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Granites and metal deposits

Article  in  Episodes · December 1996


DOI: 10.18814/epiiugs/1996/v19i4/006

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Richard Sillitoe
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126


DY

- 
Ri
char
d H 
Si
ll
it
oe

Gr
ani
tes
 and 
met
al 
depos
its
Granit
ic 
roc ks
, 
spanning 
a broa
d range o
fc 
ompos i
ti
ons ap
pear 
to 
be 
products 
of 
two 
broad i
ntr
usi
ve 
sui
tes 
wit

and 
sil
ica 
c onte
nts,
 ar
e rel
ated 
geneti
call
y t
o 
a s
pe c
trum di
feren
t r
edox 

tates,
 as 
re
le
f cte
d by 
an 
ass
oci
ati
on wit

ofpre
cious- ,
 
chalco
phi l
e- 
and l
it
hophile-
me t
al 
deposit
s. ei
the
r c
halco
phile 
or l
it
hophi
le 
metals.
The me t
als prese
nt  
are dic
tat
ed by the composit
ion,

egr
ee 
offr
act
io
nat
ion 
and 

edo
x s
tat
es 
of 

he 
ass
oci

at
ed int
rusi
ons .
 The 
fert
il
e  i
ntrusio
ns and associ
ated I
ntroduct
ion
metal 
deposi
ts occu
py many tect
onic set
ti
ng s
, but 
arc
and b
ack-a
rc 
e nvir
onment
s are 
the most 

mpor t
ant. 
With Gran
iti
c r
ocks (s
e n
su lat
o), 
incl
udi
ng  a
ssocia
ted porphy
ry in t
ru-

呻deP(『Uafin,!stoc
th
e  e
xcept
ion  of 
some rare-metal co
ncentrati
ons in si
ons,
 a
re 
rel
ate
d spat
ial
ly, 

empo r
all
y a
nd genet
icall
y t
o many 
o f 
the

ld osrel 洲Sc 派
I's 
pr
emier 
me tal
de
  posit
s. 
Near
ly 
allt
 
he world'
s Mo, 
Sri 
and W
hi
ghl
y e
vol
ved 
gra
nit
es 
and 
rel
ate
d pe
gmat
it
es,
 the s
it
s, 
many 
ra
re 
met
al 

Ta,
 Nb,
 
Li,
 Be
, 
Zr,
 Ga
, 
REE) 
depo
sit
s,
deposit
s 
aref
ormed 
by 
prec
ipi
tati
onfrom metal
-beari
ng )
re t
han 60% of
Cu 
  re
sources,up 
  to 10% of 
Fe,An,
   
Zn Ag and
lu
f id 
that 
se
parat
es 
duri
ng magmati
c  c
ryst
alli
sat
ion. 
A a
s  
we l
l a
s al
l 
or 
much o
f ma ny minor 
me t
als 
(BiCd, Te,

   Re,

n, 
S c) 
are 
presen
t i
n a
nd around la
te- t
o post
-t
ect
onic 
plut
ons and
varie
ty 
of 
deposi
t 
ty
pes 
is 
recogni
sed wide
ly. 
The por- s
tocks emplaced 
mainl
y i
n the epi
zona l 
envi
ronment, 
say 
bet
we en
ph
yry 

ype 
acc
oun
ts 

or 
al
l 
of 

he 
wor
ld'
s 
mol
ybde
num one 
and 
ive 
f kil
om e
tres 
beneat
h t
he 
Eart
h's 
surf
ace.

and 
much o
f the copper Vei
n, s
karn and car
bonat
e- Furthermo re, 
con c
e aled g
r anit
ic in
strusi
o ns, 
ma    
y have 
supplied
me tals 
to  other ore environme nt
s, including  epit
her mal de
pos i
ts
re
pla
cement 
types 
supply 
all 

he t
in a
nd tungst
en,
 wi
th associated with subaeri
a l 
volcanic r
oc ks, 
vo l
ca nogen i
c ma s
sive s
ul-
di
sse
minat
ed greis
ens bei
ng t
he sour
ce f
or much 
all
u- phide  d
e posits 
g e
ne rat
ed on  and imme di
a t
ely ben eath t
he se
afloor
vi
al 

in.
 Peg
mat i
tes 
dominate 
li
thi
um and t
antal
um pr
o- and di s
se mina t
ed repla
c eme nt (
Carlin -
type) An  depos i
ts 
hosted 
by

uct
io
n. 
Lar
ge 
gol
d de
pos
it
s,
 t
he 
mai
n 
foc
us 
of 

urr
ent sedime ntary rocks (Sawk ins, 
19 90; 
Si l
li
toe, 1995) .
 Howev er, 
these
three deposit t
yp e
s are 
be yond the s
c ope oft 
his revi
e w.

xplor
ati
on act
ivi

y, 
include 
porphyr
y, 
br e
ccia,
 sk
arn, The  ir
f st p
a r
t of 
this art
icle i
s a revi
e w of me t
a l 
concentrat
ion

arbonat
e-r
 epl
acement and shee
ted-s
tockwo r
k vei
n proce ss
e s 
related 
to graniti
c in
trusions ,
 i
nc l
uding  t
he role 
of 
ma gma

ypes.
 Gold de
posit
s, unli
ke t
hose o
f  othe
r metal
s, chemi stry, 
the tecto
nic setti
ngs of mi nerali
sation, t
he product
ion of

吞补认  


FORT 
KNOX

RUN
AV勺A
--
-j

二 今M
ACT
UNG 沙
a 、 人

NDA
KOV   

ANC
O田
0 
ZORTMAN-
LANDUSKY
热 嘿豁鉴H
LE
MA
口0 
MOKRSKO
VASI
        
LKOVSKOYE


ERMONTOV,


ORT

Tu
UD

叹 犷肠       

IN
GHA
性黔 HENDERSON了
PANASQUEI
RA
KAMI
OKA

AND
EL
ARI
A SANTA 
EULALI

DACHANC 矽S
HI
ZH
UYU
AN
飞愁。 〔
旧UASHAN

Fe v




NO




 I TI
NTAYA 、
SBERG/

GERA

CU 0

AD 令
MARCONA 从S
AN

 A
FA
EL
.)

6S


NG
ZnPb O
丫飞 L
LAL
LAG
笋 STON
CHUOUI
CAMATA 勺       

Ag 0
_



CH


AU


A,




IL
LO
CANDELARI
A DDI
W 令
Sn ▲ EL 
TENI
ENTE
、.
赢 N
CO-

:BR
ONC
E GREENBUSH
Rare 田   
met
als
U 曰
Au 0

Fi I Loc
gure  ati
ons 

ft 
he 
gr
ani
te-
rel
ate
d me
tal 
de
pos
it
s 
hi
ghl
ight
ed 

n t
his 
rev
iew.

