The Structures
of Globalization
This unit will introduce you to the various
drivers of the globalization process, with
specific focus on economics and_ politics
Although it emphasizes that you experience
globalization on an “everyday” level, you must
also realize that there are big institutions
that create large-scale changes. This unit will
first trace the emergence of these institutions
historically. It will then move on to explain how
they affect the countries and people today.
‘The major learning outcomes of this unit
are to:
+ analyze the various contemporary
drivers of globalization; and
= describe the emergence of global
economic and political systems.What is
Globalization?
@ Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. agree ona working definition of globalization for the course:
2. differentiate the competing conceptions of globalization; and
3. narrate a personal experience of globalization.
A Story: Gio, Latif, and the Laksa
When Gio was a second-year international affairs student in
a university in Cebu City, he obtained funding to join the school
team participating in an international Model UN competition
in Sydney, Australia, At the height of the competition, Gio made
| plenty of new friends and became particularly close to Latif from
| the Malaysian team. The two first started talking when Latif asked
| Gio where he was from. Upon discovering that the Gio was from
the Philippines, Latif lit up and declared that he was a big fan of
Filipino actors Jericho Rosales and Kristine Hermosa. Gio was
pleasantly surprised to learn that Latif had seen every episode of
the ABS-CBN telenovela Pangako sa ‘Yo (“The Promise”). The show
had aired on Malaysian TV a few years back, and its two stars had
developed a madest following
Ashamed that he did not know as much about Malaysia as
Latif knew about the Philippines, Gio asked Latif what his country
was like. Latif, he discovered, was from a Muslim university in Kuala
Lumpur. Gio asked him what he liked best about living in “KL,”
and Latif immediately mentioned the food. Latif explained that in
Kuala Lumpur, one can find Chinese, Indian, and Malay cuisines.
He told Gio that this assortment of foodways was the result ofWhat is Globelization? | 3
how the British reorganized Malaysian society during the colonial
times. The British did little to change the way of life of the Malays
who were the original residents, but brought in Chinese laborers
to work in the rubber plantations and tin mines, and Indians to
help manage the bureaucracy and serve as the initial professional
core of a potential middle class. One of the ways that these ethnic
groups were identified was through their foodways.
According to Latif, Malaysia eventually became famous for
these cuisines which can be found in the various “hawker centers”
across the nation’s cities and towns. These food stands are located
in outdoor food parks where locals and tourists taste the best of
Malaysia, from nasi lemak to laksa.
Gio interrupted Latif and asked, “What is laksa?” He felt more
ashamed at his lack of knowledge. ‘Ahh....let me show you what it
is and how itis prepared” replied Latif.
The next day, Latif took Gio to a Malaysian restaurant a few
blocks away from the university, Gio was surprised to discover that
Malaysian food was readily available in Sydney. Having noticed
this, Latif explained to his Filipino friend that, over the years, as.
more and more Malaysian students maved to Sydney to study,
Malaysian restaurants followed suit. Soon after, they were catering
not only to these students, but to Australia-born “Sydneysiders”
as well, whose culinary tastes were becoming more and more
diverse.
Gio finally had his fist taste of laksa—a rice noodle soup in
a spicy coconut curry sauce. He found the flavors intense since,
like most Filipinos, he was not used to spicy food. However, in
deference to his friend, he persisted and eventually found himself
enjoying the hot dish
After the meal, Gio and Latif went to a nearby café and
ordered “flat whites'—an espresso drink similar to latte, which is
usually served in cafés in Australia and New Zealand. Both knew
what flat whites were since there were Australian-inspired cafés in
both Kuala Lumpur and Cebu.Laksa: a rich and spicy rice noodle soup
The new friends promised to stay in touch after the
competition, and added each other on Facebook and Instagram.
Over the next two years, they exchanged e-mails and posts,
congratulated each other for their achievements, and commented
on and liked each other's photos. Latif sent his mother’s recipe to
Gio and the latter began cooking Malaysian food in his home.
A few years after graduation, Gio moved to Singapore, joining
many other overseas Filipino workers (OFWs) in the city-state.
