I Some basic concepts “This chapter wil consider he nate of fiction an i e- ence angie lean and eich vl ten gn explore sone taste oranatonl pics of grammar and the eatnip between (pammarand meaning Ply nb of gamma actos wil be 41.4 Formal and functional grammar ‘hee are many was of dscing he gamma of langage One 2 ruc es pt no aes witch ops i poe ar ‘ata sce ofthe language. nhs speach, a lear dscns ‘Susy mate tevcen ammateal (orctins cle elormed) {epesand gratia sees. Therion ih ers fants sucess er reason tone mater ater ae ‘vith her meanings oF tbr uses in ern comes Arsen Interest in tt Kind of decpon wl nue fr aa secs ‘evens deren om el wold sores ‘Rot ppc ss gun rt pees stem of a mia an aralyer rao cover how xpi allo ‘petkesand wits tomate and exchange mein Raber a sting ‘oma lx dation between gama ah ungrarialfr he foes wal onthe appropriates O To foe pail co !muncate purpose ina pre comex. The primary ones wih be Fiction of satus sd th conse td wih ie mening a Comtex A granmaian eres i tin of eerie ily oe ‘Sr ube nee em nt ad re or then a ‘rien angng) in seit comes "Toe omer appach ogramsatal ral & ofl cle formal hile the ate approach nomally called funetonal Th to oP2 FuneonlEngish grammar roaches ate nt of cous ily excuse Formal ans mt a Sloe sape ke cout of meaning acon an ua ls ‘Sar Se soge oe atu of form Hower, to Sserpons of ‘Fama cn be featdpimuiy win on re oer of tee two "pe trece ese forma nd actin approaches canbe bi and inl sed wih he losing semen 10) Tidak bon cay ee ely any a eh ma aco om seaming ag tt neve ss: Mos ‘Soar pl tyme ag se soa wero cect Sara at eras nos (Tee iat dn Fortunplrstrcnt ct yaw enc ay ie Sanat atodgeh yasmina SCT no of nae loa wae acannon eae fe ‘Src and is clange mfr of snd) he ge fem ad ce cae Sebel ha ted se ‘ir . soe en nou ae th ewe eee ne sont Hoes evo aoe ign gchar to came ce ‘Socarenne dno atc an ce ae oat ep erly nvoree sete nd) wat ve fe coment may ae Ie ce a ere te Te to rs web tashe Gpnnecemsr ores we acm nen ote et og et son gn il esos Caper co 41.2 Functional grammar and language teaching Laing» second langue i ad wos an for most people inoles a onsite coaiment of and fo. The werk may sonetines be ‘Soybeans donot wlyunderake Soh ask without he ‘evaton af «pve A ew people sede ngs prays my ‘bot upon te say fa langue forte itlectal sesficton of Sone base concopts 3 scsitunee with ular rama ater and legates torn trot nner pao wil beth sy comme Sitheter seer eters of elanginge. Toe af rl se oaguse Iearesand each hrf desepn of ie rar fangs ods too more han simpy ny au the frm and ucts ft Tnngune It eds show what ey ar fo and how they ae ws. AS tien ol, he pany im ont reat anleis o {dest how he moar fs langage eres asa resource or making ndeachanging meanings A ctrl parr therefor the do ‘iar mest ly ave wef gs to yt langage lees nd ‘Scher: (ses in gramear and ngspeeching as expel more ly ‘chapter 13) ‘A mani fans" f fnctoa grammar hae appeal wii ‘a het selec and adept sighs oma munber of arcs Howeve, 4 od del of he arctan ante framework doped he ack, Sell as much fhe eo, dan fom he Wor of se Fata gus in para Nt AK. Hay (eg li 1978, 1988) Over he yas, Halla hs had a gat influence on both wot tcapmtnd stool inguge fatn, and Syei-cnal aes Erg grammar hve aeady proved ses ery wel ia bet sf appatons aging fom mulling! ext genern by compet {gr Berane 191) wth develope offi langage ese (5, Marin 993; Chie a 1992; Retry 1964 so 193) sams ly that wrk coming fom hi adson wl havea ening ein all aes of plo nisi, 