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Molecular dynamics simulation of a dichain surfactant + water + carbon dioxide (solvent) system is
performed to study the structural properties of reversed micelle-like surfactant aggregates formed in the
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system. The simulations use a detailed and realistic molecular model for the surfactant molecule and
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explicit representation of the water and solvent molecules to enable quantitative comparisons with a prior
experimental (small-angle neutron scattering) study. The results of the simulation are found to be in
reasonable agreement with experimental values. The simulations show that the size and shape of the
surfactant aggregates depends on their water-to-surfactant ratio. A higher water-to-surfactant ratio results
in larger and more spherical aggregates. The two distinct tails of the surfactant molecule exhibit different
conformations in carbon dioxide indicating contrasting CO2-philic behavior. The perfluoroalkane tails
assume more extended conformation than the alkane tails. The microstructure of the aqueous core reveals
that the water molecules in the interfacial region are strongly oriented in response to the electric fields
of the anionic headgroups and sodium counterions, while water near the center of the core approaches
bulklike properties with the presence of a hydrogen-bonded network.
lubrication, emulsion polymerization reactions, drug Molecular simulation techniques can play an important
delivery, and enhanced oil recovery, to name a few. role in developing this much-needed knowledge base.
Recently, some experimental studies18-24 have inves- As an initial step in this direction, we performed
tigated the feasibility of using carbon dioxide (CO2) as a molecular dynamics (MD) simulation of a dichain surf-
nonpolar solvent medium for the formation of RMs. Carbon actant + water + carbon dioxide (solvent) system. The
dioxide is a nonpolar compound that is a chemically inert dichain surfactant molecule [(C7F15)(C7H15)CHSO4-Na+]
(nontoxic, nonflammable) and an environmentally benign (also known as a hybrid surfactant molecule) is one of the
alternative to potentially hazardous industrial solvents few CO2-philic surfactant molecules that has been shown29
currently in use. Also, its easy availability and low cost to form RMs with aqueous cores in CO2. Recently, Eastoe
make it a cheap raw material. Thus, formation of et al.35 performed a small-angle neutron scattering (SANS)
surfactant aggregates in CO2 offers the possibility of study on the dichain surfactant system and obtained
carrying out a wide range of industrial operations in a information regarding the structural properties (size and
medium with minimum environmental impact. Unfor- shape) of the RMs formed. In the simulations presented
tunately, as shown by Consani and Smith,25 most of the here, this particular surfactant molecule was chosen for
industrially available surfactant molecules are incapable two main reasons. First, in terms of the molecular
of forming stable RMs in CO2 because of their negligible complexity this is a relatively small molecule compared
solubility. This is attributed to the fact that most of these to other known CO2-philic surfactant molecules. Thus,
surfactants are suited for aqueous solvents while CO2 is from a computational perspective, it is relatively easy to
relatively nonpolar (CO2 has a weak quadrupole) because model this surfactant to a sufficient degree of detail and
of its low polarizibility and dielectric constant. This has study the aggregation behavior for a relatively large
motivated a number of experimental efforts26-34 focused system size. Second, the structural properties of the
on discovering suitable surfactant molecules. These surf- surfactant aggregates estimated from simulations can be
actants are termed “CO2-philic” surfactants because they quantitatively compared to the experimental results of
should exhibit favorable interactions with CO2 to enable Eastoe et al.35 In our previous paper,36 we presented
dispersion of the aggregates. Although these studies have preliminary results showing the spontaneous aggregation
been partially successful in identifying a few CO2-philic of the dichain surfactant and water molecules into RM-
surfactant molecules, little is known about the factors like aggregates in this ternary system. The results
determining CO2-philicity. Knowledge of these underlying presented there were for a small (exploratory) system that
principles can be quite helpful in guiding future efforts in was used to test the feasibility of these simulations. In
discovering or designing new and improved CO2-philic this paper, we present additional simulations on a much
surfactants that are suitable for industrial applications. larger system intended to reproduce the experimental
system.35 We also describe the detailed molecular models
(18) Hoefling, T. A.; Enick, R. M.; Beckman, E. J. Microemulsions in
Near-Critical and Supercritical CO2. J. Phys. Chem. 1991, 95, 7127- for the dichain surfactant molecule, water, and carbon
7129. dioxide adopted for this study and the simulation meth-
(19) Hoefling, T. A.; et al. The Incorporation of a Fluorianted Ether odology used to simulate this complex physical system.
