Original Article

Educational Management
Administration & Leadership
Leadership styles and teacher 1–19
© The Author(s) 2021

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DOI: 10.1177/17411432211041625
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Menber E Yohannes and Teresa A Wasonga

Abstract
This quantitative study investigated the relationship between leadership styles and teacher job sat-
isfaction in Ethiopia, based on teacher perceptions. The multifactor leadership theory also known
as full range leadership theory and work adjustment theory provided the theoretical framework to
explore the relationship. Analysis of data yielded three major findings: (1) while the practice of
transformational leadership was significantly lower, the practice of laissez-faire was significantly
higher than international benchmarks; (2) teacher job satisfaction was low and significantly
lower among males; and (3) there were low to moderate correlations between leadership styles
and teacher job satisfaction with aspects of transformational and transactional leadership predict-
ing job satisfaction, a trend similar to studies in other African countries. This study suggests that
practicing principals, leadership preparation programs, and reform initiatives for school success in
Ethiopia, consider providing professional development that includes predictors of teacher job sat-
isfaction—inspirational motivation and contingency reward among other things.

Keywords
Teacher job satisfaction in Ethiopia, leadership styles and job satisfaction, education in Ethiopia,
school leadership in Ethiopia

Introduction
This quantitative study used teacher perceptions to investigate the relationships between leadership
styles and teacher job satisfaction in Ethiopia. While school leadership has gained publicity for
“influencing the motivation and capacities of teachers as well as the environment and climate
within which they work” (Pont, et.al., 2008: 32); teacher job satisfaction has gained publicity
because of their role in education and attrition occasioned by dissatisfaction (FMoE, 2015).
According to Kalleberg (1977: 124), “work which enables satisfaction of one’s needs furthers
the dignity of the human individual, whereas work without these characteristics limits the develop-
ment of personal potential.” Thus, determining school principals’ behaviors and their influence on

Corresponding author:
Teresa A Wasonga, Northern Illinois University, 141 Heritage Dr, DeKalb 60115, USA.
Email: twasonga@niu.edu
2 Educational Management Administration & Leadership 0(0)

teacher job satisfaction provides context for improving work conditions, teachers’ experiences,
school leadership, and productivity.

Background—Ethiopia
Ethiopia is a federation comprising over 90 ethnic languages spread over nine administrative
regions (FMoE, 2015). The largest ethnic group, the Oromos, make 34% of the population followed
by Amharas at 27%, Tigrayans and Somalis at 6% each, and Sidamas at 4% mostly occupying the
South. Forty three percent of Ethiopians identify as Christian Orthodox, 34% as Muslims, and the
rest are a mix of indigenous religions and other sects of Christianity or Islam (Trines, 2018).
Ethiopia is politically fragile with quasi-authoritarian rule. The Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary
Democratic Front (EPRDF) was in power from 1991 to December 2019 when the Prime
Minister dismantled the party and formed the Prosperity Party that is currently in power
(Gebreluel, 2019). Ethiopia is also one of the poorest countries in the world with 68% of the popu-
lation depending on agriculture amidst worsening drought and agricultural outputs. Ethiopia has
relied on foreign aid for development and faces challenges of child malnutrition, high child mor-
tality and communicable disease, inadequate health services, limited access to electricity, and
poor sanitation (Joshi and Verspoor, 2013; Trines, 2018). In the second most populous country
in Africa (over 110 million), and fastest growing economy, schools, particularly those in rural
areas, lack the most basic infrastructure (UNESCO, 2020). But beyond UNESCO’s descriptions,
Ethiopia is exceptionally multicultural, maintaining indigenous languages and cultures, politics,
and religion alongside modernity. Leadership is multifaceted reflecting patriarchy, religiosity,
imperialism, and democracy.
Relatively, Ethiopia’s population is skewed towards youth with 41% under the age of 15 (Trines,
2018), majority living in poor rural dispersed communities (FMoE, 2015). In the last two decades,
Ethiopia has witnessed a 500% increase in basic education enrolment (Mitchell, 2015; Trines,
2018). But, despite this expansion and free compulsory basic education, only 60% of children
aged 5–16 years are enrolled in school full-time (Trines, 2018), 12% and 11% of males and
females aged 20–24 years, respectively, finish secondary school, and the median years of schooling
for males and females aged 15–49 are 3.2 and 0.0 years, respectively (Johns Hopkins Bloomberg
School of Public Health, n.d.). A World Bank report noted that Ethiopia was “one of the most edu-
cationally disadvantaged countries in the world” for much of the 20th century due to frequent con-
flict, famines, humanitarian crises, political violence, and radical political changes (Joshi and
Verspoor, 2013: 37). In the same report, 78% of Ethiopians aged 25–29 and 86% of women in
the lowest-income quantile have never been to school. School expansion has exacerbated the chal-
lenges of the underdeveloped education system, poor educational quality and outcomes, and poor
educational infrastructure. In addition, teacher and school leadership preparation programs have
been described as poor or inadequate (Gurmu, 2020; Teffera et al., 2018; FMoE, 2015).
The Ethiopian education system has evolved indigenously with modern education taking root
slowly, first because of external influence from the West and East through imported teachers,
administrators, advisors, private schools, and foreign funding (Engel, 2011), and later in the
20th century, the need to cope with modernization (Trines, 2018; Engel, 2011). Traditionally,
the foundation of education in Ethiopia is religion with significant influence from the Orthodox
Church including unquestioned respect for authority, rote learning, static body of knowledge,
secretiveness (keeping knowledge to oneself), imitation, and passive audience/followers among
others (Engel, 2011). The earliest education in Ethiopia was provided in church schools and
Yohannes and Wasonga: Leadership styles and teacher job satisfaction in Ethiopian schools 3