1.3 Levels of analysis In syn bow guage wor ings fal hol recognize sever ‘iret eves of nly The following fae levee we we ally Prology Granmae Phonology rit th sand sytem of ata langng. shy ones oe more fia Yr prominin sok po Leas refers othe wort of gang, oughly oespnding the rere faire veal4 Furetoa!Engishgarimar Geamnar iets wo spss: (te arangenent of wea od (2) ‘acinomae of more, For example, a eters ich (2) Heiss heb nt of he cot ‘se may be intrested in how the wort combine 0 frm ang ere Th spert of gamma seal eld wate, However we ty alin Be esti the fat ha ewer cn cn ito "wo prs ke The ist pr spent an atonal he cond ‘ark ps ese. Th best of ara ale morphology The fs bck wl be primary e jz ater ta morn. ‘Seman ler tote sens of eating na ana, ores, ww setences rn tote el wei prope aos places, dso 08 “Tee aren lading lies herwen th or eee of phon ope grater nd seis ent nals wl mak the "Soin ferent aye Taking entra! ppoch ogra hi book Iseoncemed with mening oa ch est een tha oral speach right be In ike wor, tis took examines ress which some gam ‘arian igh fer wo del with separately oder te rub semantics. ‘And sinc ts Dok fuses on how parma cn exes ening aso Sri becomes Giftco em» ce Ie betwen uta ed leis te wore fc sometines put cae same eel an efere 10s lexeo grammar. 1.4 The organization of grammar ‘The crgeioton of grammar ive ca oo be comsidered Teo impecat once re eee forth nk ed le 1464 Rank ak rf oiferen levels of eznizaton whi grammar Conir the lowing evap (6) Ppl teow stoned “This sth f lnguage coms of ne een andthe word Sen- tence nd word sro ranks of arma gates which a ER Bish ae rcoaized in he wing sem, he omer By an ial apa ter na ulster il pctann a and ater by itspeech potsosnigforard However swe oe the ern Loe fre igh rank of gmat epniznn in bth pen tween Engh Some baste concepts Spas of Eps gencaly apc ovr toundines bewsen wont Moree tere my besome vation instemn aou whan snd band end For exp scl me non mond andr oc nonander? Lingus ata sone opie sig (echnical eval tm) wrt wring ths cee wos Fr eampl, brought wpa nthe Bont the gueston ft ct be stds oe ec item (cpr he aed he ution fo) Ho ‘Str fr present proses he te wad ly anders wl be sate Tsao neces to ecognize aks hence etn nd wor For ‘sane, compare allowing sctnce with sete Like number 3 (People throw stone) thse can be ayn shee ami. To of hese unts can be eared or expan single ‘ord nmr 3 (ol oe in pa tou(xpsion pol) {sh eo intron “Theseus arc grogps Note it on of te gop i) cone nly one word bat tis il aes fo 2 gow. That seers ens of es ous xh of which consi omer of meds ‘oot wy ong ss tt words ls wc ae em iso be grup and te hres ups eset which ae conrueto Sesenene Ths stow og ‘Tare pers of opmizaon can be ognized within te so ‘These wll del ih when tetera cares fe aon pera ‘roop ae cuained not sce 1 Tetpe my ak beeen fg nd wor. Is pom, howeve to resopie an addin ak ween group and settee. Tf tle, be fowing sees (5) Se es in ban ‘he wo unde uit ae sled late, This serene cos of| ‘to cases cach of which const of 9 nanbe fee which th Seles consist ur of wots sawn in Faure |The ed ‘ich i conjunction ad js ht clus, des 0 el bon fo ‘ite cse hog te coneninaly amped sn toying Sond ae “Tus he rales inthis book wl ake into aesnot or ras win sm word group, clase, a sentence2 2 2 2 ay BUOYS © Functonal Engen grammar ioe ‘ a once ah oe ab al a ee aT ei liege Figuee 12 Serene, group ad wort 142 Class ‘Tea ke noun (Nand verb (V) se anes ward class (ational loveseat) The worn soe Fan co. Ingo er ose