Functionality into a Polymer or Surfactant to Enhance CO2-Solubility. Quantitative comparisons of the simulation results with
J. Supercrit. Fluids 1992, 5, 237-241.
(20) Newman, D. A.; et al. Phase Behavior of Fluoroether-Functional the experimental results of Eastoe et al.35 are presented.
Amphiphiles in Supercritical Carbon Dioxide. J. Supercrit. Fluids 1993, Also, microscopic structural details of the aqueous core
6, 205-210. are presented.
(21) Hoefling, T. A.; et al. Design and Synthesis of Highly CO2-soluble
Surfactants and Chelating Agents. Fluid Phase Equilib. 1993, 83, 203-
212.
(22) Jimenez, M. M.; Luque de Castro, M. D. Reverse-micelle POTENTIAL MODELS
formation: a strategy for enhancing CO2-supercritical fluid extraction
of polar analytes. Anal. Chim. Acta 1998, 358, 1-4. Since one of the objectives of the present work is to
(23) Iezzi, A.; et al. Gel formation in carbon dioxide-semifluorinated
alkane mixtures and phase equilibria of a carbon dioxide-perfluorinated make quantitative comparisons with the experimental
alkane mixture. Fluid Phase Equilib. 1989, 52, 307-317. work of Eastoe et al.,35 a high degree of realism is desirable
(24) Wikramanayake, R.; Enick, R.; Turberg, M. The phase behavior to accurately represent all the intermolecular interactions
and gel formation of binary mixtures of carbon dioxide and semi-
fluorinated alkanes. Fluid Phase Equilib. 1991, 70, 107-118.
present in the system. Thus, the simulations presented
(25) Consani, K. A.; Smith, R. D. Observations on the Solubility of in this work involve detailed and realistic molecular
Surfactants and Related Molecules in Carbon Dioxide at 50 °C. J. models for all the three chemical species (dichain surf-
Supercrit. Fluids 1990, 3, 51-65. actant, water, and carbon dioxide) present in the system.
(26) DeSimone, J. M.; Guan, Z.; Elsbernd, C. S. Synthesis of
Fluoropolymers in Supercritical Carbon Dioxide. Science 1992, 257, Although this makes the system computationally complex
945-947. and demanding, it minimizes any artificiality that might
(27) DeSimone, J. M.; et al. Dispersion Polymerizations in Super- be included in the system and affect the dynamics of
critical Carbon Dioxide. Science 1994, 265, 356.
(28) Johnston, K. P.; et al. Water-in-Carbon Dioxide Microemul-
surfactant aggregation and/or the morphology of the
sions: An Environment for Hydrophiles Including Proteins. Science aggregates formed. With these factors in consideration,
1996, 271, 624-626. the potential model for the hybrid surfactant molecule
(29) Harrison, K. L.; et al. Water-in-Carbon Dioxide Microemulsions used in this simulation study was constructed by as-
with a Fluorocarbon-Hydrocarbon Hybrid Surfactant. Langmuir 1994,
10, 3536-3541. sembling existing models for each of the four functionally
(30) Heitz, M. P.; et al. Water Core within Perfluoropolyether-Based distinct parts of the molecule, i.e., the alkane tail,
Microemulsions Formed in Supercritical Carbon Dioxide. J. Phys. Chem. perfluoroalkane tail, sulfate headgroup, and the sodium
1997, 101, 6707-6714.
(31) McClain, J. B.; et al. Design of Nonionic Surfactants for
counterion. This allows the surfactant model to capture
Supercritical Carbon Dioxide. Science 1996, 274, 2049-2052. most of the essential characteristics of the real dichain
(32) McFann, G. J.; Johnston, K. P.; Howdle, S. M. Solubilization in surfactant molecule.
Nonionic Reverse Micelles in Carbon Dioxide. AIChE J. 1994, 40, 543-
555.
(33) Fulton, J. L.; et al. Aggregation of Amphiphilic Molecules in (35) Eastoe, J.; et al. Droplet Structure in a Water-in-CO2 Micro-
Supercritical Carbon Dioxide: A Small-Angle X-ray Scattering Study. emulsion. Langmuir 1996, 12, 1423-1424.
