We Tey Ee Ge acuCuls For V Semester B.E. 4 | As per the New Syllabus of VTU i J.B.K. Das = ff MEU cra sar ateDas ‘WOH =. 10130633Design of Machine Elements - 1 - For V Semester 8.£. Studerts, by Prof. J.B.K. Das and PL. Srinivasa Murthy published by Sapna Book House (P) Ltd., R.O. #11, 3% Main Road, Ganchinagar, Bengaluru 560009 Ph: 080-40114455 (Engg., 71) ISBN : 81-280-0237-6 © Avthors NOTICE OF CAUTION Foproduation Rights : "No par of this publication which Is material protected by this copyright tice may be reproduced or transmitted or utlized of stored in any form or by any means now known oF herennatter invented, electronic, digital or mechanical, including photocopying. scanring, recording or by any information storage or retrieval system, without prior written permission trom the pubisher’. 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Ra Rose (0820) 4282800, 4+ HUBBALLI, Lauri Mall, Coon Rae Pn, : (0895) 24960 ‘ COMBATORE, No, Eést Poryasvany Road, R'S Purem Combalore«64%082 Ph, : (02) 4€20000 isaiike sein) eee) Iypeserting and Cover Design by : COMNTA LINK, Bengaluru 20. eval: datalinkmadh@ gal.com Printed at: Ravi Graphics, Bengalury naSYLLABUS DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS - 1 Subject Code: 10MES2 TA Marks 125 Hours/Week —: 04 ‘Exam Hours: 03 otal Hours: 52 Exam Marks — : 100 PART-A UNIT-1 Introd Definitions : normal, shear, biaxial and tri axial stresses, Stress tensor, Principal Stresses, Engineering materials and their mechanical properties, Stress-Strain diagrams, Stress analysis, Design considerations: Codes and Standards, 05 Hours UNIT - IL Design For Static & Impact Strength: Static Strength ; Static loads and factor of safety, Theories of failure: Maximum normal stress theory. Maximum shear stress theory, Maximum strain theory, Strain energy theory, Distortion energy theory. Failure of brittle and ductile materials. Stress concentration, Determination of stress concentration factor. Impact Strength : Introduction, Impact stresses due to axial, bending and torsional loads, effect of inertia, 07 Hours UNIT - 1 Design for Fatigue Strength : Introduction - S-N Diagram, Low cycle fatigue, High cycle fatigne, Endurance limit, Modifying factors : size effect, surface effect, stress concentration effects, Fluctuating siresses, Goodman and Soderberg relationship, Stresses due 10 combined loading, Cumulative fatigue damage. 08 Hours UNIT - IV ‘Threaded Fasteners : Stresses in threaded fasteners, Effect of initial tension, Design of threaded fasteners under static, dynamic and impact loads, Design of eccentrically loaded bolted joints. 06 HoursPART -B UNIT- Vv Design of Shafts : Torsion of shafts, design for strength and rigidity with steady loading, ASME codes for power transmission shafting, shafts under fluctuating loads and combined loads, 07 Hours UNIT - VI Cotter And Knuckle Joints, Keys And Couplings : Design of Cotter and Knuckle joints, Keys: Types of keys, Design of keys, Couplings: Rigid and flexible couplings, Flange coupling, Bush and Pin type coupling and Oldham's coupling. 07 Hours UNIT - VI Riveted and Welded Joints : ‘Types, rivet matcrials, failures of riveted joints, Joint Efficiency, Boiler Joints, Lozenge Joints, Riveted Brackets, Welded Joints ~ Types, Sirength of butt and fillet welds, eccentrically loaded welded joints. 07 Hours: UNIT - VOL Power Screws : Mechanics of power screw, Stresses in power screws, efficiency and self- locking, Design of Power Screw, Design of Screw Jack: (Complete Design). 05 Hours. = vill ~CONTENTS 1, INTRODUCTION LL MACHINE DESIGN; 1.2. PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL; 1,3 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS: 1.4 CODES AND STANDARDS; 1.5 DISCUSS FACTORS INFLUENCING THE SELECTION OF A SUITABLE MATERIAL FOR A MACHINE, ELEMENT; 6 STRESS, STRAIN, HOOKE'SLAW, STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAMS & DEFINITIONS; 1.7 STRESSES INDUCED DUE TO NORMAL AND SHEARLOAD; [8 TWO DIMENSIONAL (BI-AXIAL) STRESS FIELD; 1.9 THREEDIMENSIONAL (TREAXIAL)STRESS FIELD; 2. DESIGN FOR STATIC AND IMPACT STRENGTH 55 - 186 2ISTATIC STRENGTH: 22 STATIC LOAD, 2.3 SIMPLE STRESSES; 24COMPOUND STRESS; 2.5 WORKING STRESS; 26F ACTOR OF SAFETY (FOS): 2.7ECCENTRIC LOADING ;2,8'THEORIES OF FAILURE; 2 FAILURE OF BRITTLE. MATERIALS; 2.10 FAILURE OF DUCTILE MATERIALS; 2.11 STRESS CONCENTRATION; 2.12. STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTOR; 2.13 DETERMINATION OF STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTOR; 2.14 METHODS OF REDUCING STRESS CONCENTRATION OR MITIGATION OF STRESS ‘CONCENTRATION (Reter pages 4.24 to 4.28 in New DDH]; 2.15 IMPACTLOAD; 2.16 IMPACT STRESS; 2.17 EFFECT OF INERTIA; 2.18 RESILIENCE AND ‘TOUGHNESS 3. DESIGN FOR FATIGUE STRENGTH 187 - 261 SLINTRODUCTION; 3.2 DEFINITIONS; 335.N. DIAGRAMS AND ENDURANCE LIMIT, 3.4 EFFECT OF FACTORS ON ENDURANCE LIMIT; 3.5 FATIGUE 'STRENGTHUNDER FLUCTUATINGSTRESSES; 3,6 STRESSES DUETOCOMBINED. LOADING; 3.7 CUMULATIVE FATIGUE DAMAGE : MINER'S RULE 4. THREADED FASTENERS 262-310 4.1 THREADED FASTENERS: 4.2 THREADED FASTENER (FIG. 4.1]: 4.3 THREADED SCREW TERMINOLOGY; 4.4 FORMS OF SCREW THREADS; 45 RIGHT HAND AND LEFT HAND THREADS; 4.6 INDIAN STANDARD ‘THREAD; 4.7 STRESSES IN SCREW FASTENING DUE TO STATICLOADING: 4.8 EFFECT OF IMPACT LOADING; 4.9 EFFECT OF FATIGUE LOADING; AIOECCENTRICLOADING;DESIGN OF SHAFTS 311-398 5.1 TORSION OF SHAFTS; 5.2 DESIGN FOR STRENGTH AND RIGIDITY WITH STEADY LOAD, 5.3 TYPES OF SHAFTS; 54 PROPERTIES OF SHAFT MATERIAL; 5.5 HEAT TREATMENT OF SHAFT; 5.6 METHODS OF MANUFACTURING ‘SHAFTS; 5.7 ASME AND BIS CODES FOR DESIGN OF TRANSMISSION SHAFTS; 5.8 FORMULAE USED; 5.9 SHAFT MOUNTINGS; 5.10 FORCES ACTING ON THE ‘SHAFT DUE TO BELT DRIVE: 5.11 FORCES ACTING ON THE SHAFT DUETO GEAR DRIVE; 5.12 STANDARD SIZES FOR SHAFTS COTTER JOINT AND KNUCKLE JOINTS, KEYS AND COUPLINGS 999 - 474 COTTER JOINT 6.1 COTTER; 6.2 COTTER JOINT; 6.3 TYPES OF COTTERJOINTS; 6.4 MERITS AND DEMERITS OF COTTER JOINT; 6.5 SOCKET AND SPIGOT COTTER JOINT; 6.6 SLEEVE AND COTTER JOINT: 6.7 KNUCKLE JOINT: 6.8 KEYS; 69 TYPES OF KEYS; 6.10 STRESSES IN KEYS; 6.11 STRENGTHOF SQUARE KEY: 6.12 LENGTH OF KEY: 6.13SPLINE (FIG6.15|: 6.14 PINS [ROUND KEYS}; 6.15 COUPLING; 6,16 MUFF OR SLEEVE COUPLING, 6.I7MARINE TYPE. FLANGE COUPLING; 6 18 FLANGE COUPLING (PROTECTED OR UNPROTECTED. TYPE); 6.19 PIN OR BUSH TYPE FLEXIBLE COUPLING; 6.20 OLDHAM'S COUPLING 7, RIVETED AND WELDED JOINTS 475 - 597 7.1 RIVET: 72RIVETING: 7.3 CAULKING AND FULLERING; 7.4 RIVET HEADS; ‘1.5 TYPEOF RIVETED JOINTS, 7.6TERMINOLOGY, 7.7 FAILURE OP RIVETED JOINTS; 7.8 STRENGTH OF JOINT; 7.9 EFFICIENCY, 7.10 RIVETEDJOINT FOR BOILER OR PRESSURE VESSELS, 7.