [-w, w] is called window
function.
When this equation (4.37) is re-written in the t-domain (spatial domain) it
becomes
00

Qe (t) = f Pe (t).p(t —a).da (4.38)
where, p(t) is nominally the inverse Fourier Transform of w h(w) function in frequency
domain. These one known as Tomographic filters.
Different window functions h(w) are used in literature proposed by different authors.
Such as:
1. Ram-Lak proposed the equation (4.39) as window function:
WE [—W, W ]
h(w) = 1 Ram-Lak (4.39)
0 e.w
2. Shepp-Logan proposed the equation (4.40) as window function
34

I sin(w I W )
h(w)= w/W (4.40)
0 e.w
3. Hamming and Hann proposed the equation (4.39) as window function
h(w)= a+(1—a) us wE[—W,W1

(4.41)
0 e.w
a = 0.50 Hanning window, a = 0.54 Hamming window
Thus corresponding tomographic filters as given by authors are:
W2 t=0
1. Ram-Lak q(t) = 2 (4.42)
[us(2,r(—W)—lj t ~ 0
(27a )
8W2
t=0
2. Shepp-Logan q(() _ (4.43)
1(. r 2 2
t 0
1-16W 2 t2
3. Hamming and Hann

i
aW2—(1—a) 2W t=0
(4.44)
9(t)= 2a 2(1 a)WZ(1+4W2t2)
t~0
(2,rt)2 c2 (1-4W2 t2 )
These equations must be implemented digitally. Let's assume that the projection
data are sampled with a sampling interval of T cm. If there is no aliasing, then the
transform domain of the projections does not contain energy outside the frequency
interval (- W, W) where
W=1/2z cycles/ cm (4.45)
35
With this assumption, equation (4.34) can be written as
W
2W
Q6 (t) = J S0 (w) H(w) e' dw (4.46)
where
H(w) _ wl bw(w) (4.47)
and
if Iwl(W
otherwise
H(co) is shown in Figure 4.4 and has a discrete impulse response given by
(zxT) n=0
4
h(nz)= 0 n even
nodd
(nxnx7txrxrxT)
which is shown in Figure 4.5.This filter is known as the Ram-Lak filter named after
Ramachandran and Lakshminarayanan [16].
One usually obtains superior reconstructions when some smoothing is also
incorporated. Smoothing may be implemented with a Hamming window, or other such
windows as shown in Figure 4.5.
36
_ 1 Frequency (w) —> 1
2T P92(t) 2z
Figure4.4 The ideal filter response. This is sometimes called the ramp filter, or the
Ram-Lak filter [18].
Shepp-Logan
Ram-Lak (ramp)
Cosine
Hamming
Figure4.5: Magnitude response of backprojection filters. 1=Ram-Lak (ramp),
2=Shepp-Logan, 3=Cosine, and 4=Hamming [8].
37
Shows the effect of the filtering.
To sum up this section, the following outline is usually implemented in the filtered
backprojection algorithm:
1.Measure the family of projections Pei (ni), i =1,2,3...........,K; n = 1,2,3...........,N. K
is the total number of projections (number of angles measured). N is the length of the
dataset, which is the number of rays in each projection (number of detectors sampled at
each angle).
2. Perform FFT (Pe, (nr), i=1, 2, 3. ........., K) (Note: zero pad is necessary to make N,
the length of the sequence, be a power of 2)
3. Multiply FFT {PB (nr)) by FFT {h (ntr)) (Note: modify the Ram-Lak filter with
smoothing filter of choice, such as the Hamming, Hanning, or other smoothing filter)
4. Perform IFFT (product from Step 3 }
5. Perform backprojection as discrete implementation of equation (4.35) as
K
f(x,y) _— QB,(xcosO1 +ysine)de (4.50)
4.4 Reconstruction Algorithm for Fan Projections
Collection of parallel ray CT projection data usually results in times that are as
long as a few minutes. A much faster way to generate the line integrals is by using fan
beams such as those shown in Figure 4.6. In this configuration, the X-ray emanates from
a point source in the shape of a fan. A bank of detectors is then used to collect all data
38
from the fan beam simultaneously. The goal is to develop an algorithm that uses the
simplicity of the parallel beam backprojection notion, at least to the extent possible.
Let Rf(y) denote a fan projection as shown in Figure 4.6.Consider ray SA. If the
projection data were generated along a set of parallel rays, then ray SA would belong to a
parallel projection) P © (t) for 0 and I given by
O=ji+ y and t=D sin y (4.51)
where D is the distance of the source S from the origin 0. From parallel beam analysis,
we know that f (x, y) can be reconstructed by
r tm
f (x, y) = j f Pe (t) h (x cos 8 + y sin 0 -t) dt dO (4.52)