December 
1996
127


ha t 
Sn and W  depos i
ts 
ma y be t
he  products 
of 
either I
- or 
S-type
granit
es s
o lo
ng  as 
there 
is appreciable f
ract
ionati
on by plagiocl
ase


cryst
alli
sat
ion d uri
ng  consoli
dation of  t
he  r
elat
ed ma gma  s
uit
e.
Cu-
Au Ex t
reme fr
acti
o nati
on of 
e i
ther 
I- 
o r 
S-type magma s 
un der 
the i
nlu-

Au    CU-
MO Mo ence of 
high volati
le (
F, B, P) contents 
ma y lea
d to t
opa z- 
and Li
祠川】

Au    mi c
a-beari
ng granit
e s 
and granit
ic pegma ti
tes 
that 
contai
n comme r-
sxoPe

ci
al 
concent
rat
ions 
of 

he 
rar
e met
als

Alee .
M -

誉一W


---

W   
-M
o-
--

Sn-
, The o ve ral
l  
corre l
a ti
on  betwe e n m
    
etal 
ra t
ios in de
pos its and the
 
.       

、、
me
compo s
ition s of their assoc iated gr anitic r
o cks  
prov id
es  st
rong  evi

J助u一

t dence 
embod

ha

ed 


 t
n 
he 
the 
ma
lo


ma
g-st
s 
and
we
in
re 
g 

ma
he 

di
ma





c-
t 

hy
ou
dr
rc
ot
e 
he
of 



mal
e 
 
the
me
or
ta
y o

s ,
 
f 

or


Sn-
W for
ma ti
on  (e.g. Li ndgre n, 1933 ). The  me t
al d epos i
ts 
can  be  gene r

门e

ate
d  by no rma l ma gma tic 
pr oce sses an d,  
not  
even  i
n the cas e of Sn
J。

(Lehma n n, 199 0) , 
is 
a n initial
ly me tal-enriche d me lt 

eq uired . 
Ne v-
ul

ert
he les
s,  
low- order me t
al  
e nri
c hme nts in 
mag ma ti
c s
ou rce re gions
canno t 
be e asily discou nted  and a re invo ked to exp lai
n the pre -emi-
nence of some  me tall
og e nic prov ince s, 
su c
h  as 
tho se o
f Sn a nd W  i


ncr
easi
ng 

rac
tion
ati
on southern Ch in a 
(e.g.  
Pe i 
a nd Hon g,  1995) . 
A c orollary 
of a
  ma gma ti

Fi
gur
e 2 Di
agr
am 

ummar
isi
ng 

he 
cont
rol

 f 

ele
cte
d me
tal source for  
met als i
s tha t ore forma t
ion  doe s not normal ly resul t
 by
de
pos
it
s勿t
he 
de
gree 

ffr
act
ionat
io
n and 

edo
x s
tat
e 
of lea
c hing  and  r
e con centr a
tion  of  me tals from  t
he  host  rocks  ot
genet
ical
ly 
rel
ate
dg 
ranit
ic ro
c ks
. Pri
nci
pal 
and 
sub
sidi
ary 
me t
al graniti
c intrus ions by h eated  gr
ou nd - or forma t
ion wa t
er .
concent
rati
ons 
are 
re
presented妙 l ar
ge 
and 
small 

lement Red uc ed  i
ntrus i
o ns  f
a vour  hyd rothe r
ma l conc en
trat    
ion  of Sn,
symbols
, 
respe
cti
vel
y. 
Mod iie
f dfrom Ble
vin 
and 
Chappel
l (
1996). whic h i
s  
un a ble to en ter t
he  ma gma t
ic sulp hides  a
nd ilme ni t
e  t
h a

crystall
ise e arly in  t
he  co oling  history  of s uch  ma g
ma  cha mb e r

(Is
hiha r
a , 
1 98 1).I
 n con trast, 
ox idised ma gma s 
inhibit 
ma g ma tic sul

metal-
enri
ched magma ti
c lui
f d and 
the e
gress 
of 
thi
s 
lui
f d t
o si
tes 
of phi
de 
pr
eci
pit
at
ion 
and 

he 
con
seq
uen
t s
equ
est
ra
ti
on 
of 

oppe
r a
nd
metal 
deposit
ion. 
Th e s
econd 
pa r
t compri
ses a 
summa r
y of major gol
d, 
whi
ch 
the
ref
ore 
rema
in 
ava
ila
ble 
for 
par
ti
ti
oni
ng 

nto 
hyd
ro-

hermal 
lui
f d (
Candel
a, 
1989)

deposi
t 
types 
and, 
for each 
pri
nc i
pal 
me t
al,
 th
e out
sta
nding depos
it
ty
pe s 
usi
ng world-
class 
examples 
are 
deine
f d (
Figur
e 1).
Te
ctoni
c 
se
tti
ngs
Magma 
type
s and 
cor
res
pondi
ng 
met
als
The 
ma j
ori
ty of g
ranit
e-relat
ed metal
 deposi
ts 
oc c
upy arc o
r back-
ar
c s
ett
ings
, a
lthough c
olli
sion 
and i
ntra-
plat
e se
tti
ngs  
ar
e al
so r
epre-
Mos t 
me tal  
de po sits co nsid ered h ere are related  t
o  granitic ro cks  of se
nted 
(Table 1; 
Sawk ins,
 1990).
 Extensi
onal r
e g
ime s,
 or 
a t
 l
east
low-  t
o hig h-K  ca lc-alka lme  or alka line cha r
a cter, 
whi ch rang e fro m di
lat
ant 
sit
es i
n broadl
y  c
ompr ess
ive 
setti
ngs, 
favour 
int
rusion a
n d
me talumi nou s  to  peral umi no us  in c ompo siti
on  a nd  cov er  a wi d e met
al 
concent
rat
ion.
range of  sil
ic a co ntent s (dio ri
te to g ranite, sensu  stri
c t
o) . 
The  co m- Ma ny 
intr
usion-
    

e l
ated 
Fe, 
Cu and Au  deposi
ts ar
e found i

pos it
ion, de gre e of fra ction ati
on  an d red ox state of  ma gma s are th e Cordi
lle
ran or 
isl
and a r
cs ge
nerat
ed dur
in g 
subduction 
of oceani

fun dame nta l 
co n trols on  the  me t
a l 
c onte nts 
of  asso ciat
e d or es (Fi g- l
it
ho s
phere.
 Indee
d,  
subcrust
al 
cont
ri
bu t
ions, 
incl
uding H2 0, 
Cl, 

ure  2; Blev in  and  Ch a pp ell, 1992 ) . 
Fr actiona ti
on  i
n  mi n eralise d and 
me t
als,
 
to t
he parent
a l
 magmas 
ma y 
b e r
equir
ed for 
the g
enera-
gra nit
ic su it
e s inv olve d  a  variety  of ign eous  proc es s
e s, of  wh ic h t
ion of 
ma j
o r 
deposit
s. Sever
al 
lar
ge An  and Cu-Au  deposit
s i

fractional  
cry stallisation  seems  to be  the mos t 
imp ortant  
(Le hma n n, west
ern 
Paci
ic 
f isl
and 
arcs 
(Tabl
e 1
) and 
els
ewher
e we
re 
for
med
19 93). 
The  c lassiic
f ation  of gran it
e s i
nto  eit
he r 
I-  
an d S-typ es, wh ic h f
rom in
trus
ions 
empla
ced i
mme di
ate
ly 
fol
lowin
g c
oll
is
ion 
event

relec
f t
s  t
he  compos itions  of  s
our c e regio ns (e.g. Bl evin a nd  Cha p- t
hat 

esult
ed i
n r
eve
rsa
ls 
of 
subd
ucti
on p
ola
rit
y a
nd 
poss
ibl
e e
xte
n-
pe ll
, 1992) , or ma gne tite-  
a nd ilme ni t
e -seri
e s, 
whi ch de scr i
be s th e
redo x 
state s 
of t 
he  roc ks the ms elve s (
I s
hi hara, 1981 ),ma
  y be us ed  as
a ba si
s  f
or  g ros s me talloge nic subd ivision. Es sent i
a l
ly  all S- typ e
intrusions bel on g to the ilme ni t
e-s eries,whe
  reas I-types  
inc lud e bo th
DEPTH

km)



of
u溉d



ac



ca

ge
ma gn etit
e-  and,  less  c ommon ly,  ilme nite-series  rock s  (Ishiha ra, 1 
to  
2一