Langmuir 1995, 11, 4241-4249. (36) Salaniwal, S.; et al. Self-Assembly of Reverse Micelles in Water/
(34) Cooper, A. I.; et al. Liquid-Liquid Extractions Using Dendrimer- Surfactant/Carbon Dioxide Systems by Molecular Simulation. Langmuir
Modified Carbon Dioxide. Nature 1997, 389, 368-371. 1999, 15 (16), 5188-5192.
Dichain Ternary System Langmuir, Vol. 17, No. 5, 2001 1775
For interactions between unlike sites (on the same or Table 1. Potential Parameters for theIntramolecular and
different molecules) we have used the conventional Intermolecular Degrees of Freedom for the Alkane Tail
Lorentz-Berthelot combining rules without any fitted and the Perfluoroalkane Tail
binary parameter. type of interaction alkane tail perfluoroalkane tail
Alkane Tail. The potential model for the alkane tail Lennard-Jones σCH3 ) σCH2 ) 3.93 Å σCF3 ) σCF2 ) 4.60 Å
of the surfactant molecule is the united atom model for interactions CH3/k ) 114 K CF3/k ) 79 K
alkanes proposed by Siepmann and co-workers37 (SKS CH2/k ) 47 K CF2/k ) 30 K
model). This model accurately predicts the experimentally bond-angle bending kb ) 62500 K/rad2 kb ) 62500 K/rad2
measured phase envelopes of n-alkanes. More importantly, θeq ) 114.0° θeq ) 114.6°
as shown by Cui et al.,38 the SKS model predicts the torsional a0 ) 1078.16 K a0 ) 959.4 K
a1 ) 355.03 K a1 ) -282.7 K
solubility of n-alkanes in CO2 that is also consistent with a2 ) -68.19 K a2 ) 1355.2 K
experimentally determined values. In this potential model, a3 ) 791.32 K a3 ) 6800.0 K
each of the methylene (CH2) and methyl (CH3) functional a4 ) -7875.3 K
groups is represented by a single spherical interaction a5 ) -14168.0 K
site (united atom) with its interaction center located at a6 ) 9213.7 K
the center of the carbon atom. The interaction sites are a7 ) 4123.7 K
connected via rigid bonds of length 1.54 Å. Interaction
sites on different surfactant molecules and those on the depth and size parameters are used to represent the CF2
same molecule separated by more than three bonds and CF3 functional groups of the tail (σCF3 ) σCF2 ) 4.6 Å,
interact via the well-known 12-6 Lennard-Jones (LJ) CF3/k ) 79 K, σCF2/k ) 30 K). The bond length between the
potential given by united atoms is assumed fixed at 1.54 Å. The nonbonded
interactions are described via a 12-6 LJ potential (eq 1)
[( ) ( ) ]
perfluoroalkane tail used in this study is that proposed
by Cui et al.40 and is quite similar to that of the alkane qiqj σij 12 σij 6
tail described above. This model was chosen because it is
fitted to the phase envelope of n-perfluroralkanes and
U(rij) ) ∑i ∑j r + 4ij
rij
-
rij
(5)
ij
also does good de novo prediction of pefluoroalkane/CO2
phase equilibrium.38 United atoms with effective LJ well- where qi represents the Coulombic charge on the atom i.
A single LJ sphere with a unit positive charge represents
(37) Siepmann, J. I.; Karaborni, S.; Smit, B. Simulating the critical each sodium ion. Table 2 lists the potential parameters
behavior of complex fluids. Nature 1993, 365, 330-332.
(38) Cui, S. T.; Cochran, H. D.; Cummings, P. T. Vapor-liquid phase for sulfur and oxygen atoms and sodium ion used in this
coexistence of alkane carbon dioxide and perfluoralkane carbon dioxide study. According to this molecular model, each surfactant
mixtures. J. Phys. Chem. 1999, 103, 4485-4491. molecule consists of 21 interaction sites including one for
(39) Ploeg, P. van der; Berendsen, H. J. C. Molecular dynamics
simulation of a Bilayer membrane. J. Chem. Phys. 1982, 76, 3271- the Na+ ion.
3276.