Pete sow stnes ‘Tee same bets ae aso ue label i aes. Th nme «Psa wha vn glashousesis amour group NO) shawl ae 5 growp (60) Toor mr wor cass we adjective (Aad aver (Ad) tbe eco ntl senda beta gaps a se (0) We remit ee Some bas concepts 7 (0) sate am sey «aes ot la (ney et eee (ra Nowhere Not ht promis, iehas ie she, andi ees sasbexessny ofeaus 149 Phrases ‘Wher the tar gro hs en itd he, soe aime he sn pore for enue nus pri and acrid pra fxm 0) {tla rp Hower ats oo he ony ha fprse wh reconae the prepesona pre es: tinct xm Be ade etwas soup and pres. Asalleke ox af revinos samples of pou show rag su be agit fe 28°) = gay Banded wort-Aphase, fone smote lisa minsine Forecamles 7) Seog ce cnn et pig oedtyanacnragTie 7 | aun prog ncn as wht ner il Be el tee. Ste snyder ed te “eeiptton as ud te Be tt ig A peeostonl ps asa compare scare, witha prepsiton(& wed ke, fom, Behind in om thro ad abn ofa oes Prepon suchas non of nope of andy mean lowed y+ Dreposional objet Fer exams Pr pre sent on SS Eee8 Funaional Engigngrannar notes won he words loving prepstionsin repose pres se notespanson a he prepostians b ofrpons, epos> ‘onal plies ether quieren ana nases f roe ‘Noi, however, har prerosticanlphsesnnmsiy spt 3 he ie runcspoans We hol, sy soaking. rl ert geoup pease "ak ter tun fo pou ane ° 144 Embocding Ope of he oun group it uber 4 people wha ers nse — ‘stan itn it le lo lat hoes Catan of sn, ‘sere out isuasae conse fancier anatase eae ‘nk, ae hn a erbeing The sue who Uv mas hoes "hs sd obese! within fern gop pope wk fe lees houer rmbelsg wil becoaideed ina det nSetion 342 ‘ask a 1. Analyze ne lollowing santenees by Weniyng uses, groups 4nd pases, grang cases of embeds. 2 Labetno worgelatef each gro (Yours tnd itso look biek atthe ezanples enn Socien 142) 18 Mast probably me sudan wil Bs proc », Ini spinion the changes were made oa cy Ha opaned he aaa” ana sods rate al 1, Gotunus may net nave cscovered Amarce, bt his accom _lahmon'e brought te levi wos io 8 near 9, Altastar of ha weok, hepa er pesca concent tha spat wore gut igh ‘Alors ae cuneos or ancwored al he ad of eaen chapter. The ‘eadsr 6 advcod io do te tases ana oad the CeeuesionaUalrs continuing, 4.5. Meaning in grammar In onderta hak aout gama a resource skin and exchanging ‘essing i nscenay tele wat might be reat by meena Tess type of mening ita amenities cn een peerage mentary en Eee Some baci cancene 9 151 Sxperienta’ meaning a ea Come he ellowing exe (08 Pees 830, “he queion What doe hr sentence mean? might be answered by ceglsag wit tsb es abot or penn Pep) pertormng 20 [Nonna aed ata sein ine 2 30) Mei ine sese ‘Ekwowmas cperital reaning Exot esnng hae oot ‘ine anauge repscnts oregon (eal and eases) of te Snir eel arte ner wos of our taushes an eli Stork ie eoaeee whom we tl bot sto, Rapes Ing ble, stuatons state sd en he people aed igs oven ‘fos, and the ean erconmaners of ne, place, manne, Sod 9 om 152 Inerpersonal mesring “he ftoving serene ee alo possi: Serene fp and are sl aoa tt ne hing nuber I~ one oozing acon a9 ceri cimein th os Sa hy ve Men oxpealal eanngas mse (However yale ater pec of manning Shteote ohne the ikea st the event ook pace, whereas rumor Ia elon she ener 9 cont a deny a the ve: oo Pies The ean isanent ed ort tosetees ike ae 1308 fhe tn queion cdf eer co sree ke uber 1 (bese ‘Sie a farher considered in Seicn 91), ‘Srtzce Ibi stile Satene, i lavedes in he sentence a sseeomen byte speaker fhe Head ofthe even acl ns Nore Haan fb ter fom munber (and fom ex he in tes of tention