monasteries to elite males (Trines, 2018). After World War II, Ethiopia looked West, the curriculum
was influenced by Britain and USA, and although English became the official language of instruc-
tion in secondary schools (Trines, 2018), local languages are predominant.
School leadership is rarely cited as a challenge in Ethiopia. However, poor, weak, lacklustre, or
non-professional school leadership has adverse effects (School Leader Collaborative (SLC), 2018).
A survey of Ethiopian teachers indicated that principals lacked “capacity to conduct informed class-
room observation and provide appropriate, constructive feedback to improve teacher performance”
(FMoE, 2015: 60). The same survey found that “quality of school administration and human
resource management is a critical motivating factor for effective teaching” (Ibid). Other research
confirm that school leadership impacts school outcomes, specifically work conditions, teacher per-
formance, attitudes and behaviors, and student experiences (Gurmu, 2020; 2018; SLC, 2018; Pont,
et.al., 2008). In Ethiopia, the position of principal is politicized, denying people with the right qua-
lifications the opportunity to lead schools while rewarding political cronies (Gurmu, 2020; 2018).
Cronies are less inclined to intentionally shape attitudes, motivations, and behaviors of subordinates
(Pont et.al., 2008; SLC, 2018). And while studies in Ethiopia on the relationship between trans-
formational leadership (TL) and teacher satisfaction have found little to moderate significant posi-
tive relationships (Tasfaw, 2014; Thomas et.al., 2018), similar studies in Singapore, Taiwan, USA,
and Australia yielded moderate to strong positive relationships (Koh, et.al., 1995; Dinham and
Scott, 1998; Chin, 2007). A meta-analysis of 28 studies (Chin, 2007) found that the impacts of
TL on teacher job satisfaction depended on the levels of the practice of TL style. These findings
put the focus of teacher motivation on leadership behaviors of the principal (Joshi and Verspoor,
2013; FMoE, 2015). Motivated teachers are self-actualized and likely to grow into leaders who con-
tribute to school improvement (Bryk et al., 2015; SLC, 2018). As Chin (2007) wrote, “Participants
in the organization constitute resource rich in ideas and knowledge whose power can be tapped by
creating motivating school environment” (p. 166). Thus, the principal’s leadership style and the
extent of practice provide context for working conditions and school outcomes.

Literature review
Context for school leadership in Ethiopia
Like other aspects of education, school leadership in Ethiopia evolved around culture, religion, and
political doctrines exemplified in the authoritarian behaviors of leaders and the passive behaviors of
followers. In tandem with the political establishment, ascension to, and educational leadership tends
to mirror ideologies of the regime in power rather than professionalism (Gurmu, 2020). According
to Claphan (1969), under imperialist governments, emperors reached the “throne only after they had
first proved themselves the most powerful men in the country,” (through leadership over armies,
commander at local base, or royal lineage) (p. 112). Once anointed, they commanded absolute
power and control, were sacred and sanctioned by religious authority, making their (emperor’s)
authority revered for as long as it was effective (ibid). Throughout the history of empirical
Ethiopia, “at every level, and most of all in the national government, it [Ethiopia] depended on
powerful authority figures at whose head stood the emperor” (Claphan, 1969: 111). At the fall
of the Ethiopian empire, the Military Government of Socialist Ethiopia (1974–1991), the Derg,
took control and embraced the socialist philosophy.
The Derg turned to the Soviet Union and East Germany for advice on educational policy (Trines,
2018). They employed a top-down approach to leadership believing they “knew what was good for
4 Educational Management Administration & Leadership 0(0)

the people, and therefore chose what it thought was the best alternative” (Tefera, 1996: 16).
Education became a political tool to perpetuate socialist ideologies and development
(Wondemetegegn, 2016; Trines, 2018). In a highly centralized system with English and Amharic
as languages of instruction, the focus was “education for production, education for scientific con-
sciousness, and education for socialist consciousness” (Wondemetegegn, 2016: 59). According to
Tefera (1996), the education system was elitist, highly academic, wasteful, unequal in access, and
“administration was characterised by bloated bureaucracy that stifled local initiative and efficiency”
(p. 7). These factors created dissatisfaction among Ethiopians and by late 1980s, implementation
failed. Poor education for a much larger number of students was compounded by draught,
famine, and civil war. As described,

The quality of education was also poor, with inadequately trained and poorly motivated teachers and an
overall lack of instructional materials. The system was both seriously underfinanced and inefficient—
one third of all students dropped out of school in their first year. Physical facilities were dilapidated due
to war damage and the absence of preventive maintenance (Joshi and Verspoor, 2013: 25).

The ensuing civil war ousted the Derg government. It also destroyed Ethiopia’s infrastructure,
negatively impacting the education system and student enrolments. As such, education became a
priority of the new government—EPRDF. EPRDF initiated one major reform, the decentralization
of governance including school leadership (Gebre-Egziabher, 2007). As explained by
Gebre-Egziabher, decentralization was intended to bring governance to the people.

Structure of educational administration in Ethiopia

The administration of education in Ethiopia has remained centralized and autocratic despite decen-
tralized management across governmental sectors (Gebra-Egziabher, 2007). The purpose of decen-
tralization was the transfer of state government responsibilities to the regions and Weredas (smallest
unit of administration) for political stability, democratized governance, and improved service deliv-
ery and equity (Ibid). In the education sector, decentralization resulted in the creation of Kebele
Education and Training Boards (KETB) and Parent–Teacher Associations (PTA). In this arrange-
ment, Wereda Education Offices work closely with KETBs and PTAs in discharging educational
services at grass-root levels while PTA works closely with schools on matters affecting students
and staff (Gebre-Egziabher and Behamu, 2007). While KETBs and PTAs have engaged locals in
managing schools (Tucho, 2007); Gebra-Egziabher (2007: 2) noted that decentralization has
failed to institutionalize “genuine self-rule particularly at lower levels of administration where gov-
ernance and decentralization matter the most.” Tefera (1996) argues that decentralization was done
without adequate preparation, professional knowledge, and management skills needed to oversee
complex operations in post-civil war and ethnic strife. With dearth of knowledge and skills relative
to decentralization, leadership at all levels has remained autocratic and authoritarian
(Wondemetegegn, 2016). In a study, Tucho (2007) found that leaders at Wereda levels had
lower than required qualifications for the job and stayed too long in the leadership positions
working under unattractive conditions with poor logistics for school supervision. Low pay, lack
of housing, and lack of proper classrooms were cited as reasons for poor school management
and dissatisfaction. Community engagement was limited to material contributions with few
locals involved in decision making.
Yohannes and Wasonga: Leadership styles and teacher job satisfaction in Ethiopian schools 5

Structurally, the Federal Ministry of Education (FMoE) oversees the educational sector across
the country. The academic, financial, and human resource management including construction,
recruitment, upgrading, and budget allocation for schools were transferred to KETBs and SBM
for “more efficient utilization of resources, improved teacher performance, and increased levels
of student learning” (Joshi and Verspoor, 2013: 117). Thus, state and regional governments
focus on policies, standards, and monitoring progress, while school leaders focus on steering
staff and community attention to student performance. Funding for schools is shared between
federal and regional governments providing 50–60% of funding in the form of capitation grants.
The school curriculum is standardized nationally with the federal government setting performance
targets, reform agendas (Trines, 2018), and training programs for teachers and school administra-
tors (FMoE, 2015).
At school level, the system of education is structured in cycles. Primary education is divided into
two cycles, first cycle includes grades 1–4 (4 years) and second cycle includes grades 5–8 (4 years).
Similarly, secondary school level has two cycles, grades 9–10 (first cycle) and grades 11–12
(second cycle), the latter being preparatory level for higher education. The average learning time
per day is 4 h as most schools, except for few private schools, run on a two-shift system to accom-
modate the large number of learners. The federal government has an approved standard for stu-
dents/teacher or section ratio of 50 students per teacher/section. This is a lower standard than
UNICEF’s standard of 40 students per teacher/section, negatively impacting teachers’ work envir-
onment (MoE, 2018). According to Trines (2018), access to secondary education is largely limited
to affluent urbanites with enrolment among poor rural accounting for 11% and 3.6% in lower and
upper secondary, respectively. Secondary education curriculum covers: three languages (mother
tongue, English, and Amharic) with either English or Amharic as the official language of instruc-
tion; the natural sciences track, which include biology, chemistry, physics, and technical drawing;
and social sciences track, which include history, geography, economics, and business classes.