| | PRESSURE VESSEI.OR BOILER JOINTS; 7.12 STRUCTURAL JOINTS; 7.13 RIVETED BRACKETS; 7.14 WELDED JOINTS; 7.15 TYPES OF WELDED JOINTS; 7.16 STRENGTH OF BUTT-WELD: 7.17 STRENGTH OF LAP OR FILLET WELDS; 7.18 AXIALLY LOADED UNSYMMETRICAL WELDED SECTIONS: 7.19 WELDED JOINT -ECCENTRIC LOADING 8. POWER SCREWS 7 598 - 655 8,1 INTRODUCTION; 82 MECHANICS OF POWER SCREW; 8.3 EXPLAINSELF LOCKING AND OVERKAULING IN POWER SCREWS; 8.4 EFFICIENCY OF SELF LOCKING SCREW; 8.5 COLLAR FRICTION; 8.6 ANGULAR THREADS - ACME AND TRAPEZOIDAL THREADS; 8 7STRESSES IN POWER SCREW: 8.8 BEARING PRESSURE, 8,9 SHOW THAT EFFICIENCY OF SELF LOCKING SCREW IS LESS “THAN FIFTY PERCENTAGE (50%); 8.10 EFFICIENCY VS HELIX ANGLE (LEAD ANGLE} Additional VTU Problems 656 - 709 VTU 2006 Batch Question Papers 110-737 VTU 2010 Batch Question Papers 738-7571 INTRODUCTION 4,1 MACHINE DESIGN ‘Machine design is the art of developing new ideas for the construction of machines and expressing those ideas in the form of plans and drawings. Design Procedure : The procedure for designing a machine usually involves the following, important steps. i it iit iv. . vi Statement of problem Analysis ofthe problem Selection of mechanism, materials and stresses Preparation of the preliminary design Revision of design ‘Making the final drawings Statement of problem Involves writing down all the data and also what is required. This information will indicate the nature of the problem and purpose of the design.Design of Machine Bements -| Analysis of the problem Itis the analysis of all extemal and internal forees acting on the machine part, The various forces are, (i) Forces or load due to the energy transmitted by the parts (i) Porces due to dead weight (iii) Forces due to frictional resistance (iv) Inertia forces due to changes in velocity. (¥) Centrifugal forces duc to changes in the direction of motion (vi) Forces due to changes of temperature (vii) Forces due to procedures in manufacturing (viii) Forces due to the shape of the pact etc Assumptions, sketches, direction of forces, magnitude, point of application of the forces etc must be considered while analysing the problem. iii, Selection of mechanism, material and stresses ‘The most important part in designing a machine is to select the proper mechanism, material and allowable stresses. Mechanism : While selecting a mechanism importance must be given to strength, accuracy of motion, efficiency and cost. Material : While selecting.a material consideration must be given to the life of various parts, availability, application and cost. Stress ; The selection of proper allowable stress while designing a machine clement requires the working knowledge of materials, The selection must be based on the analysis of load variations, stress distribution due to abrupt changes in sections and other working conditions. iy. Preparation of preliminary design ‘The purpose of the preliminary design is to determine the probable dimensions of all the parts. While deciding the dimensions strength, rigidity and resistance to wear must be considered. ‘The shapes decided upon in the preliminary design must be drawn on paperin the form of free hand sketches. Also in preliminary design al calculations must be completed as far as possible and noted in.a reat legible form, v. Revision of design Before working drawings are made from the sketches of the preliminary design, these sketches, musi be revised (o take into account of all practical requirements such as manufacturing requirement, ‘operation requirement, assembly requirement etcre Intedction $$$ 3 Manufacturing Requirements "The first step in revision is to consider the problems of manufacturing such as those involved in the making of patterns, methods of forging, machining etc. Operation requirements ‘The second step in revision is to consider the problems in operation such as provision for lubrication, safety problem, holding the part, adjustment for wear etc. Assembly Requirement ‘The last and final step in revision begins when the designer starts to make assembly drawings. Here ease of assemblying, dismantling and maintenance should be considered. ‘The assembly drawing should give, all the dimensions and information needed for assembly and installing the machine, vi Making final drawings Once the assembly drawings are ready, all possible revision has to be taken into account while preparing the working drawings. ‘A working drawing must be clear, concise and complete. It must have enough views and cr0st-section to show all the details, Every dimension must be given, so that there will beno scope for guess work ‘A.working drawing must give all the information needed for the men in shops working on it for such as making the pattern, mould, cast the piece, welding, machining, heat treatment etc, Bill of material : ‘When the design of a mechanism and the assembly of ¢ machine is completed, a bill must. show the details of components or parts, umber of parts and the material in which the paris are made etc., the bill of material must also contain details of all standard parts such as bolts, nuts, washers, cotters, pins etc 1.2 PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL : Classification of Engineering Materials: The engineering materials are mainly classified as: (i) Metals