0 -fm
where t ,,, is the value of t for which PB(t) = 0 with t > t , in all projections. If the
projections are collected over 3600 (as in Generation 4 machines), then equation (4.52)
becomes
l 2,f in,
f(x,y)=— f $ PB (t)h(x cos 0 +y sin 0-t)dtdO (4.53)

2 0 —tnt
Derivation becomes easier when the point (x, y) is expressed in polar coordinates (r, rp),
that is
x=rcosrpandy=rsincp (4.54)
Rewriting equation (4.53),
1 Lr till
f (r, gyp) = 2 J f PB (t) h (r cos (0 - gyp) -t) dt dO (4.55)
39
Figure4.6: A equiangle fan configuration
40

Using equation (4.51), equation (4.55) becomes
1 Z" ,n
f(r,cp)= 2 ff Rf(y)h(rcos(Q+y-co)-Dsiny)Dcosydydfl (4.56)
where we have dt dB=D cosy dy dQ. The function R p(y) is the ray in the fan projection at
angle y. This looks formidable, even intimidatig. However, taking advantage of certain
"identities" and using the notation in Figure 4.7, equation (4.56) can be written as
z1r rn
f(r, o) =2 J J Rp(y)h(Lsiny'-y)Dcosydydf (4.57)
o -yam
which can be written in more familiar parts as the following three equations.
2n
(4.58)
f (r, ) = J L x L Q (y) df
Where
Q fl (y) = R (y) * g(y) (4.59)
and where
R p (y) = RQ (y). D.cos y (4.60)
This result calls for a celebration because finally we have a step-by-step procedure for
reconstructing an image using the following three steps (with reference to Figure 4.7):
1. Assume that each projection R p(y) is sampled with sampling interval a . The known
data then are Rp;(na) where n takes integer values. f.3! are the angles at which projections
are taken. The first step is to generate for each fan projection Rp,(na) the corresponding
R f;(na) by
R Q, (na) = RR; (na).D. cos na (4.61)
41
Figure4.7: L is the distance of the pixel at location (xty) from the source S. [13]
42
2. Convolve each modified projection R ,q;(na) with g(na) to generate the
corresponding filtered projection
Q p (na) = R f, (na) * g(na) (4.62)
To perform this discrete convolution using the FFT, the function R'A;(na) must be
padded with a sufficient number of zeros. The sequence g (n a) is given by equation
(4.63).
1 n=0
8(axa)
g(na) = 0 n even (4.63)
axa
nodd
(r x r x ax ax sin(na)x sin(na)
In practice equation (4.62) is modified by adding smoothing with a Hamming, Hanning,
or other window. This means that equation (4.62) is modified as
Q fl; (na) = R fl (na) * g(na) * k(na) (4.64)
where k(na)is the impulse response of the smoothing filter.
3. Perform a weighted backprojection of each filtered projection along the fan. Note that
the backprojection here is very different from the backprojection in the parallel case [7].
The backprojection is performed as a fan, not a straight line as in the parallel case. This
means that
M
f (x, Y) AQ~ (L x L)(x, nfll(Y') (4.65)
Y,QI)
43
where y' is the angle of the fan beam ray that passes through the point (x,y) and
d(3=27r/M.If the computed y' does not correspond to one of the na for which Q,; (na) is
known, then interpolation is necessary.
A slightly different approach is used by some (such as MATLAB) for reconstructing
fanbeam CT images. The algorithm quickly resorts into equivalent parallel projection
data. After resorting, standard filtered backprojection can be applied. Referring to figure
4.6, the relationship between the fan beam and parallel projections are given by equation
(4.51) and repeated here as
8=j3+ y and t=D sin y (4.66)
If R,(y) represents a fan beam projection taken at angle /1, and PB (t) represents a parallel
projection taken at angle 9, using equation (4.66) we can write
Rp (y) =Pp+ ,, (D sin y) (4.67)
Let dQ denote the angular increment interval used for sampling the fan beam projections.
Furthermore assume that
d f3+ dy= a (4.68)
Clearly then $ and y in equation (4.67) are equal to ma and na, respectively, for some
integer values of the indices m and n. Thus equation (4.67) may be rewritten as
Rma(na)=P(m+n)a (D sin na) (4.69)
equation (4.69) serves as the basis of a fast re-sorting algorithm. This is the algorithm
that is used in MATLAB to reconstruct fan beam projections[7].
44
CHAPTER 5
DEVELOPMENT OF SOFTWARE MODELS
5.1 Introduction
As mentioned in.the earlier chapter, two software models have been developed for
the reconstruction of two-dimensional images from parallel projections and fan
projections respectively. The models consist of several major components and the
software functions of these are discussed in Section 5.3 and 5.4.
5.2 Use of MATLAB and Matrices
MATLAB has been chosen as the software platform for the models in this
project. The software provides various tools that facilitate the construction of prototype
for algorithm evaluation.
In the models, images are stored as matrices — two dimensional arrays of
numerical data, the elements of which contain the intensity information of each pixel of
the image. MATLAB provides extensive functions for matrix manipulations which can
easily handle matrices. This allows a whole set of data to be processed at a time and
reduces complexity of programming. Moreover, the image processing toolbox provides
functions for image transform, such as Fourier transform, inverse Fourier transform, and
high-quality image display. All of the above make MATLAB an ideal development
platform for this project.
45
5.3 Computer Implementation of the Parallel Beam Reconstruction Model
In order to implement the reconstruction process, it is necessary to generate some
two-dimensional images that simulate the cross-sectional images. It then takes several
steps to implement the reconstruction process. They include generation of projections,
filtering of the projections as well as image reconstruction by the backprojection
algorithm. The developed model is designed to have several components that carry out
each of these steps. These are outlined in the following subsections.
5.3.1 Generation of Cross-sectional Images
Figure 5.1 shows how a cross-sectional image of the object may look like in a real
system. As different portions of a lead particle can be sliced by the cross-section, the
cross-sectional images of the particles will appear as circles of different sizes. The
MATLAB function has been designed to simulate the generation of a cross-section of the
object.
Though it is more realistic to have the size of the circular particles different on the
cross-sectional images, later in the report it will be shown that in order to facilitate
analysis, the images have been generated with particles of the same size randomly
distributed on them.
5.3.2 Generation of Parallel Projections
With a cross-sectional image randomly generated projections at different angles can be
obtained by passing the generated image to the function. The function accepts a two-
dimensional matrix that represents the cross-sectional image to be reconstructed and