1981 ). A- t
yp e  gr anites  (Col lins et a l.
, 1982 ) g ene rated  l
itho ph ile- 印c
use
d 
di
s佗
护ar
gO A
dmi

tur
e 
of ,人_
夕 , ,

met al 
mi ne ralisa t
io n, bu t 
fe w ma j or dep os i
ts.










 






 


 d









 



    


  





uv


















  
r,

靡  







ne
Li tt
le-f ractio na ted 1 -type/mag netite-s
 e    

ie s  qua rtz  dio rites,
gra nodiorites a nd qua rtz mo nzoni tes, as we l
l  
as the ir 
alka line c oun - 2 
to  

terparts, 
ma y  giv e rise  to ma jo r Cu,  
Mo  and /or An  depos i
ts . 
Th e
Cu/ Mo  ratio o f 
de po s i
ts typi cally de crea ses 
wi th d egree of  fraction - , I 、 _ Ji
-,
'4
A r
-- 
""
.-     
  

ation. 
Th is re ach es  
an  extreme  in the Cu- deic
f i
e nt Clima x-type  po r-
ph
as
ph
me
ti

ve
yr
oc

lt

y 




ynes
 

y 
Mo 




 


d 



f 
m 
uc
de
wi
al


pos

ka
o 
h 


d 






hi

ts
gh
ne 
ou

yp
, 

pa

r 


hy
e 
gh



ic
nt
dr
gr


y 
a 



en

ge 


he
ti



>75 
Ca

c 

ma
ro
he
wt





d i

n 
Au 
 
ks 
n 
.%)me


W ,Sn

t 
co
pp
al.
nc
ea



 



r 
lu
99





mi


o 
 
Ta

3)


nou

be 

on


 

Hi


Nb 
s 

 





hl




hy
y 
hou
cia
nd 
oli
ox



F 
e 

gh 
ed 
di


po


wi
nd









3 

o 6



六al





 

+r



 




 


- 







贡臀i


ry




 







ed Upwar
d 
of 
channel
vol
at
magmati


c 
e-






ui
ng
ch
d  
    

some  de po sit t
yp e s (e.g.  
Au- ri
c h sk ams ; 
Me inert, 1993;  Figu re  2).
Th e mo re ev olv ed,  
felsic a nd red uc ed I-type intru sions, exe mp liie
f d Figure 
3 Sc hemati
c 
sect
ion 
to 
show t
he 
ac cumulat
ion 
and
by  t
hos e 
in the  La c hlan  Fo ld Be l
t of s outh-ea st
e m  Aus tralia and  the focus
ed rel
eas
e o
f magmati
c加 id dur
ing 
crysta
lli
sat
ion 
ofg
 rani
ti

Ca ledon i
a n terrane s o fB r i
ta i
n, tend  to 
be  poor l
y  mi neralise d. int
rusio
ns .
 
Note 
the 
upward 
admixtur
e wi
th dee
ply c
onvect
ing
In  co ntras t
,  frac ti
on a ted  and  relatively r ed uced  S-ty    
pe o r gr
oundwat
er.
 
Met
alpr
eci
pi
ta
ti
on 

rom 

he 
magma
ti
cf
lui
d 
is
il
me ni
te -
se ries gr anite s are a ss
oc iate d t
ypi cally wi th Sn士W   (
wo l- c
onc
ent
rate
d i
n t
he mixi
ng 
zone
s prov
ided 

y t
he 
cyl
indr
ica

frami t
e) de pos its. 
Bl e vin a nd Cha pp ell 
( 1995 ) 
e mp ha sise, ho we ve r, c
upo
奴t he 
rea
ctiv
e l
imest
one 
hotiz
on and 

he 
dil
ata
ntfaul
tz
 o
ne.

Fni
sodps- 
VnI
_ 19 
nn 

128


ive 
par
ti
al 
mel
ti
ng 
of 
the 
oxi
dis
ed 
uppe
r pa
rts
 of 
st
all
ed 
sla
bs
(McI
nnes 
and Camer
on,
 1994)
. Never
thel
ess,
 a 
few Fe 
and Cu 邑 SI
DEROPHI
LE

@分T

-O


Au
 
depos
it
s 
rel
ate
d t
o gr
ani
tes 
al
so 
fo
rmed 
in 
in
tra-
pla
te 
ext
ens
iona
l s
et-


(RH
PROXI
MAL
ti
ngs,
 
as 
exempli

fed 
by 
Ol y
mpic 
Dam, 
Sout
h Aust
ral
ia 

Reeve 
et 
al
., (
wit
hin     DI
STAL




O                 

990)
. (
wit
hin
nea              CHALCOPHI
LE wal
l-
M    
a j
or, 
grani
te-r
elate
d Zn-Pb-Ag deposit
s ar
e t
ypical
ly pres
ent
⑩、O
grani
te     r
ock
s)
whe

nn e
re 
r 



nt
de

us
s 

ion
f 
s 
Co


ut
di
 


mi
er

o-
n 


oc
rc




na
 

Mo 
 
sedi
1 
me
Cu 
nt
de


ry 
osi



qu
s 
ar
enc
e a
ls

s 
o 

pr
lo


ng 
en


he
 
in

ntrusi
on)  

i 
"' nA

arc 
terranes
, 
bu t 

h e 
lar
ge Cu-deici
f ent
 porp
hyry Mo( 士W)  
deposit
s V LI
THOPHI
LE I

ot Climax type we r
e generate
d in back-a
rc envir
onme nts 
during
modest
 extension of 
cont
inent
al 
crust 
(Car
ten et 
al..
 1993). Figure4 Sc he mati
c representat
ion oft 
he two princi
pal  
met
al
Cr
us t
al contaminati
on, 
deduced f
rom such features 
as      
 
el
evat
ed zoning sequences, 
si
d er
ophile to 
chalcophile and li
thophil
e t


niti
al 
Sr 
iso
tope ra
ti
os a
nd i
nher
ited 
zi
rcons
, 
is 
more e
videnti
 
n gran
- chalcophile
, 
di s
played勿 o r
e deposit
s and distr
icts 
relat
ed

tes 
associ
ated 
wi t
h Sn, 
W,  
U and r
are
-metal 
dep
os i
ts,
 henc
e  t
heir genetical
ly 
to granit
ic 
intrusi
o ns.
 Zn and Pb are present 
in 
both