and their alloys such as iron, steel, copper, aluminium ete, i) Non-metals such as glass, rubber, plastic etc. ‘The metals may be further classified as : (a) Ferrous metals and (b) Non-ferrous metals. ‘The ferrous metals are those which have iron as their main constituent such as cast iron, ‘wrought iron and steel, ‘The non—ferrous metals are thoye which haye a metal other th suck as copper, aluminium, brass, tin, zine ete, mas their main constituent4 Design of Machine Elements -1 Choice or Selection of Engineering Material The choice of materials depends upon the following factors. Availability of the materials Suitability ofthe materials for the working conditions in service ‘The cost of the materials ‘The important properties which determine the usage of the materials ace physical, chemical and mechanical properties. Physical Properties of Materials ‘The important physical properties of the materials are lustre, colour, size, shape, density.electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity and melting point. Mechanical Properties of Materials [VTU, Dec.2011] ‘The important mechanical properties of the materials are: (i) Elasticity (ii) Plasticity (iii) Ductility (iv) Brittleness (v) Malleability (vi) Toughness (vii) Hardiness (viii) Strength (ix) Stiffness (x) Resilience (xi) Creep Elasticity Is the property by virtue of which a material deformed under the load is enabled to return to its original dimension when the load is removed. Ifa body regains completely its original shape, it | is said to be perfectly elastic. In Fig 1.1, the specimen is loaded only upto point A, well within the | elastic limit E, When the load, corresponding to point A. is gracually removed the curve follows | the same path AO and the strain completely disappears. Such a behaviour is known as the elastic | behaviour. This property is desirable for matcrials used ia tools and machines. Stecl is more clastic | than rubber. Plastie—— strain (e) oe Fig. LI Plasticity Itis the converse of elasticity. Its the property of a material which retains the deformation produced under load permanently. This property of the material is necessary for forging, stamping ‘mages on coins and in ommamental work._— Introduction: Duciiity It is the property of a material which permits a material to be drawn out longitudinally to & reduced section under the action of tensile force. A ductile material must be strong and plastic, The ductility is usually measured in terms of percentage clongation or percentage reduction in /s arca of the test specimen. The property of ductility is utilised in wire drawing, The commonly used ductile matericls are mild steel, copper, aluminium, nickel, zinc, tin and lead. Brialeness Itis the property of a material opposite to that of ductility ie., lack of ductility. A material is said to be brittle when it cannot be drawn out by tension to smaller section, In a brittle material failure takes place under the load without significant deformation, This property is usually ‘undesirable. Examples of brittle materials are cast iron, high carbon stecl, concrete, stone, glass, ceramic materials etc. Glass is an ideal brittle material in which stress-strain curve in tension is essentially a straight line. Malleability 11s the property of a material which permits the material to be extended in all directions without rupture. (i.e, 10 be rolled or hammered into thin sheets ). A malleable material possesses ahigh degree of plasticity but not necessarily great strength. This property is utilised in forging, hot rolling, drop stamping ete. The commonly used malleable materials are lead, soft steel, wrought iron, copper and aluminium. Toughness Tis the properry of a material which enables it to absorb energy without fracture (ic, to resist fracture due to high impact loads). This property is desirable in parts subjected to shock and impact loads, Toughness is measured in terms of energy required per unit volume of the material to cause rupture under the action of gradually increasing tensile load. Fig 1.2 shows the siross-strain curves for mild steel as well as high carbon steel. The toughness is represented by the ‘area under the stress-strain curve for the material. High Carbon Steel unit stress > Mild Stee! Unit strain —> Fig, 1.26. esign ot Machine torments -1 Hardness isthe ability of material to resist indentation or surface abrasion, Itembraces many different properties such as resistance to wear, scratching, deformation and machinability etc, Tests on harcness may be classified into (@ Scratch Test (ii) Indentation Test ‘The Scratch test consists of pressing a loaded diamond into the surface of the specimen and then pulling the diamond so as to make a scratch, ‘The Indentation test consists of pressing a body of standard shape into the surface of the test. specimen, Example Brinell hardness test, Rockwell hardness test and Vickers hardness test. Strength ‘This is the most important property of a material from design point of view. Its the ability of material to resist the externally applied forces without breaking or yielding. ‘The load required to cause fracture divided by the area of the test specimen is termed as the ultimate strength of the material and is expressed in the unit of stres Stiffness Itis the ability of a material to resist deformation under stress, The modulus of elasticity is the measure of stiffness in axially loaded members. Resilience It is the property of a material to absorb energy and to resist shock and impact loads, I is ‘measured by the amount of energy absorbed per unit volume within elastic limit. This property is important for spring materials. Creep When « partis subjected to 2 constant stress at high temperature for a longer period of time, it will undergo a slow and permanent deformation cailed ereep. This property is considered in designing LC. engines, boilers anc turbines, 4.3 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS Based on the circumstances and the need, quite a number of characteristics mustbe considered in designing a part, Some of the important characteristics are as follows : (i) Strength (ji) Safety (iii) Stiffness (iv) Surface finish (¥) Shape (vi) Size (vii) Styling (viii) Usilty (ix) Reliability (x) Cost (xi) Life (xii) Wear (xiii) Corrosion (xiv) Weight (xv) Noise (avi) Flexibility (xvii) Control (xviii) Lubrication (xix) Maintenance (xx) Liability (xxi) Volume (xxii) Friction (xxiii) Processing (xxiv) Thermal Properties. 