Cross sections of Lead
particles
One cross section

Cross section f(x,y)
Figure5.1: One cross-section of the object from different portions of the lead
particles [201.
47
generates a number of parallel projections of the image.
Instead of rotating the parallel beam of X-ray around the cylinder as in a real
system, the function rotates the two-dimensional matrix of the image from 00 to 1790 .
The degree increment 0 for the rotation is dependent on the number of projections, N,
required in the 180-degree range, i.e. 0 = 180° / N. As shown in Figure 5.2, the columns
of the matrix are summed up at each rotation to form the projection Po(t) at a particular
angle. A projection is stored as a row vector and the elements in the vector represent the
samples of that particular projection. All the N projections are stored in a two-
dimensional array for further processing.
5.3.3 Generation of Filtered Projections
A filter projection function file is designed to filter the parallel projections
obtained. The input argument of this function is a two-dimensional array that stores the
parallel projections of an image which can be obtained from the projection. The filter
projection function computes the Fourier transform of each of the projections in the array
and applies a filter H(w) = lwi to each of them. The projections are then transformed back
to the spatial domain by inverse Fourier transform. This returns a matrix containing the
filtered projections, namely Q.
48
Matrix of the original image
Matrix of the original image rotated by angle Oi
I I I I \ I I I I
P01 (t)
Row vectors representing projection at each angle of rotation
Figure5.2: The columns are summed to obtain the projection at each angle.
49
5.3.4 Image Reconstruction by Backprojection Algorithm
Backprojection is the final step of the reconstruction process for a two-
dimensional image. The Back Projection algorithm, is designed to implement the
backprojection algorithm. An array of the filtered projections is passed to the function.
Applying the technique that has been described earlier in Section 4.3, the filtered
projections taken at different angles is inserted back into their proper positions on the
image plane for the reconstruction of the cross-sectional image[20].
5.4 Computer Implementation of the Fan Beam Reconstruction Model
The general steps of the fan beam reconstruction model are similar to those of the
parallel beam reconstruction model. First of all, a cross-sectional image is constructed.
The fan projections of the cross-sectional images can then be generated. These
projections are filtered and the image can be reconstructed by using the backprojection
algorithm. The details for implementing these steps, however, are different from those of
parallel projections. These will be discussed in the following subsections,
5.4.1 Generation of Cross-sectional Images
The MATLAB function used for generating the cross-sectional images in the fan
beam reconstruction model is the same as the one used in the parallel beam
reconstruction model. A cross-secitonal image of size MxM pixels will be randomly
generated with the user-defined number of particles and particle size.
/Ac. 2L3
50 4
ROOW
5.4.2 Generation of Fan Projections
The MATLAB function file fan projection has been designed to generate the fan
projections of a given image. Having the number of projections, the number of detectors
and the source distance, the program generates the fan projections of the cross-sectional
image Figure 5.3 illustrates how fan projections are generated. Having a cross-sectional
image and a point source from a given source distance, a fan-shaped beam can be
simulated. A fan projection is obtained by summing up the values in the cross-sectional
matrix along the rays and is stored as a row vector. The elements in the row vector
represent the samples of that projection. The number of samples in the projection is
dependent on the number of detectors available in a real system and this determines the
number of rays in the fan. Instead of rotating the point source around the cylinder as what
would be done when implementing a real system, the function rotates the two-
dimensional image from 0° to 359°. The degree increment 13 for each rotation is
dependent on the number of projections (N) required in the 360-degree range i.e. 13= 360°
/ N. At each rotation, the projection is formed by adding up the values in the cross-
sectional matrix along the fixed number of rays.
5.4.3 Generation of Filtered Projections
The fan projections obtained from the image have to be filtered before they can be
backprojected onto the image plane. This is done by fan Projected Filter. This function
accepts some fan projections R, filters them and produces the filtered projections Q. The
filtering algorithm used in the function implements the process described previously in
Section 4.4. Firstly, the corresponding R' is obtained for each
