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Commun. Theor. Phys. (Beijing, China) 54 (2010) pp. 287–291
c Chinese Physical Society and IOP Publishing Ltd
Vol. 54, No. 2, August 15, 2010

Numerical Solution of Klein–Gordon Equation on Manifold Using DEC∗

XIE Zheng ( ) 1,†

and YE Zheng (“Æ) 2,‡

1
Center of Mathematical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
2
College of Computer Science and Information Enginnering, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou 310018, China

(Received November 19, 2009; revised manuscript received December 18, 2009)
Abstract In physics, the Klein–Gordon equation describes the motion of a quantum scalar or pseudoscalar field. It
is important to find actual values of its solutions in general timespace manifold. The paper deals with description of
discrete exterior calculus method for solving this equation numerically on space manifold and the time. The analysis of
stable condition and error for this method is also accomplished.
PACS numbers: 04.62.+v, 04.60.Nc, 02.40.Ky, 02.60.Cb, 02.70.Bf
Key words: manifold, Klein–Gordon equation, Laplace operator, discrete exterior calculus

1 Introduction where ψ is the wave function, which is the probability

In physics, specifically quantum mechanics, the Klein–
Gordon equation is a relativistic version of the Schrödinger
equation. It is the equation of motion of a quantum scalar
or pseudoscalar field, a field whose quanta are spinless
particles. With the appropriate interpretation, it can de-
scribe the quantum amplitude for finding a point parti-
cle in various places and the relativistic wave function.[1]
For the mathematician interested in this equation or the
physicists using such equation in the modelling of phys-
ical problems, it is important to realize that numerical
methods are normally needed to find actual values of its
solutions.[2−3]
Discretization techniques, solving differential equa-
tions, including modern and efficient algorithms and pro-
grams on computer, provide help in numerical modelling
in quantum physics. For the numerical analyst it is es-
sential to be aware that numerical methods can only be
designed and analyzed with sufficient knowledge of the
amplitude for different configurations of the system, ~ is
the reduced Planck constant, and m is the mass of the
particle. It is most often written in natural units:
∂2
− ψ + ∆ψ = m2 ψ . (1)
∂t2
In some situation, a source having azimuthal symme-
try about its axis is considered. In this case, we only need
to consider 2D triangular discrete manifold as the space.
2.1 Approximation of Spatial Part
A discrete differential k-form, k ∈ Z, is the evaluation
of the differential k-form on all k-simplices. Dual forms,
i.e., forms that we evaluate on the dual cell. Suppose each
simplex contains its circumcenter. The circumcentric dual
cell D(σ0 ) of simplex σ0 is
[
D(σ0 ) : = Int(c(σ0 )c(σ1 ) · · · c(σr )) ,
σ0 ∈σ1 ∈···∈σr

physical and geometric properties of the differential equa-
tions. Discrete exterior calculus (DEC) is the right frame-
work focusing on those properties, in which to develop
a discretization for equations not just on flat space but
on space manifold.[4−15] In this paper, we deal with de-
scription of DEC method for the Klein–Gordon equation
in space manifold and the time. For this model prob-
lem an explicit scheme is derived, and the analysis of its
stability condition and error is also accomplished. The
numerical solution becomes unstable unless the time step
is restricted.
2 Using DEC Method
The Klein–Gordon equation is
1 ∂2 m 2 c2
ψ − ∆ψ + ψ = 0,
c2 ∂t2 ~2
∗ Supported by China Postdoctoral Science Foundation under Grant No. 20090460102 and Zhejiang Province Postdoctoral Science
Foundation, National Key Basic Research Program of China under Grant No. 2004CB318000 and National Natural Science Foundation of
China under Grant No. 10871170
† E-mail: lenozhengxie@yahoo.com.cn
‡ E-mail: yezheng@gmail.com
where σi is all the simplices which contains σ0 , . . . , σi−1 ,
and c(σi ) is the circumcenter of σi . In DEC, the exterior
derivative d is approximated as the transpose of the inci-
dence matrix of k-cells on (k + 1)-cells, the approximated
Hodge Star ∗ scales the cells by the volumes of the corre-
sponding dual and primal cells, and the Laplace operator
is approximated as
∗−1 dT ∗ +dT ∗ d .
In some situation, a source having azimuthal symme-
try about its axis is considered. In this case, we only need
to consider 2D triangular discrete manifold as the space.
We now derive an explicit DEC scheme for Eq. (1) in 2D
space manifold and the time. The 3D case can also be
done in the same way. Take Fig. 1 as an example for a
part of 2D mesh, in which 0, . . . , F are vertices, 1, . . . , 6
288 XIE Zheng and YE Zheng Vol. 54

