Cyr Coe m4. : . Aichi Dew! tee: Gong . Con Se ae Cagiols Cry, fel Cpe anes po Gy HW statil ates I Stability and Control - Units : am nit Kot ‘94 tateoduetion Ff & Rt Tp KER we. goot Lyn x! On F easy eae *,° Dhroughout this'study, the wings of the airplane were con: ‘sidered to be'at some’arbitrary angle to the vertical (angle of bank, $) usually taken-2s zero, with no regard to the aerodynamic problem of holding this angle ‘of bank or. bringing thé airplane into this attitude. | The problem of holding the wings level or of maintaining some angle | of bank is one of control over the rolling moments about the airplane’s longitudinal axis. The major control over the rolling moments is the - familiar aileron system consisting of flaps on the wing outer panels, which, when deflected asymmetrically, will alter the wings’ spanwise- lift distribution in-such a way that a net rolling moment isereated. A secondary control over the rolling moment can be obtained through control over the sideslip angle, as it will be shown that, for certain wing geometry, sideslip will alter the wings” spanwise lift distribution to create a net rolling moment. _The phenomenon of rolling moment due to sideslip is'terméd dihedral effect and is not a static stability in the true sense of the: word. An airplane is said to have stable dihedral effect if a negative rolling & Dikearal «flea342 DIHEDRAL EFFECT AND LATERAL CONTROL =. moment (left wing down) is created as the result of positive sides?” 8. This definition is somewhat arbitrary but springs from the far that, stable dihedral effect is required for complete dynamic lateral stability, and that stable dihedral effect as defined will require the use of top ruddet to pick up a wing that drops because of a gust or any other rolling disturbance. ‘The rolling moment will be discussed in coefficient form, with the rolling moment coefficient equal to the rolling moment, L, in pound- +.02 — 4.01 | -m-2-15-10-§ 0 5S 10 15 20 25 Froure 9-1. Typical wind-tunnel tests for dihedral effect. feet divided by the dynamic pressure, g, in pounds per square foot, the wing area, Sy, in square feet, and the wing span, b, in feet. L OF G8. cea) The power of the lateral or_aileron. control will be expressed as the change in rolling moment_coefficient_per degree defiection of the ‘ailerons, While the dihedral effect will be measured by the change in rolling moment coefficient per degree change in sideslip, 8, or in wind- tunnel parlance, with change in yaw, ¥, the negative of 8 when straight flight paths are considered. The criterion of dihedral effect is the slope of the curve of rolling moment coefficient, Ci, plotted against yaw and is given as the derivative dC,/dv per degree, or in shorthand notation Cy. a The airplane’s dihedrel effect, will be discussed first, with the aileron control studied in later sections. Typical wind-tunnel curves of the variation of C; with for a stable and unstable airplane are shown in Figure 9-1.Targe if the ATRPLANE DIHEDRAL EFFECT a Estimation of Airplane Dihedral Effect “Tho rolling moment due to sideslip (dihedral effect) is mainly created by wing dihedral angle, I®, which is positive for tip chord above The root chord. In a sideslip the angle of ‘attack of the forward wing Will be higher than the angle of attack of the trailing wing. This will create a lift on the leading wing that will be greater than the lift on the trailing wing, thereby- creating © rolling moment about the X axis. See Figure 9-2: : Rellng moment Tn Ficurs 0-2, Dihedral effec ‘The dihedral effect, as mentioned before, is measured by the slope of the curve of rolling moment coefficient versus angle of yaw, Cty- ‘The value of this derivative varies almost directly with wing dihedral ‘angle ; 1 ‘The difficult part of estimating the dihedral effect is to estimate the value of this derivative for zero geometric wing dihedral, Ciyroo. Tt has been found as the result of considerable wind-tunnel experience that this residual ihadelflestvarlesconidashly es the position of the wing on the fuselage. as also been found that the dihedral SHeot ‘will be somewhat invariant with change in wing angle of attack for straight wings, but will change