ssociat
ion 
wi t
h back-
arc 
compressi
ve 
(fol
d-t
hrus
t bel
t) 
set
ti
ngs. a
s sequenc e
s, 
as emphas is
ed sche mati
call
y by the cross-
over 
point


n Bol
ivi
a and 
Per
u (
Sri
) and 
the 
Nor
thwes
t Ter
rit
ori
es-Yukon 
in 材o diie
f dfrom  Rundq uist 
(1982).
Canad a (W), or 
zones of 
c ont
inental
 coll
isi
on,
 as i
n t
he Her
cy ni
an
bel
t  
of Europe (
Sri
, U), 
southern Chin
a (Sr
i, 
W) and 
the Damara 
bel

of 
Na mi bi
a (U). 
In
tra-pla
te grani
tic 
nia
gma ti
sm, 
tri
ggered 
by 
man t
le ma rginal grou nd water  
(Fi gure 3;  
Bur nha m,  1979). Se que nt
ial pre-
plume  acti
vity,
 as in Brazil 
a n
d  Ni
geria, 
is 
als
o associ
ate
d  wi
th cipit
a t
ion  of me tals 
gi ves  r
ise to zoni ng at the depos it and dist
r i
ct
li
thoph il
e-e
lemen t 

ni ner
alisat
ion. scales (Emmo ns , 1
927 ). Exa mp les inc l
ud e: outwa rd  increas
es  in
Mo/ C_u and Mo/ Au an d upwa rd decrea s
e s 
in Au/ Cu in ma ny Au- rich
porp hyry Cu  depos it
s ( Sill
itoe. 1993 ); and  Zn -Pb1Ag  c oncentra-
M et
al 
concent
rat
ion ions
f  on the per i
ph eries of Cu,  
Mo , 
W  a nd Sri 
d eposits and distr
ic t

(Figu r
e 4;  
Run dq uist, 1
98 2) .
Gen era ll
y, 
the ext
ract
ion of me tal
s and other 
eleme nts fr
om  i
na gma s Stud ies of  pri
ma r
y  lui
f     
d inclus i
ons  in qua rt
z a nd  associated
takes place by means 
ofex
  solu ti
on of 
an aque ous lu
f id phase. 
Exc ep- mine rals from  g ra
nite -
re lat
e d ore de pos i
ts reveal t
h at mos t of the
ti
on s are s
o me of t
he r
are met als, 
especi
al l
y Ta an d Li, 
whi ch att
ain me tals 
we re  i
ntrodu ced a s compon ents of Na -,
 K-  
and  C-a-ri
ch chlo-
comme rci
al  
concentr
ati
ons b y dir
ec tc
 r
ystalli
s a
tion of  
minerals 
from ri
de  bri
nes  at 
tempe ra t
ur es i
n  t
he 550 -300' C rang e, 
wi th mo re 
dilute
highly  evolved me l
ts (
Ce rny , 1991;Po lla
rd,  1995). The transport and  coole r  f

ui ds ge nera ll
y  being  respo nsible only  for  l
a t
e a nd
effici
e ncy of 
mos t 
inet
als i
s con tr
olled 
by  t
he chloride content of 
the periph er
a l mi ne ra
lisation  stages  (
Roe dde r,
 1 984).  Mi croanalys i

lui
f d pha s
e because t
he me tals concerned are comp lexed wi t
h chlo- revea l
s that  
the hype rsaline liquid 
co ntains  
sever al
 hun dre d 
to thou-
ri
d e io ns.
  The lik
e l
y exce ptions are W  and  Mo.  tra
ns ported as sands of ppi n 
o ft 
he ore me t
a l
s (Heinr i
ch et a
 l.
, 1992; Bo dna r, 
1995) .
hydr ox yacid complexes. 
Pa rtiti
oning ot me tal
s,  
such  a
s Cu,  i
nto a Ox yg en a nd H  i
sotopic  studies confirm  that  
the ear l
y  lui
f ds wer e
ma gma ti
c lui
f d (
both 
vapour a
 nd hyp er
saline li
qu i
d) is 
mos t 
effi
c i
ent ma gma t
ica ll
y de ri
ve d, whe re as 
the later lui
f ds in t
he  shallowe r 
a nd
at shallow  cr
us t
al 
depths, 
say  3-4 km,  
from  we t 
ma gma s with high mo re distal parts o
f de posits or 
d i
stri
c t
s show  ev id
enc e for mixing of
Cl
/H20 
rat
ios 
(Candel
a and 
Piccol
i, 
1995)
. the ma gma tic 
c ompo n ent  
with up to 
5 0%  groun dwa t
er (Ta ylor, 
1979) .
In 
order 
for 
a me ta
l 
de posit 
to f
orm  i
n o
    
r 
around t
he apica
l part

of 
a gr
anit
e 
pl ut
on, 
met al-b
ea ri
n g 
lui
f d mu st 
ir
f st 
undergo concentr
a-
ti
on i
n t
he upper 
parts o
f th
e c hambe r, 
possi
bly by pr
oc es
ses s
uc h 
as De
pos
it 

ypes
convect
ive 
ov er
turn 
a nd si
de-wa l
l 
crystal

f s
ation. 
Fluid 
intr
oduc ti
on
als
o may re
s ul
t 
from  in
trusi
on  of maic 
f magma  i
nto t
he lower part
s Mo st 
in trusion- relate d 
me tal de
  posits 
ge n erate d f
rom  ma gma tic lu
f id
of 
fels
ic 
chamb ers 
(e.g. 
Ca r
ten  et 
a]
., 1993).
 1 
he lui
f d t
hen mu st 
be can 
be  as si
gn e d to six broad  t
yp e s
, wh ich  ma y oc cur 
a l
on e or in var-
channel
led 
u pwards eff
ec t
ively thr
ou gh t
he ma gma column  (
Figure i
ous  combi na tions . The  l
arge st  
of  
the se d epos it
s ,
 att
ainin g  several
3).
 This 
requir
es perme abil
ity in 
the crysta
llis
ing mag ma chamb er, thousa nd  mi lli
on  tonn es, are  of the  p orph yr y type, whe rea s the
wh
ich 

s 
fa
vou
red 
by 
hi
gh 

nit
ial
 
wat
er 
an
d ot
her
 v
olat
il
e 
con
cen
tra
- sma l
le st, norma lly  l
e s
s  t
ha n te n mi l
lion  to nn es, 
are v eins. La r
ge.
ti
ons, low degre
es  
of cryst
all
isa
ti
on a nd l
ow press
u r
es, 
i.
 e. 
shall
ow skarn, c arbon ate -
 replaceme nt. greisen  and  bre c
c i
a-hos t
ed  d epos it

depths  (
Cand e
la, 1991 )
.I n
trusi
ve con t
acts,
 faul
ts an
d  perme a
ble are 
typ ica l
ly of in terme diate size s

li
thologies 
are 
effective 
in 
focusi
ng the as
cent o
f t
he magma tic 
lu
f id Por phyr y  dep os i
ts .
 con tainin
    
