AS BIO NOTES 1

UNIT 1
Topic 2

2A.1 CELL MEMBRANES

Cell membrane – selectively permeable membrane that surrounds the cytoplasm of a cell acting as a
boundary between the cell contents (organelles) and their surroundings

Organelle – sub cellular bodies found in the cell cytoplasm

Micelle – a spherical cluster of phospholipid molecules where hydrophobic areas are in the middle and
the hydrophilic areas are outside.

Unit membrane – a lipoprotein membrane consisting of two protein layers enclosing a less dense liquid

Glycoproteins – conjugated protein with carbohydrate as the prosthetic group

Functions of cell surface membrane

1. Forms a barrier between the cell organelles and the surroundings

2. Allows fluids on either side of the cell have different compositions where different types of
reactions can take place
3. Controls what goes in and out the cell
4. Chemical reactions take place in the cell surface membrane
5. Enzymes and other substances needed to allow reactions to occur are held together on the cell
surface membrane sop reaction can take place quickly
6. Flexible so cell can change shape e.g when water-content in cell changes or when a white blood
cell engulfs a bacteria
7. Chemical secretions made by the cell are contained in membrane bags called vesicles, which
combine with the cell membrane to release their content

Structure of a cell surface membrane

 Made of phospholipid molecules and proteins arranged in a particular way

Phospholipid

 The molecule consists of a non-polar hydrophilic lipid called GLYCEROL

 Attached is a polar hydrophilic PHOSPHATE GROUP
 Two non-polar hydrophobic fatty acid chains (tails) are attached to the glycerol
 The glycerol and phosphate group make up the hydrophilic head and the fatty acid chains make
up the hydrophobic tail
 Phospholipid molecules make up two types of layers: a monolayer and a bilayer

Phospholipid monolayer
  The hydrophilic head is attracted to water and dissolves in it whereas the hydrophobic tails are
repelled by water and are insoluble in it. So the heads dip in water while the tails stickl out
 If the molecules are tightly packed with water, a unit membrane called MICELLE is formed. The
phospholipid molecules arrange themselves in a sphere where the tainls are pointing inwards
protected from the water while all the heads are pointed outwards towards the water.

Phospholipid bilayer

 A unit membrane where all the hydrophilic heads would be pointed into the water as the
hydrophobic heads point towards one another, protected inside so water cannot get in
 This layer allows fat-soluble organic molecules to enter (advantage)

Fluid mosaic model of cell membrane

(Proposed by SIR. Singer and Nicolson)

 Suggests that proteins and other molecules making up the cell membrane are floating in the
phospholipid bilayer (considered the fluid system) fixed in place with other molecules
 The number of phospholipids with unsaturated fatty acids in the bilayer affects the movement
of proteins
 Cholesterol is a rigid molecule which makes the cell membrane stronger an more rigid, also
proving to be an effective barrier for the movement of small ions and molecules
 Proteins (many) have a hydrophilic part that is buried in the lipid bilayer and a hydrophobic part
 The model consists of:
 Glycoproteins
 Integral proteins
 Pore (hydrophilic channel)
 Lipid bilayer (bilayer membrane)
 Cholesterol in the bilayer membrane
 Peripheral proteins
 Phospholipids

Functions of proteins in the cell surface membrane

1. Integral proteins make up pores called gated channels that allow substances to move in and out
the cell membrane
2. Some pores which are active carrier systems use energy (active transport) to move molecules
against the concentration gradient
3. Some pores are simply gaps in the lipid bilayer that allow ionic molecules to diffuse in and out
the membranes
4. Regulates the passage of substances in the cell
 5. Peripheral proteins may act as specific receptor molecules like making a cell sensitive to a
particular hormone
6. Proteins may act as enzymes particularly on the internal cell membrane to control the reactions
there
7. Glycoproteins, proteins with a carbohydrate part attached, act as an antigen marker on the cell
surface for the other cells to recognize

2A.2 CELL TRANSPORT AND DIFFUSION

How molecules enter the cell

1. Cell membrane controls the passage of molecules in and out the cell
2. Properties of a molecule affects how it is transported, e.g., its size, solubility in lipid and water
and the presence or absence of a charge on the molecule
3. Substances that can dissolve in lipid simply diffuse through the membrane
4. Small molecules like gases of O2 AND CO2 pass freely through the membrane
5. Large molecules like steroid hormones, are not transported through the membrane
6. Charged particles like Na+ need specific carriers or pores that allow them to move in and out the
cell

Passive transport mechanisms of the cell membrane

passive transport takes place in the presence of a concentration, pressure, or electrochemical gradient
across system which requires no metabolic energy from ATP

there are two types of passive transport:

DIFFUSION - the movement of particles in a fluid (gas or liquid) from an area of high concentration to an
area of low concentration down their concentration gradient, which requires no metabolic energy from
ATP

