Terminology

CSE/EE 458: Data Communication • Medium

– Guided medium; e.g. twisted pair, optical fiber
(Data Communication) – Unguided medium; e.g. air, water, vacuum Direct link
• Point-to-point
– Direct link, only two devices share the link
Guohong Cao • Multi-point
Department of Computer Science & Engineering – More than two devices share the link
310 Pond Lab • Simplex
gcao@cse.psu.edu – One direction; e.g. Television
• Half duplex
– Either direction, but one way at a time; e.g. police radio
• Full duplex
– Both directions at the same time; e.g. telephone
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Frequency, Spectrum and Bandwidth

• Time domain concepts
– Continuous signal
• Various in a smooth way over time
– Discrete signal
• Maintains a constant level for a while and then
changes to another constant level
– Periodic signal
• Pattern is repeated over time
– Aperiodic signal
• Pattern is not repeated over time
3 Guohong Cao (gcao@cse.psu.edu)
 Analog and Digital Data Transmission Signals
• Data • Means by which data are propagated
– Entities that convey meaning • Analog
– Analog – Continuously variable
• Continuous values within some interval; e.g. sound, video – Various media
– Digital • wire, fiber optic, space
• Discrete values; e.g. text, integers – Speech bandwidth 100Hz to 7kHz
• Signals – Telephone bandwidth 300Hz to 3400Hz
– Electric or electromagnetic representations of data – Video bandwidth 4MHz
• Transmission • Digital
– Data is transmitted by signal propagation and signal – A sequence of voltage pulses that may be transmitted
processing. over a wire, e. g. 0/1.

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Data and Signals

• Usually use digital signals to carry digital
data and use analog signals to carry analog
data
• Can use analog signal to carry digital data
– Modem
• Can use digital signal to carry analog data
– Compact Disc audio

7 Guohong Cao (gcao@cse.psu.edu)

 Analog Transmission Digital Transmission
• Analog signal is transmitted without regard • Concerned with the content
to the content • Integrity endangered by noise, attenuation
• May be analog or digital data etc.
• Attenuated over distance • Repeaters
– Repeater receives signal
• Use amplifiers to boost signal – Extracts bit pattern
• Also amplifies noise – Retransmits
• Attenuation is overcome
• Noise is not amplified
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Advantages of Digital Transmission Transmission Impairments

• Digital technology
– Low cost LSI/VLSI technology • The received signal may be different from
• Data integrity the transmitted signal.
– Longer distances over lower quality lines • Analog - degradation of signal quality
• Capacity utilization
– Can use high bandwidth links, which is economical
• Digital - bit errors
– Easy to apply high degree of multiplexing • Caused by
• Security & Privacy – Attenuation and attenuation distortion
– Encryption
– Delay distortion
• Integration
– Noise
– Can treat analog and digital data similarly

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Guohong Cao (gcao@cse.psu.edu)
 Attenuation and Delay Distortion
• Signal strength falls off with distance
• Depends on medium
• Received signal strength:
– must be strong enough to be detected
– must be sufficiently stronger than noise to be received
without error
• Attenuation is an increasing function of the
frequency
• Delay distortion
– propagation velocity varies with frequency

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Channel Capacity Transmission Media

• Data rate (C): bits per second • Guided Transmission media
• Bandwidth (B): cycles per second (Hertz) – Twisted Pair
• Nyquist bandwidth (noise-less channel):
– Coaxial Cable
C = 2B log2 M
• Shannon Capacity Formula (noisy channel) – Optical Fiber
(SNR)db= 10 log10 (signal power/noise power) • Wireless Transmission
C = B log2 (1 + SNR) – Terrestrial Microwave
• 1) Increase Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR),
decreases Bit Error Rate (BER), 2) increase in – Satellite microwave
data rate, increases BER, 3) increase B, allows for – Broadcast radio
an increase in data rate – Infrared
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Guohong Cao (gcao@cse.psu.edu)
 Twisted Pair Twisted Pair - Transmission Characteristics
• Commonly used medium • Analog
• Telephone network – Amplifier is needed every 5km to 6km
– Between house and local exchange (subscriber loop) • Digital
– Can be carried by either analog or digital signals
• Within buildings
– repeater is needed every 2km or 3km
– To private branch exchange (PBX)
• Susceptible to interference and noise
• Local area networks (LAN) • Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
– 10Mbps or 100Mbps – Ordinary telephone wire
• Cheap, easy to work with, – Cheapest, easiest to install, suffers from interference
• Low data rate, short range • Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
– Metal braid or sheathing that reduces interference
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– More expensive, harder to handle (thick, heavy) 18