g ma inly  Cu,  
Mo  an d/or Au,  
are
beyon d t
he magma  ch a
mb er 
(Fi
gu r
e 3). centred on  cy li
nd r i
c al 
porp hyr y st
oc ks , 
from  less 
than 100  m  to sev-
So r
ti
e o
f the me l
t an
d lu
f id 
a r
e ven    
ted 
from the 
paren t
 magma era] 
kilo me tres in di ame ter-t he cupo las o n the tops of gran iti
c plu-
chambe r
s t
hroug h cupolas.
 which i
n  por
p h
yry syst
ems  
c ommon ly tons (Fi gure  5). The  st
oc ks  
ar e mul ti-ph ase  in character, wi th the
have the f
orm of  
st
eep cyli
nders 
that 
a r
e t
all
er (
>2 km) 
tha n 
they 
are highe st 
g rade or e be ing hoste d by early ,co
  mmon ly 
the e arli
e st, 
por-
wi
de.
 Ma
gma 
cha
mbe
rs 
wit
h v
olume
s a
s s
mal
l 
as 
15 
km3 
ar
e e
sti
- phyry  intrusio ns a nd . 
in some  depos its, 
a lso by the wa llrocks . Less
Ma t
ed  to li
be rat
e s uff
icient ma gma ti
c  lui
f d to  generat
e mo derat
e- well-mi n eralised  po rphyries  
intrud e du ri
ng , 
a nd ate
f r the ma in alt
e r

si
sed  porphy ry 
Cu  de posi
ts  
in t
h ei
r cup ola
s (Cl ine, 1
995), 
alt
h ough atio
n  an d rneta l 
in troduction  eve nts 
(Fi gur e 5;  
Gus tafson a nd  Hun t

ini
tial ma gma  vo l
ume s s
ome  20-time s greater  
are beli
eved to be 1975 ,
- Ca rt
en  e t 
A,  198 8; 
Si ll
itoe, 1993) . 
Mu c h 
of the me tal  
in po r

required  t
o g enerate a Sri d
ep os i
t (
Leh mann,   1990).
 Ma j
or me ta
l phyry  de pos i
ts  oc cu r
s  i
n  mul ti
-direc tiona l s t
ockwor k  sulph ide1
depos it
s are 
fa v
ou red by t
h e 
foc used ascent of lu
f i
d thr
ough one or 
a quartz  ve i
nl ets  that  a
c compa ny  K- silicate  a l
terat
ion,  t
ypi ie
f d  by
few cu polas (Fi
gu re 3). 
Que nching of ma gma  in these 
cupolas 
gives post-ma gma ti
c bi otite 
and K- feldspar. Se riciti
c alter
ation,  
de in
f ed by
ri
se to the developme nt  
of 
the ch ar
acteristi
c po rphyry t
extur
e (BUrn- qu a
rtz , 
se r
icite a nd p yri
te, 
c ommo nly ov erpr ints 
a l
l 
or  
pa r
ts of’ K-sil

hain, 197 9). Release of me cha nical
 en ergy du ring esca
pe 01' 
lui
f d icat
e  zon es  an d, in  ma ny  cases .
 giv es  rise to pa r
tial or c ompl e t

genera tes 
fracture 
ne t
wo rks ,
 
inc l
uding hy drothe rma l 
br
eccias,
 which r
emoval
 of 
met
als.
provide s i
tes f
or me tal 
depo si
tion (Bur nham,  1979 ). Sk ar n deposi
    
ts develop by co nver
sion ma i
nly of  
ca r
bona t

Met alde
  pos i
ti
on,  
in 
the form of sulphides  
(Cu.  
Mo
    
, 
Pb,Zn,
   
Ag, r
ocks t
o  me tal-
bearing calci
c  or ma gnesi
an sil
ic
ate  ass
embl ages
Bi, Sb ),
 oxides  
( F
e,  
Sr i
, 
W) , lu
f orcar
b onate (REE)  or 
nati
ve me tal al
ongsi
d e or near 
graniti
c int
rus i
ons. The in
trus
ions ma y host p
or-

An)
, 
is 
ca
use
d by 
des
tabi
li
sat
io
n oft
hei
r 
aqu
eou
s, 
mos
t 
commonl
y phyr
y de posit
s (Fi
gur e 5) 
or be  l
argely unminera
lised (Figure 7)
ch
lori
de 
comp l
exes.
 Des
tabi
li
sati
on 
is 
induc
ed 
by c
ooli
ng, 
rea
cti
on Earl
y 
pro grade s
ili
cate ass
embla ges, 
princ
ipall
y gar
ne tan
  d pyroxene
wit
h r
ock i
n or 
around 
the 
cupola 
and, 
in 
par
ti
cul
ar,
 mixi
ng wit
h i
n ca
lci
c s ys
tems , 
ar
e n ormall
y deic
f ie nt 

n metal
s, 
wh ereas l
ater 
ret

December 
1996
129

Hydr
other
mal and 
6).
 Ma jor 
vei
ns  
extend 
for 
up to 
severa
lki
  lometre
s al
ong st
ri
ke   

砒才 巍 姗
Ser

cit
ic   
brec
cia and 
a k
ilome tr
e d
own  dip. 
Veins 
ma y ac
comp any t
he oth
er de
pos i

Carbonat
e-repl
acement
I    deposi t
ype
t         s, 
bu t 
ma ny la
rge ones occur a
lone. 
Histori
call
y, hi
gh-gra
de
vei
n deposit
s were 
the main s
ource of 
me t
als
, su
ch as 
Cu in n
orth-


Zn
Vei
ns
_._


二/(
or


-P



pnyr


y uu-
mo /



n 
mp
Chi
ort


e 
nc



 

d 
s 

Sr



 


n 
ni
Cor
sh
ed
nwa


l, 
England, 
but 
today th
eir ec
onomi c

ae

   
   
pos,
I 
wi
th   
I/
乍s
il

caI
e 口/   

Cu

ner
at

on J护  
一尸吃二
Pr
inc
ipl
e me
tal
 de
pos
its

Iron


.弓

skal



ltr
usi
on-rel
ated Fe deposi
ts 
are dwarf
ed  by t
hos e f
orme d syn-



们 们 51 心    





sn



Pl

 
s-


au



A 


e-


ou


it g
eneti
cal
ly i
n  Precambri
an banded i
ron formati
o ns. 
The  la
rgest
t ‘


ntr
usi
on-rel
ated deposi
ts
, 
consi
sting 
ma i
nly of 
ma gneti
te, 
ma y b

、夕


Sil
ici
clast
ic a
ssi
gned to two , p
ossi
bly tr
ansit
ion
al categori
es : 
conv e
ntional
Granodi
ori
te hostrocks
丰 s
karns
, s
uch as Ma r
cona i
n Per
u, 
and i
gneo us 
rock-hosted 
bodies,

orphyr
y    
了 s
uch 
ro
un
as 
Ki
ds 



unavaar
he or

a 
gi

n 
n 
Sweden 
of 
the l



Ta

bl

r 
e 


1)



 Much 
go r
y,
di
 a

scus
tho
si
ug
on 
sur
h t

he 
balance of evi-

dCDCe  seems  to favou r magne t
it
e  i
ntroduction by  r
eplace me nt
+ \!
了 产1

200
ra
the r than ma gma tic segr
ega t
ion (Hitzma n  et 
al,1 992 ). Th e





es i
gne ous  
rock-hosted Fe 
de posi
ts 
typicall
y contain 
acti
noli
te, 
wi th or
十         


上十          


withou t 
pyroxen e,ga
  rneta
 nd s
c apoli
te, 
and are ac
comp ani
e d by K-
      
Int
er-mi
ner
al
200
si
licate al
tera
tion . 
Albiti
sati
on is 
a deep, 
pre-ore al
ter
ati
on in so me
gr
anodi
ori

e por
phyr
y di
stricts (
Hitzma n et 
a l
., 
1992), 
as it
 i
s i
n the porphyry 
cop per and

rei
sen 

nvi
ron
ment
s 
(e
.g.
 