1.4 CODES AND STANDARDS [VTU, DEC.2011] Code sa set of specifications forthe analysis, design, manufacture and construction of something. ‘The main purpose of code is to achieve a specified degree of safety, efficiency and quality. Standard is the set of specifications for parts, materials or processes intended to achieve uniformity, efficiency and a specified qualivy.er 7 iroducton| ‘The organisations and societies listed below have established specifications for standards and safety or design codes. ‘Aluminium association (AA) ‘American Gear Manufacturers Association (AGMA) ‘American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) ‘American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) Industrial Fasteners Jastitute (IF) British Standands Institution BSD) American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Institution of Mechanical Engineers (1. Mech, E) National Bureau of Standards (NBS) American Welding Society (AWS) International Standards Organisation (ISO) American Society of Metals (ASM) Antiftiction Bearing Manufacturers Association (AFBMA) American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Standardisation ‘Standardisation aims at establishing mandatory or obligatory norms or standards to which the different types, grades, parameters such as length, diameter, etc, quality characteristics, est methods, rules of marking, packing, storage of finished items, raw materials and semi-finished articles should confirm. The main purpose of standardisation is to minimise variety, Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has standardised a number of items for the benefit of designers. They are: (@ Rules for preparing drawings. (i) Symbols and notations for mechanical quantities and their units. (ii) Engineering materials, their chemical composition, mechanical properties, method of heat treatment and methods of mechanical testing (iy) Dimensions and preferred sizes of various machine components, (9) Fits and tolerances for various machine elements from assembly considerations. ‘The advantages for the standardised parts are = (Standardised products have better quality and are more reliable. (i)_As the standardised parts are easily available for replacement, maintenance is easy, ii). Service life for the standardised parts is higher. (iy) Time and effort required to manufacture a new machine is less with the use of standard components.2. Dnrtign of Machine torments «1 1.5 DISCUSS FACTORS INFLUENCING THE SELECTION OF A SUITABLE MATERIAL FOR A MACHINE ELEMENT [B.U. Feb. 96, Feb. 97, VTU, May/June 2010] ‘All materials have certain inherent charactevistics which must be considered for the selection of a particular design, The factors o be taken into account are strength (yield and ultimate) stiffness or rigidity, ductility, toughness, resistance, fatigue resistance, ductile to brite wansition, creep resistance, ‘wear resistance, oxidation and corrosion resistance, thermal and electrical conductanee, friction characteristics, hardenability, castability, formability, weldability, machinability and specific weight ete, The material selected should be readily availablein required quantity. Sometimes multiple choice may be possible and the eost and maintenance ofthe finished product decides the final choice. ‘The broad classification of the engineering materials are given below. From this study the basic characteristics of exch metal and select the proper one Engineering Materials eee Meaallic Non-Metallic (plastic, rubber, leather, wood, i glass, ceramic & carbon ) Ferrous (iron andits Non-Ferrous alloys such as cast iron, carbon steel and alloy steels ) White metals (Ni, Silver and their alloys) Copper alloys Light weight metals and their alloys (Zn, Al, Mg and their alloys) others (Rare metals ‘Aniifrction alloys and theiralloys) Bearing metals ‘After selecting a proper material, the final selection of a material for the design is based on the ‘most economical production method. The following chart gives the brief account of various ‘manufacturing process from the designers point of view,SOMtsOgPY “8 Suipjom sose; pur ueeq wonse1g Sunpuy Surerg. pue Surpunip “> pue Suuspjos “9 Sunmopramy “¢ Zuppa uumsy, 5 Guymon {so Tudues Sans pean Buppmsey p, “219 “Buuways “Bunwesp Sinessig te fuunseu ZuppRamo “€ Sumypeaiq, ‘vorsnma Sua eee eaioe qeuonipen-uoN Supp Sammd = “Bujorseypns: unses A@inepw — S0URsIsy -z~ CudoysGuyn —uBOM PION TZ —BuBioFarq -¢ pInow quouewiag “T sepmog | Supjmary +] Suqup Tummy, -~ — SuppomyoH | Fuiy MUG “| Sunseo pues “] SuaHLO ‘ONINIOF fONINIHOVIN'| =| ONIWAOA| | NTOYOA SNTISVD eats [11 spompayy Sup moegnueyy, naan BO ee ea eee10 Design of Viachine Elements -1 1.8 STRESS, STRAIN, HOOKE'S LAW, STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAMS & DEFINITIONS 1.6.1 Load Itis defined as any external force acting on a machine part. The following four types of loads are important, they are @) Dead or Steady load : A load is said to be a dead or steady load when it does not change in magnitude or direction. Gi) Liveor Variable load : A load is said to be a live or variable load when it changes continually. (ii) Suddenly applied or Shock load : A load is said to be a suddenly applied or shock load when itis suddenly applied or removed. (iv) Impact load : A load is said to be an impact load when itis applied with some initial velocity 1.6.2 Stress When a body is acted upon by externel foree or load, internal resisting force is set up, such a body is said to be ina state