The culture was new to him, but one thing was familiar: the
food served in Singapore was no different from the Malaysian
food he had discovered through Latif. He would later learn from
Singaporean colleagues that the island country was once part
of the British colony of Malay and the postwar independent
Federation of Malaysia. Singapore, however, separated from the
Federation in August 1965 and became a nation-state. Today,
they may be two distinct countries in this part of the world, but
Singapore and Malaysia still share the same cuisine,
After he settled down in his apartment, Gio sought out and
found a favorite laksa stall in Newton Hawker Center. He would
spend his weekends there with with friends eating laksa and other
dishes.What is Globalization? | 5
‘Akane center in Singapore
One Saturday, while Gio was checking his Facebook feed
along the very busy Orchard Road—Singapore’s main commercial
road—he noticed thet Latif had just posted something 5 minutes
earlier. It was @ picture from Orchard Road. Surprised but also
excited, Gio sent Latif a private message. Latif replied immediately
saying that he too had moved to Singapore and was, at that
moment, standing in front a department store just a few blocks
away from where Gio was. The two friends met up, and after a
long hug and quick questions as to what each was up to, they
ducked into a café and renewed their international friendship. ..by
ordering a pair of flat whites.
Global Experiences
Gio and Latif’s story is fictional but very plausible since it is,
in fact, based on the real-life experience of one of the authors. It
was through such friendships that one was able to appreciate the
meaning and impact of globalization
We begin our definition of globalization with this narrative
to illustrate how concrete the phenomenon is. The story shows
how globalization operates at multiple, intersecting levels.
‘The spread of Filipino TV into Malaysia suggests how fast this
popular culture has proliferated and criss-crossed all over Asia.01 1he SUE Aue oe ree
The Model UN activity that Gio and Latif participated in is
an international competition about international politics. Gio
met Latif (a Malaysian involved in the model UN) in Sydney, a
global city that derives its wealth and influence from the global
capital that flows through it. Sydney is also a metropolis of
families of international immigrants or foreigners working in the
industries that also sell their products abroad. After the two had
gone back to their home countries, Gio and Latif kept in touch
through Facebook, a global social networking site that provides
instantaneous communication across countries and continents.
They preserved their friendship online and then rekindled this
face-to-face in Singapore, another hub for global commerce, with
40 percent of the population being classified as “foreign talents.”
What other hints of globalization did you find in the story?
Our discussion should begin with this intuitive sense that
something is happening, and it is not affecting everyone in the
same way. Gio’s story is a very privileged way of experiencing
global flows, but for other people, the shrinking of the world may
not be as exciting and edifying. For example, it is very common
for young women in developing countries to be recruited in the
internet as “mail-order brides” for foreign men living in other
countries. After being promised a good life once married to a kind
husband in a rich city, they end up becoming sexual and domestic
servants in foreign lands. Some were even sold off by their
“husbands” to gangs which run prostitute rings in these cities. Like
Gio, they too have experienced the shrinking of the world, albeit
negatively.
Governments that decide to welcome the foreign investments
on the belief that they provide jobs and capital for the country
offer public lands as factory or industrial sites. In the process, poor
people living in these lands, also called “urban poor communities,”
are being evicted by the government. The irony is that these peopleWhat is Globalization? | 7
forcibly removed from their “slums” are also the labor force sought
by foreign companies. They had to be kicked out of their homes,
and then told that they could take an hour or two of bus travel
from their relocated communities back to the “old home” for
minimum-wage work.
Because different people encounter globalization in a variety
of ways, it is deemed useful to ask simple questions like: “Is
globalization good or bad? Is it beneficial or detrimental?” The
discussion begins with two premises. First, globalization is a
complex phenomenon that occurs at multiple levels. Second, it is
an uneven process that affects people differently.
Globalization: A Working Definition
Most accounts view globalization as primarily an economic
process. When a newspaper reports that nationalists are resisting
“globalization,” it usually refers to the integration of the national
markets to a wider global market signified by the increased free
trade. When activists refer to the “anti-globalization” movement
of the 1990s, they mean resisting the trade deals among countries
facilitated and promoted by global organizations like the World
‘Trade Organization.
Globalization scholars do not necessarily disagree with people
who criticize unfair international trade deals or global economic
organizations. In fact, many are sympathetic to the critique of
economic globalization. Academics differ from journalists and
political activists, however, because they see globalization in much
broader terms. They view the process through various lenses that
consider multiple theories and perspectives. Academics call this
an interdisciplinary approach, and it is this approach used by the
general education (GE) courses that you will be taking alongside
this one.
The best scholarly description of globalization is provided
by Manfred Steger who described the process as “the expansion
and intensification of social relations and consciousness across8 | The Structures of Globalization
id-space.”' Expansion refers to “both
ks and the multiplication of
aditional political, economic,
2 "These various connections
world-time and across wor!
the creation of new social networ
existing connections that cut across tr
cultural, and geographic boundaries.” ;
‘occur at different levels. Social media, for example, establish new
global connections between people, ‘while international groups
ganizations (NGOs) are networks that
connect a more specific group—social workers and activists—
from different corners of the globe. In the story, Gio was able to
join a Model UN competition because his university was part ofan
international network.
of non-governmental or
Intensification refers to the expansion, stretching, and
acceleration of these networks.’ Not only are global connections
multiplying, but they are also becoming more closely-knit and
expanding their reach. For example, there has always been a
strong financial market connecting London and New York. With
the advent of electronic trading, however, the volume of that
trade increases exponentially, since traders can now trade more
at higher speeds. The connection is thus accelerating. Apart from
this acceleration, however, as the world becomes more financially
integrated, the intensified trading network between London and
New York may expand and stretch to cover more and more cities.