rapidly with_anglo of attack for Swept wings. ‘The effect of deflected flaps on dihedral effect ean be Fhe ip hinge line his any sweep, and finally, the effects of ‘power on the al effect tious With deflected aps, espe cially for airplanes where the slipstream covers the flaps. To estimate anned with. ‘a. " 2 e gs se 2% f 38 fo: same ERAL CONTROL *. ae 2. -DIMEDRAL ERFECT AND LA’ oo! a — ; , - F requires considerable the effective dihedral for an. airplane, bee ariables. ) ~: experiénee'in allowing for these very compl an not set from analyti- ~~” Tn actual practice, the dihedral angle is u Ye Most. do- cal considerations, because of the large errors a iad-euanel signers set the wing ‘dihedral only after careful an YS end Bap test data, in which the effects of angle of ‘attack, power, and settings aré carefully analyzed, 5 "9.8: Effect. of Wing Sweep, Flaps, and Power on Dihedral Effect °°" imethad of estimating the dihedral effect given'in the previsus - Seetion is applicable for an airplane with a straight wing, flaps up with Propellers-windmiling.. ‘The Variation of Cry with wing sweep, flap Geflection, and high thrust coefficient is a very complex one, and one "s s aig r mt3) EFFECT OF WING SWEEP, FLAPS, AND POWER 347 that is almost impossible to estimate quantitatively by any analytical approach. The dihedral effect: for airplanes having swept wing plan- forms will become a function of the lift coelficiont. Airplanes wil swept-back wings will have on increasing dihedral effect with lift coefficient, while airplanes with swept-forward wings will have a decreasing dihedral effect with lift coefficient. Typical variations in { ; the dihedral effect parameter, Cry, with airplane lift coefficient are shown in Figure 9-7 for the case of the swept-forward and swept-back wing. , | | i | 0002] Av PA Ya(h ¢ A oo. 2 “WKY Ficunz 9-7, Typical variation of Cty with Cz for swept wings. ‘At very low lift coefficient, the sweep of the planform has little effect on C1y, but if the geometric dihedral of the swept planform air- plane is set to give a good value of Cy at-high speed, then the airplane with swept-back wings will be in danger of having excessive dihedral at low speeds, while the airplane with gwept-forward wings will probably “encounter negative dihedral effect at low speeds. plane can also be soriously affected by ‘The dihedral effect of the flap defiection. Experience indicates that if the hinge line of the flap is unswept, there is little difference in Cyy flaps up or down. However, if the hinge line of the flaps is swept back, flap deflection will usually increase Cty, while if the hinge line of the flaps is swept forward, flap deflection will usually decrease Cy. Typical variations in Ci, due to flap deflection are shown in Figure 9-8, The effect of power on dihedral effect is usually serious for only the 1p-down_conditior ‘his effect usually arises because of the dis placement of the slipstream in a sideslip, resulting in one flap being immersed in the slipstream to @ greater extent than the other. (See Figure 9-9.) These power effects are at_ a maximum in full-power, low-speed flight where the ratio of slipstiéan-velucity-to free stream velocity is the greatest. The effects of power on Cyy with flaps de- ~ Seen eens, RAL CONTROL 348 DIHEDRAL EFFECT AND LA’ ~~ , oe flected are the ward hinge lines, a greatest -for flaps with swept-fo1 B 5) BN the | i in almost all cases least for flaps with swept-back hinge lines, but in al : e are destabilizing. : i 0008 i 5 Bren back Pant Pl ter 0004] | 002 © soon ~.0002 Lk forward 0004 own 3 Loa 20 Cr "—Riounn 9-8, Ciy versus Cz laps down on swept wings. L a Fiouns 9-8. Slipstream effect on Cry, flaps down, e es Xf the sirplane has a swept-back planform, the stabilizing effect of Swoopback at high Co the destabilizing effects of power, while for a sve ing, these effects are additive,5 B & 3 2 5 4 350 DIHEDRAL EFFECT AND LATERAL CONTROL 19 9-4 Lateral Control (Introduction) Tt was mentioned in Section 9-1 that, although it is possible t design an airplane to operate with elevator and rudder controls only the maneuvering possibilities of an airplane controlled in this manne are decidedly limited, and