of stress, hence stress is the resistance offered by the body to deformation, ‘The intemal resistance offered against the external force may be assumed to be uniformly distributed over the whole area of cross section. Thus this intemal force per unit area at any section of the body is known as stress, Its denoted by 6 (sigma), A loaded member remains in equilibeiam when the resistance offered by the member against deformation and applied load are equal i., F=F F © Suess 0 = = — where F' = Resisting force, A A normal to the axis or direction of applied load Applied force, A= Area of c/s WA Pe t oF 1B ai Ve ES resisting ree i ta resising cet) $=] _—_— ee t A rer F Lor SS Fig. 13i Introduction: ‘The following are the important types of stresses. () Normal stress. Itis classified as (a) Tensile Stress, (b) Compressive Stress (ii) Shear Stress or Tangential Stress (ii) Bearing Stress (iv) Bending Stress (9) Twisting or Torsional Stress } () Axial Load |The Force acting slong the axis of the rod is known as axial load as shown in fig 1.4 | Fe—f =. >F Fig, 14 i) Normal Stress ‘The internal forces and the corresponding stresses acting in the direction perpendicular to the surface is known as normal stress or direct stress. Normal stresses are of two types (a) Tensile steess and (b) Compressive stress, (a) Tensile Stress When a load is acting in such a way that it tends to pull apart the particles of the material causing extension in the direction of application of load, then the load is called tensile load and the corresponding stress ‘tensile stress’, ' A 1 a re— F Fe 1 >F + i SST Fig, 15 (0)12 Design of Machine Elements) ax{ ule Fig : 1.5 (a) shows a bar subjected to the tensile force F. Fig: 1.5 (b) shows resisting force a section AB. For equilibrium, resisting force F'= Applied force F Fig: 1.5 (©) shows an element in the material which is subjected to tensile stress. Resisting force F’ Gross Sectional Area A © = F where F = Tensile 2. Tensile Stress = toad) s 0 = FA Némmt or Nim Compressive Stress When the load is acting in such a way that it pushes the particles of the material nearer causing shortening in the direction of load, then its called compressive load and the corresponding suress "compressive stress”. ' Fig. 1.6 (6)13 Introduction o—| k—o Fig. 16 (0) Fig: 1.6 (a) shows a bar and an element subjected to a compressive load. Fig: 1.6 (b) shows resisting force at section AB. For equilibrium resisting force F° ‘Compressive load F Fig : 1.6 (c) shows an element in the material which is subjected to compressive stress pplied Resisting force F* Cross Sectional Area A | Compressive stress. Hence Compressive stress o = F=P4F =2F] +. Average shearing stress“Introduction: Tee. x YA Le YAW CY aaa Bearing Stress Bolts, pins and rivets create stresses in the member they connect zlong the bearing surface or surface of contact. A localised compressive stress at the surface of contact between two members ofamachine part that are relatively at rest is known as bearing stress or crushing stress Consider two plates connected by a bolt as shown in the Fig 1.8. The bolt exeris a force F° equal and opposite to the force F exerted by the plate on the bolt. The force F' represents the resultant of elementary forces distributed on the inside surface of a half eylinder of diameter ‘d’ and length ‘t’ equal io the thickness of the plate. Since distribution of these forces and the corresponding stresses is quite complicated, the average nominal value of G, called the hearing stress is obtained by dividing the load F" by the area of the rectangle representing the projection of the bolt on the plate section, POE Bearing stess 6, = “= jg where t = "Thickness of plate and d= Diameter of the bolt >F - Fig. 1816 —$_— Design of Mectine Elements - 1.6.3 Strain When a force or load acts on a body it undergoes deformation. This deformation per unit, Jength is known as unit strain or simply strain, It is denoted by € (epsilon) or e strain € Where 6 = Deformation 1 = original length Swrain is dimensionless. Strain may be u (i) Tensile strain Gi) Compressive strain (ii) Volumetric strain iy), Shear stra (v) Superficial sirain (i) Tensile Strain Lot AB be the initial length of the bar before the application of the load and AC be the final length after the application of the tensile load F as shown in Fig 1.9 *. Extension or Change in length = AC - AB = BC = Original length = | ‘The extension per unit length is defined as tensile strain, Extension of bar__ 6, 1. Tensile sain = Gest Tengthofbar = 1 Fig. 19 (i) Compressive strain : Consider a uniform bar AB of initial length I subjected to a compressive force F, The length of the bar reduces to AC as shown in Fig 1.10 :, Shortening or change in length = AB~ AC = BC = 5,Infredtuet.on $$ $aSaé@a@a@ @@ Mm@- —@- ———_—— 17 Compressive strain is defined as shortening per unit length. Shortening of the bar 8, Compressive strain © = Orginal length of bar ” 7 Shear Strain : Consider an element ABCD as shown in Fig 1.11 is subjected to shearing stresses on faces ‘AB and CD. I: undorgoes deformation and this deformation is expressed in terms of the angular cisplacement. ‘Transverse displacement _ DD, _ 8s, Distance AD “AD ht © Shear strain 6 = ian p=0)18 (i) Volumetric Strain : Volumeiric strain is defined as change in yolume per unit volume Design of Machne Elements -1 by * Volumetric strain = —* (©) Superficial Strain: Superficial strain is defined as change in area per unit area 1.6.4 Elastic limit When an external force acts om a body, the body tends to undergo some deformation. If the external force is removed the body comes back to its original shape and size. The body will regain its previous shape and size only when the deformation caused by the extemal force is within a certain limit, The value of the force corresponding to this limit is called limiting force. The value of stress corresponding to this limiting force is known as the elastic limit of the material, 1.6.5 Hooke's Law It