n−1 n−1 n−1 n−1 n−1

are the circumcenters of triangles, a, . . . , f are the circum- ψi,j+1 + ψi,j−1 + ψi+1,j + ψi−1,j − 4ψi,j
centers of edges. Denote lij as the length of line segment = , (5)
(∆s)2
(i, j) and Aijkl as the area of quadrangle (i, j, k, l).
which just is the finite difference time domain method
(FDTD). The computational domain of this algorithm is
limited to flat space and the time. Since it can be imple-
mented on space manifold directly not just on flat space,
scheme (4) can be looked as the generation of FDTD.

Fig. 1 A part of 2D mesh.

Define
l12 : = l1f + l2f , . . . , l61 : = l6e + l1e ,
P123456 : = A01f e + A02f a + · · · + A06de .
Combining with finite volume method, the approximation Fig. 2 A part of 2D lattice.
of spatial part of Eq. (1) based on Fig. 1 is
l23 l34
Z
∆ψ0 ≈ (ψA − ψ0 ) + (ψB − ψ0 ) 3 Stability, Convergence, and Accuracy
P123456 l A0 l B0
l45 l56
+ (ψC − ψ0 ) + (ψD − ψ0 ) 3.1 Stability
lC0 lD0
The Courant–Friedrichs–Lewy condition is a necessary
l16 l12
+ (ψE − ψ0 ) + (ψF − ψ0 ) . (2) condition for stability while solving certain partial differ-
lE0 lF 0
ential equations numerically. Decompose scheme (4) into
2.2 DEC Scheme for Klein–Gordon Equation temporal and spacial eigenvalue problems.
The temporal partial derivatives with discrete differ- The temporal eigenvalue problem is
ences, which can be obtained from Taylor series expan- ∂ 2 ψ0n
sions about each node of the computational mesh. Tem- = Λψ0n .
∂t2
poral derivative presents in Eq. (1) can be calculated as It can be approximated as
follows:
∂2ψ 1 ψ0n+1 − 2ψ0n + ψ0n−1
≈ (ψ n+1 − 2ψ n + ψ n−1 ) , (3) = Λψ0n . (6)
∂t2 (∆t)2 (∆t)2
where temporal dimension has a uniform spacing of ∆t Let
and is indexed by n. The approximation of Eq. (1) gen-
erated by substituting the left-hand sides of (2) and (3) ψ0n+1 = ψ0n cos(∆t), ψ0n−1 = ψ0n cos(−∆t) ,
into (1), thus satisfies and submit those into Eq. (6) to obtain
 1
Right(2)n−1 = P123456 (ψ n − 2ψ0n−1 + ψ0n−2 ) cos(∆t) + cos(−∆t) − 2
(∆t)2 0 = Λ.
 (∆t)2
+ m2 ψ0n−1 . (4)
Therefore −4/(∆t)2 ≤ Λ ≤ 0, which is the stabile condi-
Consider a square grid with two spatial dimensions and tion for the temporal eigenvalue problem.
uniform spacing of ∆s, indexed by (i, j). The scheme (4) The spacial eigenvalue problem
based on Fig. 2 reduces to
n n−1 n−2 ∆ψ = (Λ + m2 )ψ
ψi,j − 2ψi,j + ψi,j
+ m2 ψi,j
n−1
can be approximated as
(∆t)2

l23 l34 l45 l56 l16 l12

P123456 (Λ+m2 )ψ0 = (ψA −ψ0 )+ (ψB −ψ0 )+ (ψC −ψ0 )+ (ψD −ψ0 )+ (ψE −ψ0 )+ (ψF −ψ0 ) . (7)
lA0 lB0 lC0 lD0 lE0 lF 0
No. 2 Numerical Solution of Klein–Gordon Equation on Manifold Using DEC 289