 Diffusion occurs because of the random motion of particles (using KE) which depends on the
temperature
 When particles are packed together in a space, they will spread out and reach uniform
distribution due to random motion
 They will continue their random motion even after uniform distribution has been reached
 However, this will not affect the net concentration as equal number of particles are flowing in all
directions.
 Small particles can freely move across the membrane
 Diffusion depends on the kinetic energy of the particles
FALLICITATED DIFFUSION – diffusion that takes place through protein carriers or protein channels

Large or charged particles are moved across the membrane passively down their concentration gradient
through fallicitated diffusion

Fallicitated diffusion through GATED CHANNELS:

 Protein lined pores make up gated channels in the cell membrane

 Each protein channel allows on one type of molecule to pass through depending on the
molecules’ size and charge, e.g., sodium ion channels and chloride ion channels
 Some protein channels only open if there is a specific molecule present or if there is an electric
change across the membrane (like passage of a nerve impulse along a neuron)

Fallicitated diffusion through CARRIER PROTEINS:

 Carrier proteins are found on the surface of the cell membrane

 Carrier proteins are specific to particular molecules depending on the shape of the protein
molecule and the substance being carried
 The carrier protein is outside the membrane surface when a molecule has to be transported
into the cell
 The carrier protein is inside the surface membrane when a molecule has to be moved out of the
cell
 The carrier protein changes shape once it carries a molecule and rotates through the membrane
to the other side, releasing the molecule passively down the concentration gradient (particles
are passed into the cell)
 Afterwards, the it goes back to its original shape to allow more particles to enter

OSMOSIS – movement of water molecules from a dilute solution to a concentrated solution across a
partially permeable membrane

Active Transport Mechanisms Across Membrane

Passage of particles using energy from ATP

ACTIVE TRANSPORT - movement of particles from an area of low concentration to an area of high
concentration (across a partially permeable membrane) against the concentration gradient using energy
from ATP
  Active transport requires a carrier protein that allows molecules or ions to move across the
membrane using energy

o ENDOCYTOSIS – movement of large molecules into the cell through the formation of
vesicles

o EXOCYTOSIS – movement of large molecules out of the side through the fusion of
vesicles to the cell membrane

2A.3 OSMOSIS: A SPECIAL CASE OF DIFFUSION

OSMOSIS – movement of water from an area of high-water potential to an area of low water potential
down the water potential gradient across a partially permeable membrane without the use of metabolic
energy from ATP

High water potential – more free water molecules

Water potential – a measure of potential for water to move out of a solution by osmosis

OSMOTIC CONCENTRATION – measure of the concentration of the solutes in the solution that have an
osmotic effect

Large molecules like starch do not have osmotic effect, but small molecules like ions have osmotic effect

 Hypotonic solution where the osmotic concentration of the solutes in the solution is lower than
that of cell cytoplasm, so water moves INTO the cell (swells up and bursts)
 Hypertonic solution where the osmotic concentration of the solutes in the solution is higher than
that of the cell cytoplasm, so water moves OUT of the cell (cell shrivels and concentrated
cytoplasm loses its in ternal structure)
 Isotonic solution where the osmotic concentration of the solutes in the solution is the same as
that of the cell cytoplasm, so no osmosis takes place (cell maintains its normal shape)

Osmosis in plant cells

turgor – plant cell is placed in a hypotonic solution (dilute). Water moves into the cell cytoplasm. As the
cytoplasm swells up, it exerts HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE on the cell wall. The cell wall also exerts an
inward pressure on the cytoplasm called PRESSURE POTENTIAL. The pressure potential increases until it
balances out the osmotic force of water molecules. Hence, the plant cells is in a rigid state known as
TURGOR.

Incipient Plasmolysis – Plant ells are placed in a hypertonic solution (concentrated). Water moves out of
the cell. Turgor is lost. The cell membrane and protoplasm shrink away from the cell wall.
Plasmolysis – Plant cells are placed in a hypertonic solution. So much water leaves the cell that the
vacuole is reduced and the protoplasm completely shrinks away from the cell wall.

The shape or size of the cell does not change overall due to the presence of the cell wall.

State of turgor in plant cells:

 Strength of the plant

 Keeps stem upright
 Spreads the leaves so it gets more light for photosynthesis
 Keeps flowers upright so it has a better chance at pollination
 Keeps stomata open during daylight

State of plasmolysis in plant cells:

 The plant doesn’t get support

 The stem troops or wilts
 The leaves become folded so less light and less photosynthesis
 Flower is not held properly for pollination
 Stomata doesn’t open

2A.4 ACTIVE TRANSPORT

Difference:

Active transport Fallicitated diffusion

 Requires energy from ATP  Doesn’t require energy from ATP
 Carries molecules against concentration  Carries molecules down the
gradient concentration gradient
 Requires ATPase enzyme  Doesn’t require an enzyme

Similarity between fallicitated diffusion and active transport:

 Both have carrier proteins

 The carrier proteins are located on the cell membrane for both
 The carrier proteins rotate to move molecules in and out for both