Fig
ure 
6)

Fi
gu re 
5 Sc he mati
c sec
tion 
to s
how spatiali
 nter
-rel
a t
ionshi
ps Th e  i
gneou s rock-ho st
e d Fe  d
    
eposit
s ma y  conti
nue thei

be
twee n por
ph yry Cu, 
skarn, 
carbonate-
replace ment,
 brecc
ia 
and hydrotherma l
 evoluti
on and, gi
  ve
n adequate 
S availabil
it
y,und
  ergo
ve
in depos i

s in and 
around a 
por phyr
y cupola above 
a granit
ic parag
e ne t
ical
ly 
late ad
ditions  
o fC
 u and Au (
e.g.Ca
  ndelar
ia,Chi
  l
e)
pl
uton. Allt
 he deposi
t 
ty
pe s 
do notne
  ces
sar i
ly occur 
in 
a si
ngle and eve n t
ransforma t
ion  of ma gnetit
e-beari
ng K- sili
cat
e assem-

yst
em. bla
ges to haema t
ite-
domi na t
e d sc
rici
tis
a t
ion. 
In
de ed, t
he 
haematit
e-
ri
ch Cu- U-Au -Ag  brecci
a  de posit
 at 
Ol ympic Da m  (
Ta bl
e 1) i


o gr
a de stages int
roduc e mos t 
of t
he  metal
s  i
n  conjun
ction  with commo nly 
cons i
d er
ed as an end- memb er 
of t
his 
gr anit
e-r
elate
d Fe
hydrous  
assemb lages 
con taini
ng suc
h mi ne
rals as acti
nol
ite,
 biotit
e, oxide
-Cu - Au clan (
Hitzma n et 
al.
, 
1992; Willi
ams  et 
al.
, 
1995).
mu s
c ovit
e , 
c hl
or i
te,
 talc, quart
z and  car
bona tes (Eina
ud i et al.

198 
1). 
Al l 
me tal
s concentrated 
by mag mati
c lu
f id are f
ound in skarn Coppe

deposits.
 Skam  deposit
s  
are lo
cali
sed 
by combi nations 
of 
favo urable

ithologies and faul
ts,
 and theref
ore commo nly are str
ata
bou nd,  
but Int
rusi
on-r
elat
ed copper 
deposi
ts a
re dominat
ed by those 
of 
po r

part
ially 
v ei
n - 
and fr
acture-contr
olle
d. phyry 
type,
 t
he la
rgest 
bei
ng t
he Cu-(Mo)  
deposit
s a
t El 
Teni
ente
Ca r
bona t
e- r
eplace me nt 
deposit    
sa
 r
e generated where 
ca r
bo n- and Chuqui
cama t
a i
n Chil
e (
Table 
1). 
The la
tt
er owes it
s 
pre-
erm-
at
e rocks beyond the 
skam  fronti
 
nteract 
wit
h diluted 
mag ma t
ic lui
f d, nence t
o t
he genera
tion 
of s
upergene o
xidis
ed and enri
ched 
ores
du
rin
g mi
d-Te
rt
ia
ry 
wea
the
rin
g. 
Anot
her 

xtr
eme
ly 

arg
e po
rph
yry

he ho st 
limes t
one or ma rble 
being r
e pl
aced directl
y by semi-ma s-

ive 

o mas
si
ve 
sul
phi
des
. 
Tin 
(F
igu
re 
6) 
and 
Zn-
Pb-
Ag 
(Fi
gur
e 5)

re 
commo
nly 
hos
ted 

n c
arb
ona
te-
repl
ace
ment
de
  p
osi
ts
, 
w hi
ch 
      
ma
y 产、
occur 
alone 
or 
as 
dis
tal 
ext
ensi
ons 
to 
skar
n bodi
es 
(Ei
naudi
 et 
al.
, Vei
ns 习


981). 
Int
erconn e
cted s
trat
abound ma nt
o and 
st
eep c
himne y 
co nf
ig-

rat
ions t
ypify carbonate-
replace
me nt d
eposit
s. 
Source int
rusions
夯、
过、
Carbonate-
rep
lacemen


ommo nly do  not occur 
wi t
hin 500im of c
arbonat
e-re
p la
ce ment deposit 

cassi

erit
e+
sul
phi
de
      



eposit
s, 
alt
ho ugh p or
phyry dykes common l
y occupy controll
ing

aul
ts. Met
a-s
edi
men
tar
y     
__S' 
host 

ocks   
G    
reisen 
de pos i
ts 
co ntain Sri
, W (
as wolf
ramite) a
 nd some t
ime s
Mo,  Bi 
or Be, accomp anie d by  p
a r
ageneti
call
y l
ate  base 
me t
als,
 as
disseminat
e d 
mi ne r
ali
s a
tion in p e
rvasiv
e l
y al
ter
ed c upolas 
a nd t
heir G 玫: ;
}'
-  Dol
omi
te

con t
iguous 
wa ll
ro cks 
(Figu re 
6) . 
There 
is c
ommonl y a c
lose re
lati
on
吮叩ma
ti
ti
c塑 呈_
to quart
z-domina ted s
he eted or stockwork vei
n systems  (
Figu r
e 6). Sk
arn 
depos
it


 


oc

ce

汾 (
cassi
tente+
Gr ei
sen al
tera
tion  i
s 
compo sed of q
uart
z and white mi c
a ,
 accomp a- magnet

te)
nied by t
opa z, 
lu
f orit
e and /or tourma l
ine.
 Greis
en s display t
ra n
si- 毛 十
ti
ons  
to 
porphy r
y,  
skarn and  carbonate-
replac
eme nt deposits. 十
+ 十
Breccia de posits commo nly comp ri
se verticall
y  ext    
ensive 十 +

// +
pipes t
hat 
de velop eit
he r within g r
anit
ic i
ntr
usions or in overlyi
ng . _ r
-,
,。}
   