states that when a material is loaded within elastic limit, the stress is directly proportional to the strain, Le, the ratio of stress to the corresponding strain is a constant within the elastic limit. This constant is known as Modulus of Elasticity or “Young's Modulus”, se Stress ce strain Stress ie, = constant Strain ‘oung’s modulus o ie, > =E where € 1.6.6 Poisson's Ratio ‘When a body is subjected to direct stress, it undergoes deformation in the direction of load and at rightangles to the direction of load. There is an increase in length inthe direction of load but decrease in the lateral direction as shown in Fig 1.12, The strain in the direetion of load is known, as longitudinal strain and the strain at right angles to the direction of applied load is known as lateral strain ‘The ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal strain is defined as Poisson's ratio and is «constant. 1 Itis normally denoted by — or or v(nu). The value of m for mest of the material lies between 3 and 4,Inttoduction Ets il rs Fig, 112 D-d), (B-b) Lateral strain Ds) longitudinal sirain 8, = Decroase in depth =D-d 8, = Decrease in widih = 8, = Increase in length ~. Poisson's ratio In the case of a tension member, if the strain in the direction of load is ©, then the strain E 1(o, 1 fo, 7 inte erro dren (26) na (21) epetne 1.6.7 Stress-strain diagram [VTU, June/July 2011, June/July 2014] ‘The mechanical properties are commonly determined from a standard tensile test. The testing ‘machine is called universal testing machine (UTM), The test consists of gradually loading a standard specimen ofa material and noting the comesponding values of load and elongation until the specimen fractures. The load is applied and mezsured by a testing machine. The stress is determined by dividing the load values by the original cross sectional area of specimen. The elongation is measured by determining the amount thattwo reference points on the specimen are moved apart. The original distance between the two reference points is known as gauge length, The strain is determined by dividing the elongation values by the gauge length. ‘The valucs of the stress and the corresponding strain are used to draw the stress-strain diagram of the material tested. The Fig: 1.13 shows the stress-strain diagram for mild steel. The various properties of material are discussed below.20 —$ $$ Design of Mactine Eismments -| ‘True stress, / strain curne Nominal or Conventional or Engineering stress-strain curve Strose— o Sain —> Fig. 1.13 (New DDHB Fig 1.1) 1. Proportional limit From O to P the curve is a straight line, ie, steess is directly proportional to strain, Therefore it is clear that Hooke’s law holds good up to the point P and this point is known as proportional limit, Iv is defined as a point at which the stress begins to deviate from the straight line. 2. Elastic timit Up to the point E the material will regain its shape and size, when the load is removed. It ‘means that the material has elastic properties up to the point E, This point is known as elastic limit 3. Yield point If the material is stressed beyond the point E, the plastic stage will reach i.e, on the removal of load, the material will not be able to recover its original shape and size. [At point Y, there is an increase in strain without appreciable increase in load, Thus the curve crops down tothe point Y,. Then again with the increase in load the strain increases andis practically ‘constant up to the point Y. This phenomenon of inerease in strain without any eppreciable increase in load is called yielding. The point Y, is called upper yield point and the point Y, is called lower ‘yield point. In practice the lower yield stress is more impostant and hence this point is called yield point. 4. Ultimate stress Between the points Y and U the ductile extension takes place. Here the relationship between stresg and strain depends upon the rate of loading also. During the extension the cross-sectional area decreases uniformly all over the length such that the volume remains constant. At the point U, the stress attains its maximum value which is known as ultimate point. The stress at this point is {known as ultimate stress. Itis defined as the maximum stress obtained by dividing the maximum yelue of the load reached to the criginal cross-sectional area of the test specimen.—_— Introduction 21 5. Breaking stress ‘After the maximum load is reached, local yielding takes place and a neck or waist is formed. AAs the cross-sectional area decreases considerably the load carrying capacity of the specimen reduces and hence in the portion UB the strain increases for decrease in stress. Even though the nominal stress is decreasing, the actual (true) stress which is equal to the load divided by actual cross-sectional area at neck will be continuously increasing. At point B the specimen breaks, The stress at this point is called breaking stress and the corresponding load is called breaking load. The ralure of fracture for mild steel will be in the form of cup and cone, 1.6.8 Stress — strain curves for other materials Fig 1.14 shows stress ~ strain curves for steel having carbon content yarying from 0.12% 10 19. From these, it is concluded that with high carbon content it is similar to brittle materials even though the ultimate stress is much greater. 1400 ne 119 0 840) i wo 2 B a9 2 v9 lose ae ss Nm’) 0 020 3040 Percentage Strain Fig. 114 Fig: 1.15 shows typical stress — strain diagram for common materials such as high carbon steel, nickel-chrome steel, mild steel, wrought iron, cast iron, copper and cast aluminium, From these it is noticed that for steel and wrought iron proportionality exists almost until yielding takes place. For copper, cast aluminium and high alloys, no clearly defined limit of proportionality, elastic limit or yield point. Cast iron behaves like a brittle material which fails without any visible elongation or reduction in area.Design of Machine Elements -1 22 igh 4 a Wife ian Chore Guakam 6 iw 20 30 w 0 153 Percentage sain Fig. 115 Fig : 1.16 shows stress-strain diagram for aluminium alloy. Itexhibits considerable ductility, though itdocs not have clearly definable yield point. 