(40) Cui, S. T.; et al. Intermolecular potentials and vapor-liquid- (41) Cannon, W. R.; Pettitt, B. M.; McCammon, J. A. Sulfate Anion
phase equilibria of perfluorinated alkanes. Fluid Phase Equilib. 1998, in Water: Model Structural, Thermodynamic, and Dynamic Properties.
146, 51-61. J. Phys. Chem. 1994, 98, 6225-6230.
1776 Langmuir, Vol. 17, No. 5, 2001 Salaniwal et al.
for the large system; cf. Wo ∼ 4 for the small system). Table 5. Structural Properties of the Largest Aggregate
Figure 3b shows that during the time interval of 1.0 ns, Formed in the Large Simulation System (Aggregated
the aggregated starting configuration of the large system Starting Configuration)
evolves into a configuration with a large aggregate this work SANS experiments
consisting of most of the surfactant and water molecules water 916 ( 10
(the few remaining surfactant and water molecules were surfactant 26
distributed between three smaller aggregates). On the Wo 35.2 35
other hand, the scattered starting configuration of the Rg (Å) 15.4 ( 0.2 20.5 ( 1.0
large system evolves into a configuration consisting of Imax/Imin 1.3 ( 0.1
five small-sized surfactant aggregates. Since the overall η 0.12 ( 0.05
As (Å2) 115 ( 3 140
composition of the large system corresponds to one
average-sized aggregate observed by Eastoe et al.,35 the
expected final state in the large system is a single the values of these parameters reflects the effect of the
surfactant aggregate consisting of all the surfactant and spatial or temporal fluctuations in the shape of the aqueous
water molecules. Thus, it can be argued that Figure 3b core. Together these two parameters can reveal details of
is much closer to the expected final state compared to the actual shape (spherical, cylindrical, or disklike) of the
Figure 3c. On the basis of the times corresponding to these aggregates.
configurations, it can also be stated that the aggregated Table 5 provides the structural properties of the largest
starting configuration of the large system approaches the aggregate in Figure 3b along with the experimental values
expected final state in a shorter time compared to the measured by Eastoe et al.35 via SANS experiments. The
scattered starting configuration. In our next paper,45 we radius of gyration (Rg) of the aggregate formed in this
demonstrate that the scattered starting configuration of simulation study is 15.4 ( 0.3 Å. This is in reasonable
the large system follows a realistic trajectory and should agreement with the experimentally reported value of 20.5
also reach the expected final state in ∼200 ns. In essence, ( 1.0 Å, given that the time for which the simulation has
using the aggregated starting configuration as the initial been carried may be considerably shorter than that
condition for the large system simply reduces the time required to achieve a final equilibrium state. The shape
needed to approach the expected final state thereby parameters for the aggregate are Imax/Imin ) 1.2 ( 0.1 and
allowing the study of the structural properties of surfactant η ) 0.1 ( 0.05 (no experimental data available), which
aggregates in a reasonable amount of computer time. Thus, indicates that the aggregate is nearly spherical with small
the structural properties of the largest aggregate in Figure fluctuations. This is expected because of the high Wo in
3b can be quantitatively compared to the experimental this aggregate. The high value of Wo provides the aggregate
results of Eastoe et al.35 with an aqueous core of considerable volume (and surface
Aggregate Size and Shape. The general structural area) thereby facilitating a low packing density of surf-
properties of the RM-like aggregates formed in the actant molecules around the aqueous core. To characterize
simulations presented above can be characterized by the the shape of the aggregates formed in the experimental
shape and size of their aqueous cores. A good measure of investigation, Eastoe et al.35 determined the surface area
the size is the radius of gyration (Rg), which is a measure of the aqueous core per surfactant molecules (As), given
of the distribution of the mass of atomic groups or by the equation
molecules that constitute the aqueous core relative to its
center of mass. Since the core is essentially made up of As ) 4πRg2/Ns (8)
water molecules, sodium ions, and anionic headgroups,
the mass of only these groups (tail groups are not where Ns is the aggregation number (number of surfactant
considered) is considered in the estimation of Rg. The Rg molecules in the aggregate). In essence, this quantity is
of the aqueous core (to be compared with the core radius a measure of the packing density of the surfactant
fitted to the SANS data) can be calculated by the equation molecules in the aggregate and, thus, can be related to
the shape of its aqueous core. The value of As for the
Rg2 ) ∑i mi(ri - ro)2/∑i mi (6) aggregate estimated from the simulation is 115 Å2, which
is in approximate agreement with the experimentally
reported value of 140 Å2.35