#} +       
、 200
+ ura + 丫 \ 一了     
/ 十 + \ I       
wal
lrocks.
 M os
t of 

he 
ore 
miner
als 
eit
her 
cement 

he 
brecci
a cl
ast
s / , + 1    
/ + + ‘ 1  
or 
impregnate breccia 
ma tri
ces 
comp osed of 
commi n uted rock ma t

er
ial. 
Ma r
ginal part
s of 
brecci
a pi
pes ,
 
abutting 
zones of sheeted frac
- + + ‘ .
』二日  
tu
res, 
are 
favour ed 
s i
tes 
for 
ore 
conc e
ntrati
on. 
Cop per-be ari
ng  brec
- 200    0     
ci
as occur within and around porphyry Cu  d
eposits (Figure  5) o

al
one ,
 but 
brecc i
as al
so ma y 
contai
n one or more ot t
he  ot
he r ma g
- Fi
gur
e 6 Sc hemati
c 
secti
on 
to 
show s
pati
al 
int
er-r
elati
orshi
ps
mati
c a
lly 
con cen t
rate
d me tal
s 
(Sil
li
toe, 
198 5). be
twe
en gr
e i
sen
, s
karn, 
car
bonate-
repl
acement, 

tockwork 
and v
ein
      

Ve i
ns are norma ll
y contr
olle
d by st
e ep t

    
 
mod erate l
y dipping de
pos
it
s i
n a 
Sn-dominat
ed s
ystem 
cent
red 
on a 
granit
ic 
copol
a.Al
  l
fa
ults 
that 
cut  
g ra
niti
c  i
ntr
usions 
an d
/or their
 wallr
o cks (Figu r
e s 
5 de
pos
itt
 
ypes 
do notne
  ce
ssari
ly 
occ
ur i
n“s i
ngle 
syst
em.

Epi
sodes,
 Vol
. 
19,
 no. 

Cu-(Mo) de
  pos i
t, 
Rio Bla nco-Lo s 
Bro nces 
in Chile,
 i
s dominate
d by an d Geji
u, 
Yu nn
an provin
c e, 
Ch i
na; 
Re nison Bell 
in Ta smania, 
Aus-
a hydrotherma l 
br eccia comp l
ex that destr
o yed muc h of 
the pf
e - tralia)
, 
forme d i
n associ
ation wit
h eit
he r S- or I
-t
yp e peralummous
exi
sting st
ockwor k 
mi nera l
isati
on (Table I;Se rr
ano et 
al.
, 1
996). gra nit
es (
Ta ble 
I).Ne v
ertheless,
 th
e wor ld's l
argest Sri
 deposi
t was
Th e only other granite-rela
ted Cu  depos i
t 
that 
ap p
roaches 
t    
he the  s
tockwo rk a
nd ve i
n system in su
bv olc a
nic S-typ e quart
z l
ati
te
st
ature of 
the porphyr y cop pers 
is 
the breccia-host
ed Olympi c 
Dam por phyry at  Ll
alla
gua, Bol ivi
a (Sil
li
to e  e
t a l
.,
 1 975 ), 
which is
deposit(
 Table I;Re eve et 
a l.
, 
1990). 
Se veral 
Cu skarns, 
nota
bly 
Tin - ex ploi
ted curren
tly 
on only a small
 sc
ale b y 
a local 
mi n
ing co-o
per-
tay
a in Peru 
a nd Ertsbe r
g in Indonesia, 
a r
e impo r
tant 
economi c
ally, ative.

alt
hough  t
hey are an order of 
ma gnitude smallert
 han 
the l
argest
 por-
phyry Cu depos i
ts. Rare  met als

Mol
ybde
num Rare metal
s (
1 Sri
) ar
e present 
in 
ma gma ti
c mi n
erals 
for med as 
part
oft
 he 
cryst
all
isati
on sequence, 
rat
her t
han as h
ydrot h
er ma l
 i
ntr
odu c-
Mo r
e t
han ha
lf 
the wor l
d's Mo is 
suppli
ed a
s a 
by-pro
du c
t  
fr
om por- ti
ons, 
in s
ome extreme ly 
fract
ionated t
opaz-  
and Li 
mi ca-beanng I-
phyr
y Cu ore
s, 
ma inly i
n t
h e west
ern Americas
. 
Mos t 
of 
the 
remain- and S-typ
e albi
te granite
s and gr
an it
ic pegma t
ites.
 Gi ant 
Precarn-
der 
come s f
rom  p orphyry  Mo  deposi
ts,
 ma i
n l
y t
he  Henders
o n bri
an pe g
ma ti
tes at 
Gr eenbushes, We st
ern Aus tra
lia and Tan ko,
deposi
t 
in Colo
rado.  
USA.  host
ed by hi
gh-sil

ca rhy
olit
e porphyry Ma nit
oba, 
Ca n
ada a c
co unt 
for 
mu ch of 
the world's 
Li  
supp l
y and a
and 
the lo
we r
-grade En dako  d
eposit 
in 
Briti
sh Colu
mbi a, 
Canada. lar
ge shar
e of 
Ta produc t
ion (
Table I;Poll
ard, 1995).
host
ed by 
quart
z mon zonite (Tabl
e 1).
Ur
ani
um
Zi
nc 
and 
lead
Vein-type 
U deposit
s, n
otabl
y t
hose o
f the Aue-Ob e
rschl
ema dis

The large s
t i
ntr
usion-r
e l
ated 
Zn-Pb-(Ag)  
deposit
s are 
eit
her c
alci
c tr
ict,
 Germany (
Ia 
ble I)
,are 
wides
pread i
n and a
round fr
acti
onat
ed
skarns, 
like 
Ka mioka, 
Japan, 
or 
car
bonate-re
placeme nt 
manto-c
him-
grani
te s
. 
Howe v
er. 
they 
are c
ommo nl
y formed lo
ng ater
f  
magmati

ney dep osit
s l
ike Sant
a Eulali
a, 
Me xi
co (Table I)
.I n 
both de
posit lui
f d exsol
uti
on 
ceased (
Ta bl
e I
)because of
 the 
high hydr
other
mal
types,
 ore is 
formed dist
all
y wit
h r
espect t
o fel
si
c I-t
ype i
ntrus
ions,
mo
bil
it
y o
f U6
1 i
n e
ven 
lo
w-t
empe
rat
ure 
groun
dwa
ter
 (
Lehman
n,
commonl y in 
associat
ion wit
h dykes,
 and shows  
proximal en
rich
- 1
993)
me nt 
in Cu.  
Nev e
rthel
ess, 
such 
deposi
ts 
are oversh
a dowed by 
sedi-
me nta
ry- exhal
ativ
e (se
de x) 
Zn-Pb-(Ag) deposit
s u
nr el
ate
d to 
ma g
- T     
he only inaJor intr
usion-r
ela
ted U  d
ep osit in pr
oduc t
ion is
m ati
sm .
Rossing, Nami bia, 
whi ch compris
es in
f e
-graine d diss
emi nati
ons of
mainly uraninit
e   
in 
S- t
ype pegmati
ti
c al
askit
e (Ta ble 1
). 
Th e 
alas
kite

s t
ho ught t
 
o be t
he produc t
of
  a
 na
tecti
c 
mel t
ing of  
gneiss
ic bas
eme nt
Si
lver
roc
ks  (Be r
ning,  1986). Nevert
heless
. t
he by- produc t 
pitchble
nde
Mos t
 of t
he world's Ag  su
pply i
s der
ived as 
a by-product f
rom cont
en t of t
h e Ol y
mpi c Da m Cu deposit 
(Ta ble  I)ma kes i
t the
epi
thermal Au and se dex Zn-Pb deposi
ts. 
Large granit
e-rel
ated world's l
arges t
 U resource.
deposi
ts 
exploi
ted p
rincipall
y f
or 
Ag  ar
e r
are, 
and 
only Candelari
a,
Nevada, 
USA  i
s 
inined curre
ntl
y (
Table I
)Ca ndela
ria i
s 
a bulk-
lon- G ol

nage dis
seminat
ed an d st
ockwork deposi
t host
ed by sedimentary
roc
ks  
locat
ed di
stal
ly  with 
res
pect 
to an inf
err
ed plut
on  a
t depth Mos t 
of the premier in
trusio
n- r
ela
ted An  deposit
s  are of 
porphyry