School leadership preparation in Ethiopia

Pont et al. (2008) found that leadership preparation enhances school leadership capacity and that the
degree of professionalism varies with leadership preparation, needed skills, and one’s background.
They present three approaches to principal preparation: “a) pre-service or preparatory training to
take up position, b) induction for those who have recently taken up the position and c) in-service
training provided to practicing principals” (Ibid: 108). The content or curriculum as suggested by
Pont et al. should depend on degree of autonomy and accountability of the principal. Training for
low levels of autonomy (centralized systems) should focus on practical and legal aspects of prac-
tice; whereas training for higher levels of autonomy and accountability (decentralized democratic
systems) should be broader in scope covering the wider concept of leadership. The Ethiopian
system, although decentralized remains autocratic in practice.
The 1994 reform agenda for education proposed the professionalization of school leadership
(MoE, 1994). Consequently, school leaders receive training in educational leadership and manage-
ment at Bachelor’s level across the country (MoE, 2007). Post Graduate Diploma in School
Leadership (PGDSL) was introduced in 2013 for induction and in-service training to improve per-
formance among practicing principals some of who were not trained as teachers (MoE, 2013). Lack
of talent and professionalism among school leaders have been identified as reasons for poor man-
agement and poor school outcomes in Ethiopia (Tefera, 1996; FMoE, 2015; Gurmu, 2018).
Professionalization occurs formally through academic training, and informally through mentoring
6 Educational Management Administration & Leadership 0(0)

or contact with peers (Bierrema, 2011). It “involves building specialized knowledge and skills,
incorporating a sense of occupational identity, internalizing the norms of the profession, and adapt-
ing the values and the norms into individual behaviour and self-concept” (p. 29). The process is
intended to transform the trainee into a knowledgeable autonomous skilled leader. In addition, pro-
fessionalization “would not only improve the consistency of practice, but also win the field the kind
of status, respect, and pay that characterizes more established professions like law and medicine”
(Mehta and Teles, 2014: 3). According to Tefera (1996), decentralization did not deal with the
problem of the cadre of managers in education that were not professionals. He argues, “decentra-
lized management without having the necessary expertise would lead to irreparable damage to the
education system” (p. 29). Gurmu (2020) notes that the process of appointing school leaders is pol-
itical with significant influence from religious leaders. Principalship is attained, not by merit, but by
assignment of professionals or a senior teacher or other person from non-educational organizations
(Fikadu, 2010; MoE, 2007).
Pre-service trainees enter universities directly from high school to obtain a Bachelor’s degree in
Educational Management (title varies by university). Without experience in school operations, can-
didates go through a 4-year program of 42 courses (114 credit hours) (Gurmu, 2020) covering a
range of topics—supervision, pedagogy, curriculum, theories of leadership, and organizations.
In-service training, the PGDSL is a 1-year program comprising eight courses (24 credit hours),
too few over too short a time to develop professionalism (Bierema, 2011; Gurmu, 2020). The pro-
grams are delivered in English or Amharic, although some students do not speak these languages.
The teaching method is typically lecture, with limited resources like books, journals, or technology.
Students rely on rote memory and note-taking, devoid of critical thinking, projects, or practical
experiences of school leadership. Gurmu (2018) reports that the curriculum for training school
leaders is standardized across the country to ensure uniformity in delivery at the expense of context-
ualization. In contrast to suggestions of Gurmu (2020), Bierema (2011), and Pont et al. (2008),
these programs provide low levels of knowledge and skills for professionals expected to impact
teacher job satisfaction and school management.

Theoretical framework
Historically, the people of Ethiopia have experienced a range of political leadership. Existing the-
ories may not cover the whole range of leadership influence that is the experience of Ethiopians
(indigenous, imperial, occupational, military, and democracy). However, Avolio and Bass’
(2004) multifactor leadership theory (MLT) and Davis et.al. (1964) work adjustment theory
(WAT) provide framework to explore the relationships between leadership styles and teacher job
satisfaction. Despite cross-cultural limitations, MLT was chosen because it is widely used and
translated (Chin, 2007; Tejeda, 2001; Avolio and Bass, 2004), has been replicated cross-culturally
(Bass, 1997; Bass and Avolio, 1995), and is universal (Leong and Fischer, 2010; Muenjohn and
Armstrong, 2007).
The MLT comprises transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire (LF) leadership styles. TL
empowers and transforms followers and organizations in their values, standards, goals, needs, and
ethics; transactional leadership (TR) focuses on exchange of services based on mutual agreements
or benefits (Avolio and Bass, 2004); and Laisses-faire leadership postpones decisions and relin-
quishes accountability, offering no feedback or support to followers (Northouse, 2012).
According to Bass and Riggio (2006) and Heyliger (2014), TL behavior has five components,
TR behavior has three, and LF leadership behavior has one component. Components of TL
Yohannes and Wasonga: Leadership styles and teacher job satisfaction in Ethiopian schools 7