280 ma ad & / a | * 40] Wea as RL Pig 16 Fig : 1.17 shows stress - strain diagram for hard rubber and soft rubber. The curve for hard rubber is linear up to very large strains, Soft rubber continue to stretch enormously without failure. 21 tai Rube} Stress (Nimm*) }—~] c 7 4,0 8 ig 117Cc Heston $$ ir Fig: 1.18 shows the stress ~ strain curve for brittle material. Itis seen from the diagram that the deviation from Hooke’s law begins very early and fracture occurs suddenly with very small deformation and without necking, The stress ~ strain diagram for brittle material does not exhibit theyield point, Examples of brittle materials are concrete, stone, cast iron, glass & ceramic materials ce, Glass is an ideal brittle material, exhibiting almost no ductility, Tage “ Fig. 1.18 (New DDEB Fig 1.2) Note : 1, Materials with more than 15% elongation are usually considered ductile, 2, Materials with less than 5% clongation are considered as brittle. 3. Many ductile materials have the same yield point in tension and compression, 4, Most brittle materials have a higher value for ultimate strength in compression than that for tension, 5, Percentage elongation is the percentage increase in length of the gauge length. L +. Percentage elongation =p" x 100 where L,,= Original gauge length 1L,= Final longth between gauge marks, 6, Percentage reduction in areais defined as the ratio of maximura change in the cross-sectional Agra, area 0 original cross sectional area, expressed in percentage reduction in area = $9 where For ductile material percentage reduction in area is $0 to 70.24 —<——— Design 0f Machina Eloments =| 4.7 STRESSES INDUCED DUE TO NORMAL AND SHEAR LOAD In actual practice at any point in a strained material combination of tensile, compressive and shear stresses ie. different stresses may act on planes. Hence it is necessary to find the resultant stresses which may be greater than the applied ones and also the planes on which they act. The systemsin which direct stresses and shearing stresses act simultancously are called combined stresses ‘or compound stresses, Here the study is limited to two dimensional stress system only. 1.7.1 Methods for determining stresses on oblique section (i.¢., Inclined plane) cs on oblique section are de:ermined by the following methods, The sires (i) Analytical method Gi) Graphical method ‘The following three types of stressed conditions in an element are considered. (i) Uniaxial stress. i) Biraxial stress, (ii) General qwo dimensional stress system. “To find the stresses acting on an inclined plane ina stressed material, consider a plane inclined ‘at an angle 6 to the knowa plane and then find the normal and tangential (shear) stresses on this plane. 1.7.2 Sign Convention (i) Tensile stress is considered as positive. (ii) Compressive stress is considered as negative. Gil) Angle @ is considered positive when it is in the anticlockwise direction. Gv) A shear siress acting on the positive face of an element is considered positive and negative if it acis in the negative direction of the axes. ic., shearforce acting x - face giving rise to cow couple is treated 2s positive and ew couple is treated as negative. ey chia € -feco face —————— id ytace ytace Positive shoar stress Negative shear stress Fig 1.19 (v) 6, is positive in tension. (vi) o,is positive when it tends to produce counterclockwise rotation ofthe element and negative when it tends to produce clockwise rotation of the element.ry intoduction ——__________—?_—. 5 1,73 Prineipal stresses and Principal Planes Principal planes are the planes on which only normal stresses will act with zero shear stress The normal stress across the principal plane is known as principal stress. ‘Atany point ina strained material, under three dimensional stress system, there are three such planes mutually orthogonal to each other, which carry direct stresses only and no shear stress. Out ofthese, the plane carrying the maximum normal stress is called the major principal plane and the ‘normal stress acting on that plane: called the major principal stress, The plane carrying the minimum hormal siress is known ¢s minor principal plane and the corresponding normal stress acting on that plane is called the minor principal stress. In a plane stress or two dimensional stress system, the third principal stress is zero. 1.7.4 Member subjected to direct stress on one plane [i.e., Uniaxial stress] Consider an element subjected to direct uniaxial stress or load as shown in Fig. 1.20 Fig 1.20 Consider a rectangular member ABCD of uniform cross-sectional area with unit thickness subjected to uniaxial tensile Load as shown in Fig. 1.21 oD G = c r———_ a -——- F a e 8 ig 12 Let F = Axial tensile force acting on the member, A = Area of cross-section. Consider a plane EF which is perpendicular to the line of action of the force. ‘Area of cross section EF = EF x1 =A Axial tensile fore F Stress on plane EF, 6, = ~\ a ateys BF 7 A26 Design of Machine Elements -1 ‘The stress on plane BF is entirely normal stress and there is no shear stress. Now consider & plane £G at an angle @ with the normal plane ZF as shown in Fig. 1.21, Angle @ being measured in anticlockwise direction, EF A pert cos" ~ cost ‘The applied force F is parallel to the axis of the member and not normal to the plane EG. ‘Since all the parts of the member have the same axial strains, the stresses acting on the plane EG are uniformly distributed as shown in Fig. 1.22(a). The resultant force due to these stresses will be a force, equal in magnitude to the axial force F. This resultant force F acting on plane EG may be resolved into two components as shown in Fig. 1.22 (b) G Area of cross section EG = EG x t= EG x1 = E (a) to) Fig, 1.22 (Normal force F, acting normal to the plane EG. i) Tangential force F, acting tangential to the plane EG. Normal force F, = F cos 0 Tangential force F, = F sin 8 Normal force Fy __-Feos® _ Feos?