Let ψi = ψ0 cos(l0i ) and submit those into Eq. (7) to obtain

l23 l34 l45
P123456 (Λ + m2 ) = (cos(l0A ) − 1) + (cos(l0B ) − 1) + (cos(l0C ) − 1)
lA0 lB0 lC0
l56 l16 l12
+ (cos(l0D ) − 1) + (cos(l0E ) − 1) + (cos(cl0F ) − 1) .
lD0 lE0 lF 0
Hence
2  l23 l34 l45 l56 l16 l12 
− + + + + + − m2 ≤ Λ ≤ 0 .
P123456 lA0 lB0 lC0 lD0 lE0 lF 0
In order to keep the stability of scheme (4), we need
4 2  l23 l34 l45 l56 l16 l12 
− ≤ − + + + + + − m2 ,
(∆t)2 P123456 lA0 lB0 lC0 lD0 lE0 lF 0
for each vertice 0, namely
r .h
2  l23 l34 l45 l56 l16 l12  i
∆t ≤ Min 2 1 + + + + + + m2 . (8)
0∈V P123456 lA0 lB0 lC0 lD0 lE0 lF 0
On Fig. 2, the inequality (8) reduces to s
.h 8 i
∆t ≤ 2 1 + m 2 ,
(∆s)2
which is the stable condition for scheme (5).

3.2 Convergence
By the definition of truncation error, the solution ũ of the Eq. (1) satisfies the same relation as scheme (4) except
for an additional term O((∆t)3 + l2 ) on the right hand side. Thus the error Xin = ψ̃in − ψin is determined from the
relation
(∆t)2  l23 l34
X0n = (2 − (m∆t)2 )X0n−1 − X0n−2 + (X n−1 − X0n−1 ) + (X n−1 − X0n−1 )
P123456 lA0 A lB0 B
l45 l56 l16 l12 
+ (XCn−1 − X0n−1 ) + (XDn−1
− X0n−1 ) + n−1
(XE − X0n−1 ) + (XFn−1 − X0n−1 ) + O(∆t)3
lC0 lD0 lE0 lF 0
(∆t)2  l23 l34 l45 l56 l16 l12  2
+ + + + + + O(l ) . (9)
P123456 lA0 lB0 lC0 lD0 lE0 lF 0
Define
|X n | = Max|Xin | .
i∈V

From condition (7), we have

(∆t)2  l23 l34 l45 l56 l16 l12  (∆tm)2
+ + + + + ≤2− . (10)
P123456 lA0 lB0 lC0 lD0 lE0 lF 0 2
It follows that  (∆tm)2 
|X0n | < 2 + Max|X n−1 | + |X n−2 | + O(∆t)3 + O(l2 )
2
and hence that  (∆tm)2 
|X n | < 2 + Max|X n−1 | + |X n−2 | + O(∆t)3 + O(l2 ) .
2
Iterating n, we obtain
|X n | < M1 |X 1 | + M0 |X 0 | + O(∆t)3 + O(l2 ) ,

where M1 , M0 are finite value defined on n. Since the
initial conditions ensure X 0 = 0 and X 1 = 0, we have
lim∆t→0,l→0 |X n | = 0. That is to say the numerical solu-
tion approaches the exact solution as the step size goes to
0, and scheme (4) is convergent.
3.3 Accuracy
The derivative of scheme (4) is approximated by first
order difference. Equivalently, ψ is approximated by linear
interpolation functions. Consulting the definition about
accuracy of finite volume method, we can also say that
scheme (4) has first order spacial accuracy. Although
scheme (5) has second order spacial accuracy, scheme (4)
has its own virtue-computing on discrete manifold di-
rectly. Scheme (4) has second order temporal accuracy
with equivalent time step.
290 XIE Zheng and YE Zheng Vol. 54

4 Algorithm Implementation further computation.

The scheme (4) has been implemented and evaluated
on C++ platform consisting of the following steps:
(i) Set the simulation parameters. These are the di-
mensions of the computational mesh and the size of
the time step, etc.
(ii) Initialize the mesh indexes.
(v) Visualize the currently computed grid of spatial
nodes.
(vi) Repeat the process from the step (iii), until reach
the desired total number of iterations.

(iii) Assign current transmitted signal. In the following simulation examples, we set the pa-
(iv) Compute the value of all spatial nodes and tem- rameter m = 0.0001. Figure 3 shows the Gaussian pulse
porarily store the result in the circular buffer for propagates on the sphere.

Fig. 3 Gaussian pulse propagates on the sphere.

Fig. 4 Guassian envelope propagates on the torus.

Fig. 5 Gaussian envelope propagates on the rabbit.

√
Figures. 4 and 5 show the Gaussian envelope propagates on the torus and rabbit. The Gaussian envelope (1/ 2π)
× exp(−t2 /2) cos(t) is used as the source signal.
No. 2 Numerical Solution of Klein–Gordon Equation on Manifold Using DEC
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