include: (a) idealized influence attributed (IIA); (b) idealized influence behavior (IIB) that implies
charisma and the gaining of respect, trust, and confidence of the leader as well as the leader trans-
mitting to followers a strong sense of mission and vision; (c) inspirational motivation (IM) which
occurs when a leader communicates his/her vision with confidence to the followers, instilling opti-
mism and enthusiasm within them; (d) intellectual stimulation (IS) which is when a leader
encourages his/her followers to think for themselves, to question their own and others’ existing
assumptions, beliefs, and value sets; and (e) individual consideration (IC) is a personalized and indi-
vidual attention to the needs and the personal problems of the followers, which is believed to make
each person feel valued, confident, and proud. This also involves the leader accepting individual
differences and thus, treating each person differently but on equal one-to-one basis. TR components
include two categories: (a) constructive transactions and corrective transactions (contingent reward
(CR)). Constructive transactions are based on CR which is defined as the exchange of gift for posi-
tive performance and punishment for poor performance. Corrective transactions are based on
management-by-exception—active (MBEA), where the leader actively monitors followers in
order to detect mistakes for taking actions; and management-by-exception—passive (MBEP),
where the leader is intervening in the work of his/her followers when procedures and standards
are not met. LF includes leader behaviors of, avoiding the setting and communication of visions,
clarifying expectations, resolving conflicts, and making decisions. The full range theory is based
on the assumption that “leadership is not just a set of behaviours or traits of an individual but a
process whereby the individual interrelates with organization as a whole” causing influence
(Chin, 2007: 166) such as job satisfaction.
The WAT explains job satisfaction as based on the relationship between worker’s personality
and work environment (Davis et al., 1964; Kalleberg (1977). Job satisfaction is the “overall affect-
ive orientation on the part of individuals toward work roles which they are presently occupying”
(Kellaberg, 1977: 126). The causes of this orientation are multidimensional ranging from aspects
that satisfy to those that dissatisfy, requiring a balance. Developed by Davis et.al, (1964), WAT
is the “process by which the individual (with his unique set of abilities and needs) acts, reacts,
and comes to terms with the work environment” through “behaviours which are appropriate …
and the stimuli which are potential rein-forcers available to the individual in this environment”
(p. 8). Thus, the interactions between work environment and the individual create levels of satisfac-
tion or dissatisfaction depending on abilities (for satisfactory work behavior) and rein-forcers (for
need satisfaction). According to Kallebarg (1977), the assumption underlying WAT is the view that
“it is possible for individual to balance specific satisfactions against dissatisfactions and thus [to]
arrive at a composite satisfaction with the job as a whole” (p. 126). Davis et.al. (1964) developed
20 aspects of job satisfaction that have been used across the world to determine job satisfaction.
They include, Ability utilization, Achievement, Activity, Advancement, Authority, Company pol-
icies and practices, Compensation, Coworkers, Creativity, Independence, Moral values,
Recognition, Responsibility, Security, Social service, Social status, Supervision-human relations,
Supervision-technical, Variety, and Working conditions.
Although these theories have roots in the West, they have been modified over the years and
applied across cultures despite weaknesses and variations in outcomes (Tejeda, 2001). While inter-
actions between leadership and culture vary from one culture to another, generally, TL relates posi-
tively to democratic behaviors across cultures (Jogulu, 2010). Tejeda (2001) explained that the
inconsistencies found in MLT and questionnaire may be due to psychometric properties, conclud-
ing however, that it “offers much promise in terms of integrating diverse perspectives on leadership
across the full range leader behaviour, follower reactions and situational attributes” (p. 51). In
8 Educational Management Administration & Leadership 0(0)

Tejeda’s research, propensity towards egalitarianism was associated with TL irrespective of culture.
And, according to Leong and Fischer (2010), “limited influence of the cultural dimension on the
three major leadership behaviors seemed to support the universality of the transformational-
transactional paradigm” (p. 279). Leong and Fischer (2010) and Muenjohn and Armstrong
(2007) argue that concepts in MLT are universal, hence its application across cultures.

Method
This study used a quantitative approach and descriptive surveys to gather information about tea-
chers’ perceptions on leadership styles and teacher job satisfaction (Creswell, 2013). In a descrip-
tive study, a sufficiently large sample can be accessed enabling generalization of findings to a
population (Abate, 2018; Creswell, 2013). The target population for this study was school teachers
in public 1st circle secondary schools (grades 9 and 10) in the Amhara National Regional State,
Ethiopia and principals who had served for at least 3 years. Of the 103 qualifying schools, 40
schools (25%) were selected for the study through stratified proportionate and random sampling.
First, schools were categorized by size and location for representation. School size was the total
number of students enrolled in the school and school location was—rural, suburban, or urban.
Once stratified, schools were picked randomly using randomized numbers and proportionately to
ensure representation.
Inclusion criterion for teachers was 1 year or more of teaching experience in the school, a period
long enough to develop professional relationship with their principal and able to speak to leadership
practices. Using disproportionate cluster sampling method, 590 teachers were selected from the 40
schools, 510 responses were received back and 467 were complete. Each school leader was rated by
a somewhat equal number of teachers. A minimum of 12 teachers emerged as sufficient to represent
each school.
The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) (Bass, 1985; Avolio and Bass, 2004) and the
Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) (Weiss et.al, 1967; Davis et.al., 1964) were used to
collect data. While MLQ provided data on frequency of the practice of each leadership style,
MSQ provided data on levels of job satisfaction. MLQ was developed to measure “follower percep-
tion of a leader’s behaviour for each of the factors in the Full Range of Leadership model”
(Northouse, 2012, pp. 211–212). Empirical research on school leadership styles across cultures
have chiefly used MLQ (Chin, 2007). The survey has undergone several revisions (Northouse,
2012) leading to the five Likert scale MLQ 5x with 45 items of which the first 36 correspond to
the nine leadership dimensions each using four statements that represent the behaviors of the
leader. Ratings items were: Not at all (0), Once in a while (1), Sometimes (2), Fairly often (3),
and Frequently, if not always (4). Scores below 1 indicated LF leadership style, scores above 1
and below 3 indicated TR style, and scores above 3 indicated TL style for the individual (Bass
and Avolio, 1995; Bass and Avolio, 2004; Northouse, 2012).
The MSQ was developed with the purpose of measuring job satisfaction at individualized levels.
In particular, the 1967 Long-Form of the MSQ measures general job satisfaction level based on 20
job dimensions (Weiss, et.al., 1967). This questionnaire originated from the 1957 Work Adjustment
Project at the University of Minnesota. Using the MSQ, Weiss, et al. (1967) demonstrated that sat-
isfaction can be predicted from intrinsic and extrinsic measures. MSQ is a self-administered Likert
scale instrument consisting of 100 items using 5-scale rating of Very satisfied to Very dissatisfied.
The general job satisfaction is the average of the items for each of the 20 dimensions of job
Yohannes and Wasonga: Leadership styles and teacher job satisfaction in Ethiopian schools 9

satisfaction. The reliability of the MSQ as estimated by Davis et.al. (1964) among teaches ranged
between 0.74 and 0.90.
The MLQ and MSQ were piloted at nine schools with 90 teachers. Reliability Alpha for instru-
ments ranged between 0.54 and 0.82 on MLQ and between 0.55 and 0.84 on MSQ. In addition to
MLQ and MSQ, demographic data on schools were provided by the regional education bureau and
demographic data on individual teachers by the respondents. The surveys were distributed through
volunteer representatives at each school to teachers volunteering to take the survey in private. The
surveys were returned to the researcher directly through the regional offices. Both descriptive and
inferential statistics were used to analyze the data. The research question guiding the study was,
What are the relationships among principal leadership styles and teacher job satisfaction based
on teacher perceptions?