@ ©. Normal stress across the plane EG, 0, = ‘Area of section EG ~ A/cosO~ A FP = 0,c05'0 (0, =7 2.10 (Olé DDHB) 2.13 (New DDHB) Area of section EG Tangential stress ({.e., shear stress) across the plane EG, t, Fsing oF =~ A ycosp 77 4 2 BOSE =-Fasindcosa=-Ssin20 2.11 OwDDHB) 2.14 (New DDHB) Negative sign indicates that t, tends to produce clockwise rotation of the element, Normal stress 6, is maximum when ® = Maximum normal stress 6, = 6, €050= 6, 2.12 (Old DDHB} 2.15 (New DDHB)2 reduction Minimum normal or principal stress 6, = 0 when @ = 90° ‘Tangential stress, is maximum when @ = + 45° The maximum positive value of, is obtained at value of ¢, is obtained at 0 = 45° 45° or 135° and the maximum negative --2.13 (Old DDHB) 2.17 (New DDHB) Hence all planes inclined at 45° to the axis of pull are subjected to maximum shear stress +. Maximum shear stress py, = 6, equal to S* Fig. 1.23 shows the variation of 6, and ty as © varies from —90" 10 + 90° ‘When @ =0, plane £G becomes a cross section EF and hence the graph gives o,= 0, as 0 increases and when 0 0°, 6,= 6, = 0 indicating that there is no normal stress on a plane parallel to the longitudinal axis, Similarly on Fig. 1.23 planes where @ =0, 7, = 0 and also on longitudinal sections where @= + 90°, t4 = 0. When 0 =— 45°, maximum positive value oft, is obtained and wien @=+45°, maximum negative value of ty fs obtained as shown in Fig. 1.23 90° “90° ‘The resultant stress may be found out from the relation 6, = fo; +g. The relation holds 200d for compressive stress also, 1.7.5 Member subjected to direct stresses on two mutually perpendicular directions, [Bi-axial stress] Consider a rectangular block ABCD whose thickness perpendicular to the plane of the paper isunity. The bars subjected to :wo direct tensile stresses or Wa principal tensile stresses as shown in Fig. 1.24 60— re iat corre: Element | Solution = ‘Maximum allowable normal ste38, Cy Maximum shear stess 1. Now, £204 201; B= Me From Figure 4.22 (Old DDHB); sur coreaton ter KAS Eas Aico, = fa - sus sata = 88 KY va w sexton tna, = Mien 12 Zhen Fig 422 (OU DDB, 2 2 4.18/4.18A (New DIB) 197916.667N mm M, = 9550 « 10 S = 9550.10" x jie, 39.63 307916,667 (°) mye 2 2 ‘37.4 mm say 37.5 mm = Diameter of shaft al the groove Example : 2.41 ‘A stepped shaft of circular cross section show (0,,=431.5 MPa). Determine the value of ot ‘and the fillet radius, so that the maximum stress will limited to a ratio corresponding toa factor of safety of 25 Data: FOS = 25, F=30kN=30 x 10°N50,,= 431.5 Mpa=431.5N/mmt* | Solution : oy _ 4315 + Maximumallowable normal ites = G05 = 7.5 i tema = FOS 25 172.6? D_ 12d aaDotign of Mochine Elements -1 Let BE be the oblique plane inclined at an angle @ on which the stresses are to be calculated, Let 6, = Major tensile siress or principal stress on face AD and BC 16, = Minor tensile stress or principal stress on face AB and CD F, x BCX 1= 6, x BC F, = Tensile force on section BE due to 0,=0, x ECx 1= 6, x EC Resolve the forces perpendicular to BE and along BE as shown in Fig. 3.6 (a) and (b) Tensile force on section BE due to 9, JoxtC=F F sind 0, xBC=F, (a) 8 o) 8 Fig. 1.25 «Total foree perpendictilar tothe plane BE, F, = F, cos 8+ F, sin ® ie, 0,%BE = (6,xBC) cos 04 (6, x £0) sin ® ie, 6, = 6, FC cose +o, #C sino BE BE = 6,c0s 0 cos +6, sin @ sin 6 * 044, sin’ O = 90% (1 46082)+ & (1 - cos 26 2 (1 +008 +> cos 26) =. Normal stress on plane BE, 6, ) x 26 ~-2,26 (Old DDHB) 2.28 (New DDHB), “Total force tangential to the plane BE, F,=~ F, sin @ + F, cos @ ie, t,x BE = ~(6, x BC) sin 8+ (6, x EC) cos 0 ient, =~, 2C sind+0,£C cose 1E BE = ~6,cos Osin@ + 6, sin Ocos © | = ~(6,-0,)sin 0 cos 2.27 (Old DDHB) 2.29 (New DDHB) -. Tangential stress on plane BIInduction ‘is negative since it tends to produce clockwise rotation of the material. ‘The resultant stress on plane BE, 2 9%, = (or+te = (6. in’ 6): +{-(, ~6, )sinBcos®}? = [6 cox 6 +67sin*0+20,., cos? @sin®8+(62 +03 ~26,0, )sin”Ocos" 2 = [63 cos? 6(cos* @ + sin? @) + 0% sin? 6(sin® @+ cos” 8) ¢. Resultant stress on plane BE, 6, = /O; 8+o7 sin’ ‘The angle that the line of action of the resultant stress makes with the normal stress is called the angle of obliquity. ++ Angle of obliquity @ = tan (=) On principal planes, t, musi be equal to zero. te, (25%) ain20 =0 2 4 20=0 or 180%, i1c., 0 = 007 90° E e, ‘When @=0 Major principal stress 6, ‘When @ = 90° Minor principal stress. 0,30 —— Design of Machine Elements - ‘Thus, there are two principal planes at right angles to each other, one of which carries the ‘maximum direct stress and the other the minimum direct stress, These principal planes do not carry any shear stress. ‘Shear or tangential stress on plane BE is maximum when 20 = 90° or 20= 90° or 270, i.e,, 0 = 45° or 135°, When © = 45° maximum negative value of +, is obtained and when @ = 135° maximum positive value of f, is obtained. 6, -9, Wht gg (2552 on0 (° °. 2 Hence there are two mutually perpendicular planes along which the greatest shear stress ‘occurs, These planes are at angles of 45° and 135° with the principal plane carrying principal stress 8. Whea the biaxial stresses , and 6, are not alike ie, if 6, is tensile and is compressive stress, -~2.29 (Old DDHB) 2.31 (New DDHB) When 9 = 135% Tou 2) sin 270° 6.-9, (6,46, Then 6, + 4 Jeo20 5, +6, =| “3” | when 0 =45° or 135° 1.7.6. Stresses induced by state of simple shear ‘The rectangular block ABCD shown in Fig, 1.27 isin a state of simple shear under the action of shear stress intensity +, Let the thickness of block normal to the plane of paper is unity. Now, consider any sectional plane BE inclined at an angle @ with the normal cross-section as shown in Fig. 1.27. Let the normal and tangential stresses on the plane BE be 6, and, respectively. Resolving the forces perpendicular to BE, 6X BE = (1,, x BC) sin 8 + (1,, x EC) 0s © Fig. 127