in almost all case: =... totally inadequate. It has been found nec ge “\ essary to provide the pilot with a powerfu’ and definite control over the airplane’s angle of bank in order to satisfy the minimum Tiazeuvering requirement of the modern air- Plane. This lateral control is usually ob- “tained through the use of plain flaps mounted on the trailing-edge sections of the outer wing panels which are usually referred SS_] [=~ to asailerons. The ailerons on each wing de- flect asymmetrically, one going up and the other going down, therel vy so altering the a spanwise Toad distribution that a rol ling mo- Fours 9-10, Spanninp TEBE is created abOUt_ther-X ‘axis. A typical Joading with dofected Alferon arrangement is shownin Figure 9-10, ailerons, indicating the change in the spanwise lift due to the dileron deflection. Deflecting the aileron will create a rolling moment that will aecelerate the airplane in roll about the X axis. As the airplane's rolling velocity increases, a new lift distribution will be created that is a function of” this rollibg velozity and which opposes the rolling moment due to the aileron deflection. ‘This moment is known as the damping moment of the wing. The alteration of the spanwise lift distribution due to the rolling Velocity comes about as a result of the change in effective angle of attack at any wing section due to the roll, Aas = py/V, where p is the rolling velocity in radians per second, y the spanwise location of the section from the X axis, and V the forward velocity in feet per second,351 ,ODUCTION) Q CONTROL (INTR ou LATERAL « aictribution due to the rolling A typical increment in spanwiso lift distribution locity is given in Figure 9-11. » wetul, ane therefore , ing moments of & Wing Ere Or Feed if a fast rate of roll oor yuired tg be very effective indeed i aft ite thé ide wea rolling welogty is fe just opposed by iBoretnent in the roling moment due tothe ailerons fee the increment in the rolling moment due to the wing sd Hghrtness is ‘The design of the lateral control for ee She eerodynant- the most difficult control design problem ar reel ight manel- icist, The reasons for this are that in combat and no! eee lee vers larger deflections of the ailerons are required th san L Pi asians per {4X Froums 9-11, Load distribution due to rolling velocity. controls, and that the lateral control | Motion of the stick, a direction in which the pilot can exert only a small effort, In some cases, especially for large airplanes, the ailerons are geared to a wheel, where the mechanical advantage is better and the pilot can apply considerable force. For moder high-speed system is geared to a sidewise ‘The lateral control must fulfill two basic requirements that determine the size of the control and the amount of aerodynamic balance, The lateral control must be large enough to provide suffici ng Zioment at low speeds to counter 3 t Tact the effects of vertical asymmetric c) gusts tending to roll the airplane. This ‘Yequirement is usually one “ of Size of cant » Pecause at the Tow speeds near the stall the pilot will Qe’ fhadrrt Diayvr352 DINEDRAL EFFECT AND LATERAL CONTROL [94 _ be able to use full control movement and likes to feel that he has plenty of available control to pick up a wing during the landing process. The second requirement on the lateral control is,that it roll the air- plane at a sufficiently high rate at high speed for a given stick force. This requirement dictates the amount of aerodynamic balancerequired. ‘The function of the lateral control, besides providing the rolling moments to maintain a. wingslovel attitude during landings ide during landings and to roll the airplane at high angular velocity at high speed, also must palance the dihedral in sideslips and in flight with asymmetric power. These requirements on the lateral control ae very seldom as severe as the two mentioned above, and therefore are considered only casually during the design of the lateral control. ‘The design criterion in common use for evaluating lateral control effectiveness is the non-dimensional parameter 7b/2V, with p the rate of roll in radians per second, b the wing span in feet, and V the true speed in feet per second. It