Findings
Analysis of data yielded three major findings: (1) the practices of transformational and TR were
higher than LF among Ethiopian school leaders; however both transformational and TR were sig-
nificantly lower than international benchmarks while the practice of LF was significantly higher
than international benchmarks; (2) teacher job satisfaction was low and significantly lower
among males; and (3) there were low to moderate correlations between leadership styles and
teacher job satisfaction with aspects of transformational and TR predicting job satisfaction, a
trend similar to studies in other African countries.
Table 1 presents demographics of the sample. Males outnumber females by a factor of five dom-
inating the teaching profession. There was one female principal in the 102 schools. The Mean (SD)
scores on age and years of service among teachers were 33.6 (8.5) and 4.7 (3.9), respectively. For
principal demography, the Mean (SD) scores were: age, 37.4 (7.3), years of service as teacher, 3.1
(6.8), years as principal, 5.7 (3.5), and years as principal in current school, 4.5 (3.3). Participating
teachers’ ranks were: junior teachers (10.2%), teacher (30%), senior teacher (26.4%), assistance
leader teacher (6.2%), leader teacher (8.1%), and senior leader teacher (22.7%), with majority in
teacher and senior teacher levels. Levels of principal preparation indicated that 40% and 30%
had undergraduate and post-graduate preparations, respectively, while 30% had training in areas
outside of education. At the time of study, 60% had not attended any form of professional
development.

Table 1. Demographics of sample population.

Teachers Principal
Variable Freq. % Freq. %

Gender Female 92 19.6 1 2.2

Male 378 80.4 39 97.5
Educational level completed BA/BSC 382 81.3 17 42.5
Master’s degree 74 15.7 21 52.5
Other 14 3.0 2 5.0
Marital status Single 180 38.3 6 15.0
Married 263 56.0 66 82.5
Divorced 27 5.7 1 2.5
10 Educational Management Administration & Leadership 0(0)

Table 2 presents means and SD for MLQ for the sample population, males, and females. Figure 1
shows the comparative mean scores on leadership styles and job satisfaction based on MLQ.
Reported mean scores indicated that principals’ practice of TL was significantly higher (M =
2.30; SD = 0.81) than the practice of TR (M = 2.03; SD = 0.68), p < 0.05. However, these scores
were significantly lower (p < 0.05) than international benchmarks (M = 2.85 and M = 2.22, respect-
ively) (Weiss et al., 1967; Avolio and Bass, 2004). TR dimensions of MBEP (M = 1.76) and LF (M
= 1.9) were significantly higher (p < 0.01) than international bench mark mean scores of (M = 1.22)
and (M = 0.86), respectively. The data indicates that school leaders in Ethiopia practice TL and TR
at higher levels than LF. Since LF is associated with passive or absence of leadership, higher levels
of the practice of LF compared to international bench marks indicate a need for improvement by
reducing the practice of LF and enhancing practice of TL.
Female teachers rated school leaders more favorably on all but one (MBEP) of the leadership
styles, scoring them significantly higher in IIA, MBEA, and TL (Table 2). Females also rated prin-
cipals higher on leadership outcomes including extra effort by followers, effectiveness of leader
behavior, and satisfaction with their leader. There were no significant differences on leadership
style scores based on academic rank or education levels of teachers. However, principals with post-
graduate training in educational leadership were rated significantly higher (p < 0.05) on the prac-
tices of all TL and TR dimensions.
Table 3 presents mean scores (SD) and t-test (gender) on the 20 dimensions of job satisfaction
and general, intrinsic, and extrinsic satisfactions. Figure 2 shows comparative mean scores on
aspects of job satisfaction based on MSQ. Like all dimensions of teacher job satisfaction,
general job satisfaction was moderate (M = 2.95(0.78)) but significantly lower (p < 0.00) compared
to American teachers (Wies et.al., 1967). In the sample, there were gender differences in favor of
women on 18 of 20 dimensions and general job satisfaction, intrinsic, and extrinsic satisfaction.
Women scored significantly higher (p < 0.05) on 11 of 20 job satisfaction dimensions, general sat-
isfaction, and intrinsic satisfaction. Non-significant dimensions included compensation and

Table 2. Scores on dimensions of leadership styles (means and standard deviations).

Gender

Leader styles Dimension Sample Reliability Men (367) Women (101) t-test

TL IIA 2.30 (0.81) 0.93 2.25 (0.81) 2.44 (0.79) 0.038∗

2.12 (0.94) 0.67 2.10 (0.94) 2.39 (0.94) 0.014∗
IIB 2.18 (0.96) 0.75 2.16 (0.97) 2.26 (0.94) 0.325
IM 2.19 (0.99) 0.80 2.18 (1.00) 2.26 (0.99) 0.426
IS 2.19 (0.92) 0.75 2.15 (0.92) 2.31 (0.91) 0.095
IC 1.96 (0.85) 0.60 1.93 (0.85) 2.06 (0.89) 0.189
TR CR 2.03 (0.68) 0.61 2.01 (0.65) 2.10 (0.74) 0.243
2.12 (0.93) 0.74 2.12 (0.93) 2.27 (0.95) 0.335
MBEA 2.09 (0.87) 0.70 2.04 (0.84) 2.28 (0.92) 0.015∗
MBEP 1.81 (0.91) 0.65 1.83 (0.88) 1.76 (1.10) 0.503
LF 1.93 (0.82) 0.54 1.89 (0.78) 2.04 (0.91) 0.106
SAT 2.14 (1.11) 0.76 2.10 (1.11) 2.27 (1.06) 0.880

TL: transformational leadership; TR: transactional leadership; LF: laissez-faire; IIA: idealized influence attributed; IIB: idealized
influence behavior; IM: inspirational motivation; IS: intellectual stimulation; IC: individual consideration; CR: contingent
reward; MBEA: management-by-exception—active; MBEP: management-by-exception—passive.
Yohannes and Wasonga: Leadership styles and teacher job satisfaction in Ethiopian schools 11

Figure 1. Chart showing mean scores for leadership styles and satisfaction based on Multifactor Leadership
Questionnaire (MLQ).

Figure 2. Chart showing mean scores for job satisfaction based on Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire
(MSQ).

responsibility and extrinsic satisfaction. Generally, teachers scored significantly higher (p < 0.05)
on intrinsic (M = 3.09) than extrinsic satisfaction (M = 2.70). Analyses of variance did not find sig-
nificant differences in job satisfaction factors by teachers’ levels of education or rank.
12 Educational Management Administration & Leadership 0(0)

Table 3. Reliability, scores (means and SD) on dimensions (intrinsic and extrinsic) of, and general job
satisfaction.