51
Matrix of the original Matrix of the original
image image rotated by [ii
1111, ,1X11
II
:i
! , 1 I, I I 1
I1 1 11
111,1
/ 1 1 , I /, I, 1
I\- \, ,
1
Sourc Distance
t'/
(
L)1 1/
I 1
~ 1 , /
/
~ I1 r1
\_'\
1 I I 1
I I
\ C 1 ` I I
/ I 1 `1
1 1 1 I 1 II..
4 \ 1 \
1 1 , I I I 1 1
1 I I 1 1 1
\ I I 1 1
I
, 1 I 1 1 1
1 1
1 / I 1
/ I 1 I \ / 1 1
l 1 I 1 1
1 1 I 1
1 1
~ I I 1
I 1 I 1 I 1
1 / I 1 1
/ 1 I 1 I 1 1
1
1 1 f 1 I I
! 1 1 4 `1
I I 1 \ ! 1 I 1 \
/ 1 I I 1 / 1 I I ,
I I I
! /
1 1 1 I \ 1 I 1 1 1
1 I 1 1 \ / 1 1
/ I 1 1 1 1 \
I I 1 1 ! 1 I 1 1
1 / I 1 1
1 1 1 t 1 1 \
I 1
1 1 1 \
R(r)
Ii) i ~r
1 I I I 1 1 I I
1 1 I I 1 I 1 I I 1
i
i i ii i i
i i
[ 131 11
ZN
Row vectors representing fan projection at each angle of rotation
Figure5.3: The fan projections are formed by summing the values in the cross-
sectional matrix along the rays in the fan at each angle of rotation [201.
52
projection R. Each R' is then filtered by g(na) given by Equation (4.52) and a smoothing
filter k(na) which is simply a Hamming window in the frequency domain. Instead of
performing convolution in the spatial domain, multiplication in the frequency domain has
been chosen to perform the operations. During multiplication, a number of padding zeros
have to be inserted to the projection sequences to avoid interperiod interference artifacts.
The filtered projections Q can be extracted from the padded sequence after
multiplication [20]
5.4.4 Image Reconstruction by Backprojection Algorithm
The backprojection is the final step of the image reconstruction process for fan
projections. The fan Projection function is the MATLAB function designed to implement
the backprojection algorithm.
The function first computes the distance L from the source and the angles cp and y'
for each point on the image plane using Equation (4.59) and Equation (4.61).
Reconstructing an image using Equation (4.57) requires the filtered projection samples
Qp;(y') taken by a ray with angle y' away from the ray at the centre. As shown in Figure
4.6 the samples in a projection are measured by the rays at angle 'y away from the ray at
the centre. However, the computed value of y' may not always match up with any of the
original angles y (which is just equal to na) at which the rays generated the samples in the
projection. This is illustrated in Figure 4.7 where the computed value of y' corresponds to
point (x, y) does not match with any of the original rays that generated the projection
samples. In such case, interpolation is required to compute the values of the points that
the rays in the original fan-shaped beam didn't pass through.
53
CHAPTER 6
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In the present chapter a Phantom images is reconstructed using fan
beam projection and parallel beam projection. For both the reconstruction
methods, an exhaustive work has been done for reconstruction of image
using five filters namely:
1. Ram-Lak filter
2. Shepp filter
3. Hamming filter
4. Hann filter
5. Cosine filter
The reconstructed images are compared to find the best among the worked out
strategies. For the sake of comparison the difference of the constructed images form its
original is calculated by the sum of squared differences. In the calculation of the sum of
squared differences, each pixel of the reconstructed image is subtracted from the original
image, squares each of these values and then sums the squared values for the entire
image. The value thus obtained gives a fair measure of comparison.
54
6.1 Image Reconstruction Using Fanbeam Projection
6.1.1 Radon Transform (Sinogram)
A phantom of image size of 128*128 is taken and its fan beam projection is
developed using radon transform. The images can be seen in figure 6.1. This figure gives
an idea of how a fanbeam projection of any image would look like.
6.1.2 Back Projection
Phantom image so projected using radon transform is now reconstructed using
different sensor spacing of 2.0, 1.0 and 0.1. The images thus obtained can be seen in
figure 6.2. It is easily seen that sensor spacing of 0.1 is giving best results and hence the
sensor spacing of 0.1 would be used every where for image reconstruction.
6.1.3 Filtered Back Projection for 128*128 Image Size
The projected image of phantom is now reconstructed using five filters namely:
(a) Ram-Lak filter (b) Shepp filter (c) Hamming filter (d) Hann filter (e) Cosine filter. For
all the five filters three different values of distance D is taken and the results are
generated. It is worth mentioning here that projection angle of 90 and sensor spacing of
0.1 is taken for the different values of D. Figure 6.3 shows the images thus obtained with
distance D = 200. Figure 6.4 shows the images thus obtained with distance D = 300.
Figure 6.5 shows the images thus obtained with distance D = 500.
55
projection of the Phantom
•25
•20
Original Phantom 12B*128
•15
0 100 200 000