After China committed itself to the global economy in the 1980s,
for example, Shanghai steadily returned to its old role as a major
trading post.
It is not only in financial matters that you can find these
Sunedtions In 2012, when the monsoon rains flooded much of
ie Honda plant making some of the critical car parts
ae mi cease | Production, ‘This had a strong negative effect
la-USA which relied heavily on the parts being imported
from Thailand, Not only was i 1
5 nly wi
end ee as it unable to reach the sales targetsWhat 1s wiovaiizauiuns +
do not occur merely at an objective, material level but they also
involve the subjective plane of human consciousness.”* In other
words, people begin to feel that the world has become a smaller
place and distance has collapsed from thousands of miles to just a
mouse-click away. One can now e-mail a friend in another country
and get a reply instantaneously, and as a result, begins to perceive
their distance as less consequential. Cable TV and the internet has
also exposed one to news from across the globe, so now, he/she has
this greater sense of what is happening in other places.
Steger posits that his definition of globalization must be
differentiated with an ideology he calls globalism. If globalization
represents the many processes that allow for the expansion and
intensification of global connections, globalism is a widespread
belief among powerful people that the global integration of
economic markets is beneficial for everyone, since it spreads
freedom and democracy across the world.’ It is a common belief
forwarded in media and policy circles. In the next lesson, you will
realize why it is problematic.
For now, what is crucial to note is that when activists and
journalists criticize “globalization,” they are, more often than
not, criticizing some manifestations of globalism. Often, these
criticisms are warranted, Nevertheless, it is crucial to insist that
“globalization” as a process refers to a larger phenomenon that
cannot simply be reduced to the ways in which global markets have
been integrated.
Conclusion: Globalization from
the Ground Up
All this talk of large, intersecting processes may be confusing.
Indeed, it may be hard to assess globalization or comment on it
because it is so diffuse and almost fleeting. Some scholars have,
therefore, found it simpler to avoid talking about globalization as
4 whole. Instead, they want to discuss “multiple globalizations,”
instead of just one process.10 | The Structures of Globalization
For anthropologist Arjun Appadurai, different kinds of
globalization occur on multiple and intersecting dimensions of
integration that he calls “scapes.” An “ethnoscape, for example,
refers to the global movement of people, while a “mediascape” is
about the flow of culture. A “technoscape” refers to the circulation
of mechanical goods and software; a “financescape” denotes
the global circulation of money; and an “ideoscape” is the realm
where political ideas move around. Although they intersect,
these various scapes have differing logics. They are thus distinct
windows into the broader phenomenon of globalization.
Appadurai’s argument is simple: there are multiple
globalizations. Hence, even if one does not agree that globalization
can be divided into the five “scapes,” it is hard to deny Appadurai’s
central thrust of viewing globalization through various lenses.
Depending on what is being globalized, a different dynamic
(or dynamics) may emerge. So while it is important to ask “What
is globalization?” it is likewise important to ask “What is/are being
globalized?” Depending on what is being globalized, the vista and
conclusions change,
The structure of the lessons that follow will reflect this
multidimensional understanding of globalization, Each of the
lessons will focus ona particular kind of
of them will be about different networks
expanding and intensifying in the conte
Treat each lesson not as an end in itself but as window to the
broader phenomenon of globalization
globalization. Every one
and connections that are
mporary world,eel
a Learning Activity:
” How Globalized is Your Home?
Go to your room and do an inventory of everything you have
in your possession. You will find out that the most essential among
the “things” in your room are footwear, clothes, computers (ifany),
cell phones, television (if possible), and maybe a radio. If you are a
student, you may also notice books, newspapers, news magazines,
not to mention school supplies and equipment.
Organize your inventory into two types: first, “things” that
are made in the Philippines and second, those that are of foreign
brands. List the countries of origin of your foreign-brand items.
Do the same thing for the kitchen and the living room. These
should include appliances.
In class, compare your lists with those of your classmates
to determine which countries make the most household and
personal needs you and your families have. Make a similar list
for Philippine-made stuff. In the process, discuss why certain
products are made in the Philippines while others are produced
abroad.