where mi is the mass of atom i located at a radial distance The structural characteristics of the large aggregate in
ri from the center of mass of the aggregate core (ro). The Figure 3b merit some additional discussion. First, the
shape of the aqueous core can be quantified using two question must be addressed, “Is this aggregate structurally
different parameters, namely, the ratio of the largest to similar to the reverse micelles observed in the SANS
the smallest principal moments of inertia (Imax/Imin) and experiments?” The only way to answer this is as follows:
the eccentricity (η). The eccentricity is calculated by the (a) The models used have been tested and have yielded
equation results in reasonable agreement with the relevant ex-
perimental data in the literature, and (b) as shown in
Imin Table 5, the simulation results are in reasonable agree-
η)1- (7) ment with all of the experimentally measured structural
Iavg
properties of reverse micelles. A second issue then arises,
the large aggregate in Figure 3b does not look like the
where Iavg is the average of all the three components of the common picture of a reverse micelle; a large portion of the
principal moment of inertia. Both these parameters aqueous core is directly exposed to the CO2, and the
provide a measure of the deviation from a perfectly surfactant molecules are not uniformly distributed on the
spherical object (Imax/Imin ) 1, η ) 0). The uncertainty in interface. In fact, the experimental result (As ) 140 Å2)
indicates that even more of the aqueous core should be
(45) Salaniwal, S.; Cui, S. T.; Cochran, H. D.; Cummings, P. T. Self- exposed, and even though on average the surfactant
assembly in a dichain surfactant/water/carbon dioxide system via
molecular simulation. 2. Aggregation dynamics. Langmuir 2001, 17, distribution on the interface should be uniform, this does
1784. not imply that the instantaneous distribution should be
Dichain Ternary System Langmuir, Vol. 17, No. 5, 2001 1779
water molecules and the sodium ions. The headgroups lie Figure 7. Radial distribution of the functional groups of the
at the surface of the aqueous cores while the tails form perfluoroalkane tail and the alkane tail for the C7-tailed hybrid
the corona surrounding the cores. The nonzero radial surfactant.
density of the headgroups within the core (r < 6.2 Å) is
not due to the penetration of the headgroups but simply collapsed conformations in vacuo. This is an indication of
an artifact of the highly nonspherical shape of these the fact that the perfluoroalkane tails are more CO2-philic
aggregates (Table 6). Also, the presence of numerous peaks than the alkane tails.
and troughs in the radial density distribution of the sodium More detailed information on the spatial conformation
ions and anionic headgroups is a manifestation of the rigid of the two tails can be obtained by calculating the
structure of the aqueous core. The rigid structure of the distribution of the radial position of each segment
aqueous core also manifests itself in the considerably high (functional group) of the tails from the CH group, as shown
water density observed in Figure 5a. The radial density in Figure 7. The common feature of the two tails evident
distributions of the two tails are quite similar except for from the figure is the progressive broadening of the
a slight shift away from the center of mass observed for distribution for groups farther away from the headgroup.
the perfluoroalkane tail. As mentioned earlier, this is due The broadening is relatively larger for the alkane tail
to the CO2-philic nature of this tail. compared to that for the perfluoroalkane tail because of
Tail Conformation. A good measure of the CO2-philic the relative stiffness of the perfluoroalkane tail. Also, the
behavior of the two different tail groups is the degree to distributions of the first two segments are the same for
which these tails are fully extended. Figure 6 plots the the two tails. The broadening is attributed to the fact that
fraction of torsional angles in each tail that are in trans the farther away the segment is from the headgroup the
conformation (fully stretched) as a function of time for the more freedom it has to move. This mobility is due to the
small system with aggregated starting configuration. ability of torsional angles associated with these segments
Similar results were obtained for the large systems as to switch back and forth between trans and gauche
well. The perfluoroalkane tails have an average of 90 ( conformations. For the alkane tail the distribution of
2% trans conformation compared to 74 ( 5% for the alkane farther segments exhibits two distinct peaks reflecting a
tails. This implies that the perfluoroalkane tails are 1 to 3 ratio of gauche-to-trans conformation of the torsional
approximately 16% more extended than the alkane tails. angles associated with these segments. Thus, the per-
Interestingly, the behavior of the two tails is quite opposite fluoroalkane tails are more extended and less mobile than
in vacuo. The perfluoroalkane tail has a trans conformation the alkane tails.