Job satisfaction dimensions Reliability Sample Male teachers Female teachers t-test

Ability utilization(In) 0.81 3.25 (0.93) 3.21 (0.95) 3.39 (0.84) 0.103
Achievement(In) 0.77 3.04 (0.92) 3.00 (0.92) 3.24 (0.94) 0.014∗
Activity(In) 0.76 3.26 (0.88) 3.21 (0.91) 3.40 (0.81) 0.073
Advancement(In) 0.80 2.46 (0.95) 2.40 (0.97) 2.68 (0.88) 0.000∗∗
Authority(Ex) 0.78 2.99 (0.88) 3.00 (0.88) 3.11 (0.87) 0.141
Policies(Ex) 0.80 2.93 (0.95) 2.89 (0.97) 3.17 (0.87) 0.000∗∗
Compensation(In) 0.79 2.21 (0.95) 3.16 (0.96) 2.36 (0.96) 0.058
Co-workers(In) 0.74 3.13 (0.82) 3.10 (0.83) 3.26 (0.83) 0.088
Creativity(In) 0.81 2.93 (0.83) 2.88 (0.84) 3.11 (0.76) 0.012∗
Independence(In) 0.78 3.23 (0.90) 3.21 (0.90) 3.31 (0.79) 0.364
Moral values(In) 0.75 3.39 (0.88) 3.35 (0.89) 3.50 (0.80) 0.030∗
Recognition(Ex) 0.77 2.96 (0.92) 2.89 (0.93) 3.21 (0.88) 0.000∗∗
Responsibility(Ex) 0.77 3.28 (0.86) 3.47 (0.87) 3.42 (0.82) 0.066
Security(Ex) 0.80 2.59 (1.00) 2.51 (1.00) 2.87 (0.96) 0.000∗∗
Social service(In) 0.78 3.18 (0.88) 3.14 (0.89) 3.36 (0.80) 0.031∗
Social status(In) 0.79 2.90 (0.92) 2.92 (0.93) 3.21 (0.86) 0.000∗∗
Supervision—HR 0.84 3.03 (0.99) 3.00 (0.98) 3.14 (1.03) 0.210
Supervision—Tech 0.80 2.78 (0.93) 2.70 (0.93) 2.93 (0.91) 0.000∗∗
Variety(Ex) 0.79 3.05 (0.90 3.02 (0.91) 3.17 (0.83) 0.144
Work conditions(In) 0.79 2.41 (0.91) 2.37 (0.93) 2.57 (0.81) 0.014∗
General satisfaction 0.92 2.95 (0.78) 2.90 (0.78) 3.12 (0.81) 0.010∗
Intrinsic 0.89 3.09 (0.84) 3.06 (0.80) 3.25 (0.77) 0.042∗
Extrinsic 0.60 2.70 (0.86) 2.66 (0.88) 2.83 (0.81) 0.081
∗
Significant at 0.05 level; ∗∗ significant at 0.00 level.

Table 4 presents correlational analyses between MLQ and MSQ dimensions. The correlations
range from non to moderate (r = 0.60). The study found moderate correlations between general
job satisfaction and TL (r = 0.61, p < 001) and TR (r = 0.43, p < 0.001) dimensions; moderate cor-
relations between intrinsic satisfaction and TL (r = 0.61, p < 0.001) and TR (r = 0.44, p < 0.001);
and moderate but lower correlations between extrinsic satisfaction and TL (r = 0.49, p < 0.00)
and TR (r = 0.40, p < 0.001). TL dimensions were more highly correlated to the job satisfaction
levels than TR dimensions among responding teachers. The lowest correlations were found
between job satisfaction dimensions and MBEP and LF.
Table 5 presents regression analysis of leadership dimensions against general, intrinsic, and
extrinsic job satisfaction among teachers. CR predicted all of the job satisfaction outcomes
(general, intrinsic, and extrinsic) while IM predicted extrinsic satisfaction. The study finds that
clearly defined tasks, psychological and material rewards, along with articulated and exemplified
vision predict teacher job satisfaction among Ethiopian educators.

Discussion
Ethiopia has a hegemonic political system of governance that embodies patriarchal, militaristic, and
religious traditions (Zahorik, 2014; Iyob, 1993). Ethiopia has also been influenced by westernized
 Table 4. Correlation table (MSQ and MLQ dimensions).