Fan Rotation Angle. (degrees)

(a) (b)
Figure 6.1 (a) original phantom image (b) radon transform for fanbeam projection
56
Original Phantom 128'°128 D = 200,sensor spacing = 2.00
jill
120.
120 100120
D = 200,,sensor spacing =•-1.0° D =•200,sensor spacing = 0.1°
20.
40
100
120
20`40 60 80 100120 20 40 60 80 100120
Figure 6.2 (a) original phantom with image size 128*128. Backprojection of
image with sensor spacing (b) = 2.0 (c) =1.0 (d) = 0.1.
57
Original Phantom 128'128 Ram-Lak filter,D = 200,Fan sensor spacing = 0.10.
Shepp filter Hamming filter
Hann filter Cosine filter
Figure 6.3 (a) original phantom with image size 128*128. Filtered back
projection of reconstructed image with projection 90, D = 200 and sensor
spacing = 0.1 (b) Ram-Lak filter (c) Shepp filter (d) Hamming filter (e)
Hann filter (f) Cosine filter
58

Original Phantom 128*128 Ram-Lak filter,D = 300,Fan sensor spacing = 0.1°
Shepp filter. Hamming filter
Hann, filter Cosine filter
e projection of reconstructed image with projection 90, D = 300 and sensor
59
Original Phantom 128*128 Ram-Lak filter,D = 500,Fan sensor spacing = 0.1?

6.1.4 Filtered Back Projection For Image Size Of 256*256
Image size of phantom is increased from 128* 128 to 256*256. With this new size
images of phantom is reconstructed using the same five filters. For all the five filters
three different values of distance D is taken and the images are generated. It is worth
mentioning here that projection angle of 90 and sensor spacing of 0.1 is taken in this case
also for the different values of D. Figure 6.6 shows the images thus obtained with
distance D = 200. Figure 6.7 shows the images thus obtained with distance D = 300.
Figure 6.8 shows the images thus obtained with distance D = 500.
6.1.5 Filtered Back Projection For Image Size Of 512*512
Image size of phantom is again increased. This time the image size is 512*512.
With this new size images of phantom is reconstructed using the same five filters. For all
the five filters three different values of distance D were taken in this case also but results
could only be generated for D = 500. This is because with the value of D less than 374
the images were not completely visible for the beam. Projection angle of 90 and sensor
spacing of 0.1 is again taken in this case.. Figure 6.9 shows the images thus obtained with
distance D = 500.
Original Phantom 256'256 Ram=Lak filter,D = 200,Fan sensor spacing = 0.1 °
Hann filter 'Cosine: filter

LJ
62
Original Phantom 256*256 Ram=Lak filter,D = 300,Fan sensor spacing = 0.10
Shepp_filter Hamming filter
ii projection of reconstructed image with projection 90, D = 300 and sensor

63
Original Phantom 256*256 Ram-Lak tilter,D = 500,Fan sensor spacing = 0.1
JJ
Ji projection of reconstructed image with projection 90, D = 500 and sensor
64