of 80% in vacuo compared to 89% for the alkane tail. Thus, Structure of the Aqueous Core. As shown earlier,
in the presence of carbon dioxide as a solvent medium, the surfactant aggregates formed in this simulation study
the perfluoroalkane tails assume more extended confor- are characterized by the presence of aqueous cores. These
mations in vacuo, and the alkane tails assume more aqueous cores can provide a medium for solubilizing polar
Dichain Ternary System Langmuir, Vol. 17, No. 5, 2001 1781
Figure 8. Radial distribution function (rdf) for (a) Na-Na Figure 10. Interparticle-dipole vector angle angular distri-
pair and (b) Na-headgroup pair. bution function (adf) for water molecules lying within the
primary hydration shell of the ions.
Conclusions
Molecular dynamics simulations of two system sizes
(small system and large system) are presented. The small
system is used for exploratory calculations, while the
composition and the solvent condition of the large system
mimic the experimental system studied by Eastoe et al.,35
thus enabling quantitative comparison with experiments.
The simulations showed that the shape and size of the
aggregate formed in the large system (aggregated starting
configuration) are in reasonably good agreement with
experimental values. In contrast, the properties of the
aggregates formed in the small system are influenced by
the low water-to-surfactant ratio in this system. The
aggregates formed in the small system are quite small
and considerably nonspherical compared to those formed
in the large system.
In the present study, advantage was taken of the MD
simulation technique to explore the microstructure of the
aggregates formed. The radial density distribution of the
various molecules constituting the aggregate showed that
Figure 11. Angular distribution functions (adf’s) for (a) dipole- the aqueous core essentially consisted of water molecules
dipole vector angle, (b) interparticle-dipole vector angle, and
(c) interparticle-bond vector angle for water molecules within and Na+ ions. The sulfate headgroups are primarily
the bulklike region of the aqueous core. situated at the surface of the aqueous core. The radial
density distribution of the two tails indicated the presence
than the headgroups due to the delocalization of negative of a corona surrounding the aqueous core and thereby
charges on the anionic headgroup. The adf’s for the effectively shielding it from the nonpolar solvent. Neg-
interparticle-bond vector angle for water molecules (not ligible penetration of the solvent molecules in the aqueous
shown for brevity) residing in the primary hydration shell core is observed. For the aggregate in the large system,
also exhibit strong orientation effects of the two ionic the density of water near the center of the core is ∼1.0
species. The adf for the Na+ ion shows a peak at cos φ ∼ g/cm3, indicating the presence of bulklike water. A fairly
-0.5 (φ ∼ 120°), while the adf for the anionic headgroup broad (10-15 Å) interfacial region is observed. The adf’s
shows a peak at cos φ ∼ 1 (φ ∼ 0°). This is another indication of the water molecules in aqueous core revealed that the
that the water molecules directly associated to the two water molecules in the interfacial region are strongly
ionic species are oriented in response to the strong electric oriented in response to the electric fields of the anionic
fields of the ions. headgroups and Na+ ions, while those near the center of
For water molecules lying deeper within the core, beyond the core exhibit a hydrogen-bonded network. The tail
the primary hydration shell, decreases in the orientation conformations indicate that the perfluoroalkane tails are
effects are noted. The water molecules lying within the more extended than the alkane tails, which is opposite to
Dichain Ternary System Langmuir, Vol. 17, No. 5, 2001 1783
that observed in vacuo. Thus, the perfluoroalkane tails National Laboratory is managed by Lockheed Martin
exhibit more CO2-philic behavior than the alkane tails. Energy Research Corp. for the Department of Energy
under Contract Number DE-AC05-96OR2246. We are also
Acknowledgment. We are pleased to acknowledge pleased to acknowledge the allocation of computational
support of this work by the Chemical and Thermal Systems time on the Cray T3E at the National Energy Research
Division of the National Science Foundation under Grant Scientific Computing Center at Lawrence Berkeley Na-
Number CTS-9613555 at the University of Tennessee and tional Laboratory.
by the Chemical Sciences Division of the Department of
Energy at Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Oak Ridge LA000554F