will be shown in subsequent sections that, for geometrically similar airplane and lateral control arrangements, this parameter is a constant, and that for all airplanes the pb/2V that can be produced by full lateral control deflection is a measure of the relative lateral control power available. Flight research over the past years has indicated that the pilot’s conception of adequate contro’ The term pb/2V is actually the helix angle made by the wing tip during rolling maneuver. The lateral controls for modern airplanes arc designed to give definite values of pb/2V for full zileron deflection ‘The minimum requirements are as follows: = Cargo and bombardment types: pb/2V = .07 Fighter types: pb/2V = .09 Tlie aileron size is usually determined by the above requirements5) ESTIMATION OF LATERAL CONTROL POWER 35a |. whereas the aerodynamic balance of the sileron is determined from the | requirement that the above pb/2V values be maintained up to a given | function of the airplane's high speed in level flight. - | ‘The aileron control power (pb/2¥) per degree of aileron deflection | isa constant independent of speed under the assumption of a rigid | Jmg—However, in-aetuat practice the wings” elasticity alfects the” |~airple’s response to the lateral control materially, the pb/2V per | degree aileron falling off at high speeds because of wing twist. $-5 -Estimation of Lateral Control Power ‘The rolling performance of any wing-aileron system must bedeveloped from a study of the equation of motion of the airplane in roll. This is usually done by assuming the airplane to be a singledegree of freedom system in roll about the X axis. Thisis, of course, not strictly accurate, as motion about the X axis couples with the asymmetric degrees of freedom. However, for the purpose at hand the assump- tion is well justified. ° — If the wing is considered « rigid structure, the equation of motion in roll can be written very simply, the rolling moments arising only from the aileron deflection, 3, and the wing damping due to angular velocity, p. aL oL " ap? t ote ba (9-14) In this study only the steady-state rolling velocity is sought after, so that the assumption that # = 0 is made at once, reducing (9-14) to Lp =% (9-15) The assumption that only the steady-state rolling velocity is im- portant is well justified by experience, because of the very short dura~ tion of the transient motion. — Solving (9-15) for the rolling velocity gives (9-16) The partial derivatives 8/05, and aL/ap can be expressed in coefficient form by dividing both numerator and denominator by Sub.Aa Aw dk se De < are Se Le y uw vk ~~ n 354 DINEDRAL EFFECT AND LATERAL CONTROL (0-5 Tho rolling moment coofficiont per dogrgo ailoron (9C;/dé5) and the rolling moment por dogreo por socond rate of roll ean be evaluated by tho strip integration method or more accurately from determinations : of the spanwise lift distribution. ‘Tho strip }-——*2—-_ method will be doveloped first to demonstrate dy | tho funotional relationship betweon the vari- | oar ables, while the lift distribution methods will [#7] be incorporated later for actual design practice. i Tho rolling moment coefficient per degree fitz **¥ aileron throw can be developed as follows, Referring to Figure 9-12, : Fraure 9-12, Strip in- cow dy togration for isa. acy = wae > a By where ¢ is the wing local chord, and c; is the section lift coofficient. » Tho section lift coefficient can be expressed ag cr agrdy . aw od (anol? where 7 is the section-fap effectiveness factor. Substituting (921f¥into ( d integrating between the limits 4, 0/2, and hy 0/2 give the rolling moment coefficient for the complete win aa — Zarda (°/2 oS C= ee ov ay (o-20y where dw and + must be for three-dimensional flow. The derivative 8Ci/85q becomes @ ‘ 30) _ aye pave ‘Be Sob Unrve UY oer ‘The'rolling moment cooffcient due to the angular velocity, p, in radians per second can be developed in a similar fashion. ‘The adele of attack in radians due to the rolling velocity of any section at a distance y from the centerline can be given approximately as: 2 & an (eer Therefore the increment in section lift coefficient due to the rolling ee, velocity is cr = a5 Vv “Bea. ee