Original Phantom 512*512 Ram-Lak filter,D = 500,Fan sensor spacing = 0. 10


Figure 6.9 (a) original phantom with image size512*512. Filtered back
65
6.2 Image Construction Using Parallel Beam Projection
6.2.1 Radon Transform (Sinogram)
A phantom of image size of 128*128 is taken and its parallel beam projection is
developed using radon transform. Three projections are generated taking different
projection angles of 18, 36 and 90. The images can be seen in figure 6.10. This figure
gives an idea of how a parallel beam projection of any image would look like.
6.2.2 Back Projection
Phantom image so projected using radon transform is now reconstructed for all
the three angles i.e. 18, 36 and 90. The images thus obtained can be seen in figure 6.11. It
is easily seen that as we increase projection angle images obtained keep on improving for
betterment, so from now onwards maximum value of projection angle i.e. 180 would be
used for the generation of reconstructed images.
6.2.3 Filtered Back Projection For 128*128 Image Size
The projected image of phantom of image size 128* 129 is now reconstructed using five
filters namely: (a) Ram-Lak filter (b) Shepp filter (c) Hamming filter (d) Hann filter (e)
Cosine filter. It is worth mentioning here that projection angle of 180 is taken. Figure
6.12 shows the images thus obtained using different filters

Original Phantom Radon Transform of Phantom Using 18 Projections
20
-50
40
60. < 0
eo:
1.00. $0
120
20 40 60 80 100120. 0 50 100 150
0

36,projection 90 projection
-50 P
X 0
50 E

0 50 100 150 0 50' 100 150
e e
Figure 6.10 (a) original phantom with image size 128*128. Radon
transform with different projection angle (b) = 18 (c) = 36 (d) = 90.
67
Original Phantom Reconstructed Phantom Using 18 Projections
2040 60 80 100120
36 Projections 90 Projections
20
40 40
60 60.
100
120
.20; 40 60 80 100 '20 40 6080 100120
jj Figure 6.11 (a) original phantom with image size 128*128. Backprojection
of image with different projection angle (b) 18 (c) 36 (d) 90.

Original Phantom 128*128 Using 180 Proj. with the help of Ram-Lak filter
Sheep-Logan filter Hamming filter
projection of reconstructed image with projection angle 180 using (b) Ram-
Lak filter (c) Shepp filter (d) Hamming filter (e) Hann filter (f) Cosine filter
The projected image of phantom of image size 216*216 is reconstructed using
five filters namely: (a) Ram-Lak filter (b) Shepp filter (c) Hamming filter (d) Hann filter
(e) Cosine filter. It is worth mentioning here that projection angle of 180 is taken. Figure
The projected image of phantom of image size 512*512 is reconstructed using
five filters namely: (a) Ram-Lak filter (b) Shepp filter (c) Hamming filter (d) Hann filter
(e) Cosine filter. It is worth mentioning here that projection angle of 180 is taken. Figure
6.3 Comparison of Images Generated
The superiority of the two methods can only be justified by having a numerical
comparison for the images generated. For the purpose of comparison the difference of the
constructed images form its original is calculated by the sum of squared differences for
both the methods using five filters. Table 6.1 to 6.4 shows the square-root of sum of
squared differences for all the images generated. Table 6.1 gives the values for fan beam
projection with image size of 128* 128 for all the filters with varying values of D. Table
6.2 gives the values for fan beam projection with image size of 256*256 for all the filters
with varying values of D. Table 6.3 gives the values for the fan beam projection with
image size of 512*512 for all the filters with D = 500. Table 6.4 gives the values for the
70
Original Phantom 256*256 Using 180 Proj. with the help of Ram-Lak filter
.Sheep-Logan filter Hamming filter
71
Original' Phantom 512*512 Using 180 Proj. with the help of Ram-Lak filter
Shepp-Logan filter Hamming filter
72
parallel beam projection for all the three different size of images 128* 128, 256*256 and
512*512 for all the filters.
Filters D=200 D = 300 D=500

Ram-Lak - 30.0500 28.0535 30.5123
Sbepp Logan 29.7993 28.0000 30.5123
Hamming 29.1376 27.8388 30.2490
Hann 29.1204 27.8747 30.1667
Cosine 29.4109 27.8927 30.5287
Table 6.1 Root of sum of squares of differences for the five filters for image size
128*128 for different value of D
Filters D = 200 D = 300 D = 500