UTP Categories Coaxial Cable Applications

• Cat 3 • Most versatile medium
– up to 16MHz • Television distribution
– Can be found in most offices – Ariel to TV
– Twist length of 7.5 cm to 10 cm
– Cable TV
• Cat 4
• Long distance telephone transmission
– up to 20 MHz
– Can carry 10,000 voice calls simultaneously
• Cat 5
– Being replaced by fiber optic recently
– up to 100MHz
– Commonly pre-installed in new office buildings
• Short distance computer systems links
– Twist length 0.6 cm to 0.85 cm • Local area networks
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Guohong Cao (gcao@cse.psu.edu)
 Optical Fiber Encoding Techniques
• Greater capacity • Digital data, digital signal
– Data rates up to hundreds of Gbps
• Analog data, digital signal
• Smaller size & weight
• Digital data, analog signal
• Lower attenuation
• Electromagnetic isolation • Analog data, analog signal
• Greater repeater spacing
– 10s of km at least
• Applications: Long-haul trunks, metropolitan
trunks, rural exchange trunks, subscriber loops

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Encoding: NRZ-L
• Nonreturn to Zero-Level (NRZ-L)
– Two different voltages for 0 and 1 bits
– Voltage maintain constant during bit interval, no
transition, i.e. no return to zero voltage
• Pros:
– Easy to engineer, make good use of bandwidth
• Cons
– Lack of synchronization capability
• Used for magnetic recording
• Not often used for signal transmission
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Guohong Cao (gcao@cse.psu.edu)
 Digital Signal Encoding Formats Encoding: Manchester
• Manchester
– Transition in the middle of each bit period, used for
(clock) synchronization, adopted by IEEE 802.3
– Low to high represents one
– High to low represents zero
• Pros
– Synchronization on mid bit transition (self clocking)
– Error detection: absence of expected transition
• Cons
– At least one transition per bit time and possibly two
– Max modulation rate is twice NRZ, need more
bandwidth.
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Digital Data, Analog Signal

• Public telephone system
– 300Hz to 3400Hz
– Use modem (modulator-demodulator)
• Amplitude shift keying (ASK)
• Frequency shift keying (FSK)
• Phase shift keying (PK)

27 Guohong Cao (gcao@cse.psu.edu)

 Amplitude Shift Keying
• Data is represented by different amplitudes
of carrier
• Usually, one amplitude is used to represent
zero
– i.e. presence and absence of carrier is used
• Susceptible to sudden signal changes
• Up to 1200bps on voice grade lines
• Used over optical fiber
Frequency Shift Keying
• Data is represented by different frequencies
(near carrier)
• Less susceptible to error compared to ASK
• Up to 1200bps over voice grade lines
• High frequency radio
• Even higher frequency on LANs using
coaxical cable

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FSK on Voice Grade Line Phase Shift Keying

• Data is represented by shifting the carrier signal
phase
• Quadrature PSK: More efficient with each signal
representing more than one bit
– Shifts of π/2 (90o), each signal represents two bits
– 9600bps modem use 12 angles , four of which have two
amplitudes, total 16 combinations.
D = R/b = R / (log2 L )
where D is modulation rate (baud); R is data rate
(bps); L is the number of different signal elements; b is
the number of bits represented by a signal
– The modulation rate is the rate at which signal elements
are generated. Suppose data rate is 1/tB , the max
31 modulation rate is 2/tB for Manchester coding
Guohong Cao (gcao@cse.psu.edu)
 Analog Data, Digital Signal Pulse Code Modulation(PCM)
• Digitization: converse of analog data into digital • If a signal is sampled at regular intervals at a rate
data higher than twice the highest signal frequency, the
– Analog to digital conversion can be done by a codec samples contain all the information of the original
signal
– Pulse code modulation
– Delta modulation
• Voice data is limited to below 4000Hz
– Require 8000 sample per second, each sample assigned
• After the conversion a digital value
– Digital data can then be transmitted using NRZ-L – Quantized: quantizing error or noise, which means that
– Digital data can then be transmitted using code other it is impossible to recover original exactly
than NRZ-L – 4 bit system gives 16 levels
– Digital data can then be converted to analog signal – 8 bit sample gives 256 levels, quality comparable with
analog transmission, requires 64kbps
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Performance
• Good voice reproduction
– PCM - 128 levels (7 bit), voice bandwidth 4khz
– PCM requires 8000 x 7 = 56kbp
• Video: needs 10 bit code, which needs 92 Mbps
for a 4.6 MHz bandwidth.
• Why waste bandwidth?
– Repeaters are used instead of amplifiers, no additional
noise
– TDM can be used instead of FDM
– Efficient digital switching techniques
– Data compression can improve on this, video can be
reduced to 15Mbps, slow changing scenes : 64kbps
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Guohong Cao (gcao@cse.psu.edu)
 Analog Data, Analog Signals Spread Spectrum
• Why modulate analog signals? • Analog or digital data
– Higher frequency can give more efficient • Analog signal
transmission • Spread data over wide bandwidth
– Permits frequency division multiplexing. • Makes jamming and interception harder
• Frequency hoping
• Types of modulation – Signal broadcast over seemingly random series of
– Amplitude frequencies
– Frequency • Direct Sequence
– Each bit is represented by multiple bits in transmitted
– Phase signal
– Chipping code
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