Thomson 
et 
al
., 
1995)
. type (
Silli
toe, 1991),and  i
nclude Au-only exa mple s l
ike Refugio,
The super
gene oxi
    
dise
d and enri
ched zones o
f vein-
type Ag Chile 
beside s 

ho se 
containi
ng minor (
Ca dia 
Hi ll
, 
Ne w  South 
Wa les,
de
pos i
ts
, many 
in 
Ii
inest
one-
bearing 
volcan
o-sedimentar
y se
q uen
c es Au st
ral
ia; Bod dingt
on, We st
ern Austral
ia) as well as major 
(Gr as-
al
ongside d
iori

e or 
granodi
orit
e i
ntr
usions, 
were 
exploi
ted 
in Chile berg, 
Indon esi
a ) 
amo unts 
of 
ex pl
oita
ble Cu  (
Ta bl
e  1). 
At  
Boddi n
g-
dur
ing t
he l
ast 
cenl
ui
ry} 

he l
argest 
was 
Cha harc
ill
o (
Ta b
le I
). ton, 
an aurifer
ous  
la
te r
it
e ,
 de
ve l
oped by Ph anerozoic we at
hering 
of
the 
porphy ry-t
ype mi ner
a l
isa
tion, 

s mined cu r
rently (Symon s 
e t 
al
..

990)

几ngs
ten
In    
 addition,  
th er
e  are si
n gle ma j or exampl es  (
Ta ble 1) 
of a car

Drama t
ic 
fal
ls 
in 
the world 
price 
of W in 
the 1980s  
res
ult
e d i
n cl
o- bona t
e -
rep lace me nt An  de pos i
t at Telfe r, 
Wes t
er n Aus tr
alia (
Goe ll

sur
e of 
mos t
 of
 t
he we st
ern 
wor l
d's 
W  mines.
 Th e l
argest
 and hi
gh- nicht et 
al .
, 198 9) , 
a se dime nt-ho sted  stoc k
wo rk Au  depos it
, o
ve r

est
 gr
a d
e deposi
ts 
are wolfr
amite-
domma t
ed, 
gr eise
n-bordered v
ein printed by  high -gr ade, fa ul
t-cont rol l
ed  epitherma l An  min e
ralis
a-
sys
tems and sc
heeli
te-beari
ng cal
cic 
skarns 
(Ta ble I)
.The  pr
emier ti
on.  
at  
Po rge ra, Papua  Ne w  Gu inea  (Ric hards and  Ke rr
ich, 1993)
W  s
ka r
n (an
d asso
ciated grei
sen) 
deposit
 is 
SliizhLl
yuan i
n  Hunan and a shee ted-ve in An  dep osita
 t  
Va si
lkov skoye,  
Ka zakhs t
a n.
pr
ovi
nce,
 Chi
na 
(Mao 
et 
al.
, 1
995)
. Mor
e t
han 
75% 
of 

he 
wor
ld'
s Th e por phyr y de po sit
s, alon g wi th Tel fer 
a nd Por gera, 
a    

e al

mined  W  come s fr
om  numerou s
  gr
eisen-bordered vein deposi
ts
, rel
a t
ed  t
o  oxidise d I-type  i
ntr usion s of either cale-a l
ka l
ine or al
ka-
not
ab ly Xilma shan, as
sociat
ed  with S-type  granit
es in Jian
gxi lin
e  afinity  (Tabl e I).Ot her imp ortant,  
bu t 
smal l
er bulk-tonnage,
pro
vinc e, 
Chi na (Wu and Mci. 1982). Neverthel
ess ,
 t
he ext
ensive
, intrusion-rela t
ed Au d e posits,  li
ke t he  brecc ia-hosted Ki d
ston
sha
llowl y dipping givi
sen vein system  at Panasqueira,
 Portu
gal depo si
t  
in  Qu eens land . Au strali
a,  assoc iated wi th Mo- mi nerali
sed
(Ta
bl e I),
 and the 
Lerni
on t
ov skarn and a
s s
oc i
ated gr
eisen d
eposit

rhyolite po rphy ry, and  the F-  and  Te -be ari
ng  stock wo r
k Zor tman-
in 

he  Russian Far 
East 
are 
als
o current pr
oduc ers

La ndus ky de posit, Mon tana, USA,  in sye nit
e por phyr y, 
ma y als
o be
assigned to the s ame  ox idised I-type  categ ory.
Ti
n In ma rked  contra st,
 the Va si
lkov s koy e An  dep osit (Table I )
,along
Si
nce  t
he 'cras
h'  of  t
he Sn  pri
ce in 1 986, only high-grade Sn with othe r 
she eted qu artz vein an d stockwor k depo sits, 
characteri
sed
de
pos i
ts,
  b
esides d e
ep l
y  we a
thered elluvial
, all
uvial and ma rine by  K- si
licate  and  se ri
ci t
ic  alt
e ration,  at  
Mok rsko  in the  Czech
pl
acer deposi
ts, 
ha ve been comme rc
ially via
ble. Large, 
low- grade Re public, For t 
Knox  in  Alaska , USA  a nd Oma i in Gu yana seem  t

gr
eis
e n and stockwor k  d
epos i
ts have  l
argely cea s
ed  p
rodu ct
ion. be assoc iated wi th some wha t mor e  redu ced, 1-t
yp e, calc-
alk a
in
f e t

al

hou gh weathering of such ma t
eria
l ga v
e  r
ise 
to a ma j
or allu
vial alkali
ne  i
ntrus ions  (e.g. Thomps on  et al .
, 1995;  Cr 6peau  et 
al.
an
d sa pr
olit
e Sn- (Ia -Nb)  
d e
po s
it at Piin
f ga  i
n  Brazi
l (Tab l
e  I
; 1 9
96) . As  an  appa rent cons equ enc e ,
 thes e depos its contain W  (
as

cheel
it
e).
 Bi
, As 
and/
or 
Sb 
rat
her 
than 
Cu,
 Zn 
and/
or 
Ph.
 Moder

Horbe et
 al
., 
1991 ).
Cu r
rentl
y. t
h e     
inaJor deposi
ts are of vein type (San Ra fael
. a
tel
y r
educ
ed 
I-
typ
e i
ntr
usi
ons
 ar
e a
lso 
rel
ate
d t
o An 
(-As
-Bi
-Te

Per
u) and car
b o
na te-
rep la
ceme nt 
type (Da chang, 
Gu angxi province s
kar
ns,
 such 
as 
For
tit
ude 

n Nevada,
 USA 
(Memer
t, 
1993)

December 
1996
      u司1
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