Ram-Lak 65.5515 58.4038 53.0943
Shcpp Logan 64.9384 58.0517 53.1977
Hamming 62.7375 57.0789 53.4883
Hann 62.7296 57.0175 53.5164
Cosine 63.5374 57.4978 53.3573
Table 6.2 Root of sum of squares of differences for the five filters for image size
256*256 for different value of D
Filters D = 500
Ram-Lak 114.9130
Shepp Logan 115.0130
Hamming 115.3690
Hann 115.4729
Cosine 115.1564
Table 6.3 Root of sum of squares of differences for the five filters for image
size 512*512 for different value of D
73
Image Size
Filters 128*128 256*256 512*512
Ram-Lak 23.9165 33.8526 47.7807
Shepp Logan 23.9165 33.7935 47.8539
Hamming 24.0208 33.7194 47.9270
Hann 23.9583 33.8526 48.0208
Cosine 24.0416 33.6452 47.9479
Table 6.3 Root of sum of squares of differences for the five filters for
different image sizes
After analyzing the values of the root of sum of squares of differences it was very
easy to conclude that parallel beam projection performs better for all the image sizes.
Among the filters, no filter has out performed any of the existing one in all the situations
but even then by analyzing data one may say that Ram-Lak filter performs better in most
of cases and can be said to be better.
74
CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
The results of our analysis towards the reconstructions of image look good and
give a good idea of how the original phantoms were arranged. Judging by the pictures
obtained from our experiment, preference goes to filtered backprojection, but to have
some kind of objective measure we wrote a program in MATLAB. This program uses the
simulated phantom to calculate how far are construction differs from its original by the
Root of Sum of Squared Differences. This means that it subtracts for each pixel the
reconstructed image from the original phantom, squares these values, sums all the values
and then takes the root of the sum. This is a fair measure of the accuracy of the
reconstruction algorithms.
The main advantages of the present work are the consistency of the reconstruction
with the input data, and the optimality of the reconstruction. It performs well even for a
small number of measures, and can be applied to computer tomography problems with
arbitrary and even irregular geometry. The problem is solved exactly as presented and no
approximations were made.
In future the quality of the reconstructed images could be achieved by simply
decrease the angle between sinograms and thus increase the total amount of projections
created. This would require more complex sinogram generation algorithms and would
have simply made this term project too large. Considering the limited amount of
sinograms, the results generated in this work is pleasing.
75

REFERENCES
[1] Acoust. Speech Sinnal Processinn, vol. ASSP-31, DD. 1262-1275. Oct. 1983.
[2] Bill Amini, Magnus Bjorklund, Ron Dror, Anders Nygren," Tomographic
Reconstruction of SPECT Data", 1997
(http://www.owlnet.rice.edu/—elec539/Projects97/cult/report.html, .last
accessed on 31/8/2003).
[3] Bomsans Maarten and Vermeer Martin,"Optical Ccomputised Ttomography"
Minor Imaging Final Project, pp 106 - 131.
[4] Bushberg, J.T., J.A. Seibert, E.M. Leidholt, and J.M. Boone. "The Essential
Physics of Medical Imaging ", Lippincott, Philadelphia, 2002.
[5] Cooley, J. W. and Tukey, 0. W. "An Algorithm for the Machine Calculation
of Complex Fourier Series." 1965 Math. Comput. 19, pp.297-301.
[6] Ddove E.L., "Notes on Principles of Computerised Tomograpcic
Reconstruction" principlesofct.doc, 2005.
[7] Herman G. T. "Image reconstruction from projection the fundamentals of
computerized tomography", New Yark, Academic press 1980.
[8] http://dukemil.egr.duke.edu
[9] http://kuva.mis.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/—asano/Kougi/02a/PIP/A1-31 .pdf
[101 Kak A.C. and Slaney Malcolm, "Principles of Computerized Tomographic
Imaging, "pp 10-32.
[11] Kak A.C., `Computerized tomography with x-ray emission and ultrasound
sources," Proc. IEEE, vol. 67, pp. 1245-1272,1979.
76

[12] Kak A.C.,"Tomographic imaging with diffracting and non-diffracting
sources," in Array Signal Processing, S. Haykin, Ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall, 1985.
[13] Kak, A.C. and M. Slaney, Principles of Computerized Tomographic Imaging,
SIAM, 2001. (This is an abridged version of a work first published by the
IEEE Press, New York, in 1988.)
[ 14] Lakshminarayanan, A.V. "Reconstruction from divergent ray data," Tech.
Rep. 92, Dept. of Computer Science, State Univ. of New York at Buffalo,
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[ 15] Pan S. X. and Kak A.C., "A computational study of reconstruction algorithms
for diffraction tomography: Interpolation vs. filtered-backpropagation," IEEE
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[ 16] Ramachandran G. N. and Lakshminarayanan A. V., "Three dimensional
reconstructions from radiographs and electron micrographs: Application of
convolution in stead of Fourier transforms," Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. 68, pp.
2236-2240, 1971.
[17] Rosenfeld A. and .Kak A.C., Dig*%l Picture processing, 2nd ed. New York,
NY: Academic Press, 1982.
[ 18] Robert M. Lewitt, " Reconstruction Algorithms : Transform Methods", Vol
71, No. 3, March 1983 pp 390 408.
[ 19] Shepp L. A. and Logan B. F., "The Fourier reconstruction of a head section,"
IEEE Trans. Nucl, Sci., vol. NS-21, pp. 21-43, 1974.
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[20] Serena Mmak,"Tomographic Reconstruction of Dense Point Particles",
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Final Report, 2003.
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IEEE Trans. Nuc. Sci., vol.NS-21, pp.21-43, 1974.
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[23] MATLAB Image Processing Tool Box.
78