MSQ/MLQ IIA IIB IM IS IC CR MBEA MBEP LF TL TR EE Eff Sat

Ability 0.41∗∗ 0.40∗∗ 0.40∗∗ 0.39∗∗ 0.40∗∗ 0.43∗∗ 0.38∗∗ 0.06 0.24∗∗ 0.53∗∗ 0.38∗∗ 0.39∗∗ 0.42∗∗ 0.43∗∗
Achievement 0.42∗∗ 0.43∗∗ 0.44∗∗ 0.48∗∗ 0.38∗∗ 0.47∗∗ 0.39∗∗ 0.04 0.24∗∗ 0.54∗∗ 0.40∗∗ 0.47∗∗ 0.49∗∗ 0.47∗∗
Activity 0.38∗∗ 0.37∗∗ 0.37∗∗ 0.37∗∗ 0.36∗∗ 0.43∗∗ 0.37∗∗ 0.02 0.19∗∗ 0.50∗∗ 0.36∗∗ 0.35∗∗ 0.39∗∗ 0.39∗∗
Advancement 0.35∗∗ 0.34∗∗ 0.39∗∗ 0.35∗∗ 0.38∗∗ 0.35∗∗ 0.35∗∗ 0.17∗∗ 0.23∗∗ 0.47∗∗ 0.36∗∗ 0.42∗∗ 0.44∗∗ 0.40∗∗
Authority 0.37∗∗ 0.35∗∗ 0.36∗∗ 0.35∗∗ 0.35∗∗ 0.42∗∗ 0.33∗∗ 0.06 0.23∗∗ 0.50∗∗ 0.30∗∗ 0.40∗∗ 0.43∗∗ 0.41∗∗
Policies 0.51∗∗ 0.49∗∗ 0.53∗∗ 0.48∗∗ 0.50∗∗ 0.53∗∗ 0.43∗∗ 0.05 0.28∗∗ 0.69∗∗ 0.44∗∗ 0.53∗∗ 0.57∗∗ 0.58∗∗
Compensation 0.28∗∗ 0.22∗∗ 0.26∗∗ 0.24∗∗ 0.30∗∗ 0.24∗∗ 0.24∗∗ 0.18∗∗ 0.19∗∗ 0.52∗∗ 0.29∗∗ 0.36∗∗ 0.38∗∗ 0.30∗∗
Co-workers 0.40∗∗ 0.44∗∗ 0.45∗∗ 0.43∗∗ 0.40∗∗ 0.46∗∗ 0.38∗∗ 0.06 0.22∗∗ 0.55∗∗ 0.39∗∗ 0.42∗∗ 0.44∗∗ 0.45∗∗
Creativity 0.39∗∗ 0.37∗∗ 0.40∗∗ 0.36∗∗ 0.39∗∗ 0.42∗∗ 0.38∗∗ 0.05 0.24∗∗ 0.51∗∗ 0.38∗∗ 0.44∗∗ 0.49∗∗ 0.43∗∗
Independence 0.31∗∗ 0.35∗∗ 0.37∗∗ 0.35∗∗ 0.34∗∗ 0.40∗∗ 0.32∗∗ 0.01 0.18∗∗ 0.46∗∗ 0.31∗∗ 0.36∗∗ 0.40∗∗ 0.39∗∗
Moral Values 0.29∗∗ 0.33∗∗ 0.33∗∗ 0.31∗∗ 0.31∗∗ 0.39∗∗ 0.33∗∗ 0.02 0.19∗∗ 0.44∗∗ 0.32∗∗ 0.31∗∗ 0.36∗∗ 0.36∗∗
Recognition 0.43∗∗ 0.46∗∗ 0.46∗∗ 0.45∗∗ 0.44∗∗ 0.50∗∗ 0.39∗∗ 0.04 0.25∗∗ 0.58∗∗ 0.41∗∗ 0.47∗∗ 0.53∗∗ 0.49∗∗
Responsibility 0.42∗∗ 0.44∗∗ 0.43∗∗ 0.42∗∗ 0.38∗∗ 0.48∗∗ 0.39∗∗ 0.00 0.21∗∗ 0.55∗∗ 0.38∗∗ 0.41∗∗ 0.44∗∗ 0.45∗∗
Security 0.36∗∗ 0.36∗∗ 0.40∗∗ 0.38∗∗ 0.37∗∗ 0.37∗∗ 0.31∗∗ 0.10∗∗ 0.23∗∗ 0.50∗∗ 0.35∗∗ 0.44∗∗ 0.47∗∗ .42∗∗
Social service 0.40∗∗ 0.38∗∗ 0.40∗∗ 0.37∗∗ 0.37∗∗ 0.43∗∗ 0.39∗∗ 0.07 0.33∗∗ 0.51∗∗ 0.40∗∗ 0.39∗∗ 0.43∗∗ 0.43∗∗
Social Status 0.39∗∗ 0.34∗∗ 0.39∗∗ 0.35∗∗ 0.36∗∗ 0.38∗∗ 0.35∗∗ 0.07 0.25∗∗ 0.51∗∗ 0.36∗∗ 0.39∗∗ 0.42∗∗ 0.39∗∗
Supervision (H) 0.52∗∗ 0.55∗∗ 0.57∗∗ 0.50∗∗ 0.48∗∗ 0.56∗∗ 0.43∗∗ 0.02 0.23∗∗ 0.68∗∗ 0.45∗∗ 0.54∗∗ 0.55∗∗ 0.58∗∗
Supervision (T) 0.54∗∗ 0.56∗∗ 0.55∗∗ 0.54∗∗ 0.50∗∗ 0.58∗∗ 0.44∗∗ 0.07 0.24∗∗ 0.70∗∗ 0.44∗∗ 0.55∗∗ 0.60∗∗ 0.59∗∗
Variety 0.38∗∗ 0.36∗∗ 0.38∗∗ 0.36∗∗ 0.39∗∗ 0.43∗∗ 0.36∗∗ 0.03 0.22∗∗ 0.51∗∗ 0.37∗∗ 0.41∗∗ 0.47∗∗ 0.45∗∗
Work conditions 0.37∗∗ 0.33∗∗ 0.37∗∗ 0.34∗∗ 0.38∗∗ 0.35∗∗ 0.31∗∗ 0.15∗∗ 0.27∗∗ 0.48∗∗ 0.36∗∗ 0.43∗∗ 0.45∗∗ 0.38∗∗
General satisfy 0.46∗∗ 0.45∗∗ 0.47∗∗ 0.43∗∗ 0.44∗∗ 0.49∗∗ 0.41∗∗ 0.08 0.28∗∗ 0.61∗∗ 0.43∗∗ 0.48∗∗ 0.54∗∗ 0.50∗∗
Intrinsic 0.49∗∗ 0.48∗∗ 0.51∗∗ 0.49∗∗ 0.46∗∗ 0.52∗∗ 0.44∗∗ 0.03 0.24∗∗ 0.61∗∗ 0.44∗∗ 0.49∗∗ 0.53∗∗ 0.53∗∗
Extrinsic 0.38∗∗ 0.39∗∗ 0.44∗∗ 0.39∗∗ 0.38∗∗ 0.43∗∗ 0.37∗∗ 0.09∗ 0.23∗∗ 0.49∗∗ 0.40∗∗ 0.44∗∗ 0.49∗∗ 0.45∗∗

MSQ: Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire; MLQ: Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire; TL: transformational leadership; TR: transactional leadership; LF: laissez-faire; IIA:
idealized influence attributed; IIB: idealized influence behavior; IM: inspirational motivation; IS: intellectual stimulation; IC: individual consideration; CR: contingent reward;
MBEA: management-by-exception—active; MBEP: management-by-exception—passive.
∗
Significant at 0.05 level; ∗∗ significant at 0.00 level.

13
14
Table 5. Regression—MSQ (general, intrinsic & extrinsic satisfaction) on MLQ (leadership styles—LS) .