Tomographic Filters in Image Reconstruction: A Dissertation

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TOMOGRAPHIC FILTERS IN IMAGE RECONSTRUCTION

SATISH RAJ GOYAL

"TOMOGRAPHIC FILTERS IN IMAGE RECONSTRUCTION" in partial

Solid State Electronic Materials submitted in the Department of Physics, Indian

Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee is an authentic record of my own work carried

Srivastava, Department of Mathematics, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee and Dr.

S.K. Barthwal, Department of Physics, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee.

of any other degree.

(Tanuja Sriv stava) (S.K. Barthwal)

Tanuja Srivastava, Department of Mathematics Institute of Technology Roorkee

and Dr. S.K.Barthwal, Department of Physics, Indian Institute of Technology

guidance I have learned a lot.

I am extremely grateful to Prof. Jagdish Rai, Head of Department and Prof. R.

Nath, Course Coordinator of M.Tech. (SSEM), Department of Physics, Indian Institute of

and a constant inspiration at every stage of my dissertation work.

In this report, we have studied in details about the different computer

tomographic. imaging techniques. Tomographic imaging refers to the reconstruction of

reconstructed these images from the projections using backprojection, filtered

of two MATLAB models

methods, such as filtered backprojection.

Candidate's declaration ......................................................... ..........................I.... I.... i

2.Conceptual Background .................................................................. P. 5

2.1 Introduction ........................................................................ P. 5

2.2 Tomographic Imaging ........................................:.................... P. 5

2.3 Design Considerations ............................................................. P. 9

3.Reconstruction Techniques ............................................................... P. 13

3.1 Introduction ........................................................................ P. 13

3.2 Projection ...........................................................................P. 13

3.3 Backprojection .....................................................................P. 13

3.4 Fourier reconstruction ............................................................ P. 15

3.5 Filtered backprojection ............................................................ P. 17

4.l Projection Data or Radon Transform ............................................ P. 21

4.2 The Fourier Slice Theorem .......................................................P. 25

4.3 Reconstruction Algorithm for Parallel Projections ............................P. 30

4.4 Reconstruction Algorithm for Fan Projections ................................. P. 38

5. Development of Software Models ......................................................P. 45

5.] Introduction ......................................................................... P. 45

5.2 Use of MATLAB and Matrices .................................................. P. 45

5.3 Computer Implementation of the Parallel Beam Reconstruction Model .... P. 46

5.3.1 Generation of Cross-sectional Images .............................. P. 46

5.3.2 Generation of Parallel Projections .....................................P. 46

5.3.3 Generation of Filtered Projections ....................................P. 48

5.3.4 Image Reconstruction by Backprojection Algorithm ............. P. 50

5.4 Computer Implementation of the Fan Beam Reconstruction Model ........ P. 50

5.4.1 Generation of Cross-sectional Images .............................. P. 50

5.4.2 Generation of Fan Projections ....................................... P. 51

5.4.3 Generation of Filtered Projections ...................................P. 51

5.4.4 Image Reconstruction by Weighted-Backprojection Algorithm. P. 53

6. Results and Discussion .................................................................... P. 54

6.1 Image Reconstruction Using Fanbeam Projection ............................. P. 55

6.1.1 Radon Transform (Sinogram) ........................................P. 55

6.1.3 Filtered Back Projection for 128*128 Image Size .................. P. 55

6.1.4 Filtered Back Projection For Image Size Of 256*256 ............. P. 61

6.1.5 Filtered Back Projection for Image Size of 512*512 ............... P. 61

6.2 Image Construction Using Parallel Beam Projection .......................... P. 66

6.2.1 Radon Transform (Sinogram) ......................................... P. 66

6.2.2 Back Projection ......................................................... P. 66

6.2.4 Filtered Back Projection For 216*216 Image Size ................. P. 70

6.2.5 Filtered Back Projection For 512*512 Image Size ........:........ P. 70

6.3 Comparison of Images Generated ................................................ P. 70

7. Conclusion and Future Work ............................................................. P. 75

8.References ................................................................................... P...76

Figurel.l: Two projections are shown of an object consisting of a 2