R
MSQ Model SS Df MS F Sig R2 LS Beta t Sig

General satisfaction Regression 79.583 9 8.843 19.680 0.000 0.527 0.278 CR 0.199 2.904 0 004
Residual 82790 460 0.449
Total 10079 469
Intrinsic satisfaction Regression 108.507 9 12.56 24.259 0.000 0.567 0.322 CR 0.164 2.279 .023
Extrinsic satisfaction Residual 228.693 460 0.497
Total 337.200 469
Regression 76.242 9 8.471 .000 0.461 IM 0.189 2.576 0.010
Residual 272.776 460 0.593 14.256 0 218 CR 0.169 2.133 0.003
Total 349.019 469
MSQ: Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire; MLQ: Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire; CR: contingent reward; IM: inspirational motivation.
Only statistically significant Beta coefficients are presented.
Yohannes and Wasonga: Leadership styles and teacher job satisfaction in Ethiopian schools 15

global systems of knowledge (Joshi and Verpoor, 2013). The relatively lower levels of the practice
of transformational and TR styles, higher levels of the practice of LF, and low levels of job satis-
faction may be influenced by hegemonic structures. Although Ethiopians have retained their indi-
genous languages and cultures in most spheres of life including education, they have not escaped
the centering of colonial and hegemonic types of power (Iyob, 1993), thoughts, and knowledge as
demonstrated in their institutional policies and management (Engel, 2011). A cursory of principal
preparation curriculum indicates preponderance of western conceptualization of school leadership,
organizational and leadership theories, and the use of English as the language of instruction even
among students who do not speak or have very low proficiency in English. In this environment,
preparation of professionals may not make a significant impact on school systems; instead, the
weak level of preparation may engender oppressive work environments that likely produce dissat-
isfaction as discussed in the WAT. Professionalization of school leadership in Ethiopia is in its
infancy, even though Ethiopian teachers say it is “a critical motivating factor for effective teaching”
(FMoE, 2015: 60). According to Mehta and Teles (2014), quality management depends on quality
of those entering the profession. In Ethiopia, recruits for school leadership preparation (high school
graduates) are neither developmentally or culturally ready for the job as explained by Bierrema
(2011) and Gurnu (2018), and there is no practical guide on how to lead schools. Due to lack of
requisite work experiences, principals rely on political astuteness, trial and error, imitation, or
avoidance behaviors (LF). In this study, the higher scores in TL among post-graduate degree
holding principals indicate the value of work experience; while the relatively high scores in LF
reflect the lack of experience among principals with undergraduate degrees and the underdeveloped
leadership preparation programs (Gurnu, 2018; Bass and Avolio, 2004). For example, if culturally,
a leader in Ethiopia is identified by prior acts/experiences of leadership in the community (Claphan,
1969), the same standard should be applied in recruiting candidates for school leadership and prep-
aration programs.
Based on arguments by Johns (2001), Shahi and Wright (2004), and Yaghi (2017), leadership is
contextual, often responding to cultural norms, leadership development, and local expectations. In
non-western countries including Ethiopia, China, and India, leadership has elements of authoritar-
ianism that is culturally driven, and may be outside of the MLQ range of leadership. And although
leadership behaviors enshrined in MLQ have universal application irrespective of culture or
context, specifically in terms of subordinate responses (Muenjohn and Armstrong, 2007); the var-
iances in outcomes and lower correlations between TL/TR styles and job satisfaction indicate that
some elements of leadership in Ethiopia are outside the realms of MLT/MLQ. Findings showing
higher positive and significant relationship between TL and job satisfaction albeit low/moderate,
compared to transactional or LF (Table 4) reflect other findings across the world using MLT and
MLQ. Comparative lower levels of the practice of TL and TR, and higher levels of the practice
of LF among school principals in Ethiopia could be attributed to the simultaneous influence of trad-
ition, western ideologies, and religion. In addition, the low Cronbach alpha reliability (0.54) and
higher levels of LF may be attributed to cultural expectations of leadership—“tough man
system” (Claphan, 1969: 111), poor school leadership preparation, and specifically, premature can-
didates for school leadership preparation.
Teacher satisfaction was moderate and significantly higher among women. Higher scores among
women could be attributed to feelings of accomplishment because of fewer opportunities in formal
employment. Even worse, few women (e.g. only 11% aged 20–24 years) finish high school, limit-
ing their chances of entering higher education and employment outside of service and domestic
labor. Thus, being a teacher is, relatively prestigious. In addition, Johns (2001) found that
16 Educational Management Administration & Leadership 0(0)

gender is a “surrogate for a range of social and occupational contexts” (p. 39) with male leaders
interacting differently with women in ways that may enhance or reduce job satisfaction.
However, teacher dissatisfaction in Ethiopia is well explained in the literature. Tefera (1996)
pointed to the low socioeconomic status of teachers as “one of the sad stories in Ethiopian education
system” (p. 30). FMoF (2015) reported that 70% of teachers would leave the profession given
equivalent pay in other professions because of lack of social recognition, poor school administra-
tion, and poor resource management. Teachers receive less respect and support from their princi-
pals, students, parents, and other stakeholders and are reprimanded in public (Tefera, 1996;
FMoE, 2015). Besides the indignity teachers endure in the work place, they have also endured suc-
cessive governments with inconsistent educational policies, instability, and corruption that impact
morale and job satisfaction (Heystek, 2016). Generally, teachers lack affirmation which in turn
diminishes motivation and success (Ravari et al., 2012). Principals themselves are not spared
from autocracy by their bosses (Darshan, 2011; Ferede, 2013).

Conclusion
As confirmed in this study, the practice of TL has higher positive impacts on subordinates in any
context (Muenjohn and Armstrong, 2007; Tejeda, 2001). Although successful school leaders use a
range of leadership styles, the highest levels of satisfaction among subordinates are associated with
the practice of TL style (Leithwood et al., 2008). A meta-analysis found transformative leadership
“to be effective for obtaining superior performance, a higher perception of the leaders’ effectiveness
by subordinate, more subordinate satisfaction, and greater willingness by subordinates to make
extra effort for the leader” (Chin, 2007: 107).
In this study, predictors of teacher job satisfaction were IM under TL, and CR under TR. While
IM is exemplified by principal motivating followers to develop and work towards the vision, CR is
about articulating task with clearly defined outcomes, rewards, and punishment. These leadership
behaviors are believed to inspire followers, make them feel valued, and optimize productivity.
Based on the findings, this study suggests that leadership practices matter. Therefore, practicing
principals, leadership preparation programs, and reform initiatives for school success in Ethiopia
should consider providing professional development that includes IM and CR among other
things. In addition, Ethiopians should elevate the value of their languages, develop leadership the-
ories that align with their culture, and add to their culture, relevant western knowledge, ideologies,
and theories.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publica-
tion of this article.

Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD
Teresa A Wasonga https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2444-0559
Yohannes and Wasonga: Leadership styles and teacher job satisfaction in Ethiopian schools 17

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Author biographies
Menber E Yohannes is an assistant professor of educational leadership at the University of
Gondar, Ethiopia. She received her doctorate in Educational Leadership and Management from
the University of South Africa. Menber has served her community as a teacher, school administra-
tor, and university lecture in Gondar region for over 30 years and has had great influence on edu-
cational leadership. Her research focuses on school leadership, teacher job satisfaction, and women
empowerment.

Teresa A Wasonga is a professor of educational administration at the Norther Illinois University.

She is a founder of an all-girls boarding secondary school in Kenya with a focus on girls from indi-
gence. Her research seeks to understand organizational factors that impact educational outcomes at
secondary school level.