een. aterpesonalceang bas odo ‘tint waysintsh we ac yon one sper hoshonnage {ec enquestngiforatn, ating pope d things defer 0 ‘ge aver and the sys inh we expen ou stent ad ‘Svecar~ abot ach hing st klbed neces and en 153 Tertual mecning ete chr may inc he expreial meating of uber I$ ul be oped foe ena Perera uy> 2 2 10. Function Engg ranmar (09 ©: Shes a0, (00) ras egy avd 838 Inaumter che rare of he perfor ofthe aan has ben ele by the pronoun se Te linen woul ped se 9 sone ‘stent (ea pceding setnce nicht Pe ifn fie at S}to know hose teste In number Ute expert conten hs bse eotzanied 40 tat tesa song ous on Peay Asin tener wuld pl ree some aspect othe conte assed ny as ste onsen Forevamp ste spear mg jr ad Ts a hice 51430 ois morgan 48s bia we 9 dey that tvs Ky sed fon tat ts aggy who ved 830 embers 1 and 14 ie om suner 14 an fon sch te in thereat mecnng. Textual meaning sto dove ways awe sth angie crane nrlaton conn Teva meng \ isSnpot in tees of eaberence in pen so rien Neatly every clase of Ealish smuluseoey expres tse te | wo or meting. Susur aps of taste wil ep he nical resources of Eels fr hs expression af sch seins 1.6 Grammatica functions nostro plore comson o mesg sfsyeiof gana stot, it ase onsen i ote Howe she word fancies been ed To 2 vay of ways gusts a Hnguge ecg nd snes oc nw ees ed ins bot * <2 "int apposite angng acing tend freon anuaze yo tssng ions wea eter igs sth aking fo isons “dessin lewd plas, tn set the ps oo ee © eds, Snes tr pole GOW apes sec ain i nn eT ioe OOP LOO OY ONO ED OO EO OE ON14 Functions Engish grammar aus which ack he fncion Finite Not that the ver form Vs =the ‘bse form the vet pls (eg, ok and iegulr for ike ad har) = iealvays Finite. A elas contining «Ve form wl erefore always bea Fite clause, fr example: (2 nob never irks when wei hep, (nm teeter tad he ver forms Ving (8 Being. having. a Kicking) andio Ve five eg 10 be 10 have thie) are asays noite “Therefore luce cotaaing vero group Dein wih these ors wil be monn clases, for example: (00) Wet li aps, he pag (01 te se wpe be ened wee lle “The form V (eg have and ic) ad, fer any verbs, the form Ved fad and ticked), maybe nie or noniste For example: on Tematectncata ees centen tnt (02) 4 Wat ey do ga gues Sa ere eosin? (03) Exloped ins Weer SESS) fo peobity nd veracity, bei ore (03) «Tey elogd hi as eb an veri Homever, some verb with imepula Fite Ved forms, sich as Brot, wrote tt, was, and were, ss have separate nti forms ymbalized Ver, Sch as baten writen, eaten, and been For exp: (04) Me Kot wis Se tor. (05) ter onto bese ex rity iss of Task 16 torn ne Sunjct ara me Fine of each tte cause inne fotow ing sentences. 4 Ancsrpn th am be ich isn iis Th i Vo fe Some basic concepts 15 1. dont know why he aways gets so angry about few students tating nas. 2, The ancwors given by the studonts have onthe whole been very gees. 23, Despite al our hard work, the project wl nt be tnished on time 44 The termtary In der to survive and prosper wil need poli! stabi. ‘5, Tor fs human, to forgive is - out ofthe queston. 6, The sidelathe enabiod machines of prciion fo be made, 7. Only Princess Diana's wodkng dress was awaited more inpa- ‘ity, greeted more enhusiasaly, and copied more siavishly than are new deas In psychology. 18, There are problems wit he etiication of tenal sueee. [ind Subject in ens: Many languages, anicularlyno-Indo-Eurpean languages, do not have a feplardsincson betwen Fite and pontine verb forme inthe wa) English does However, mastering the fncton of Sujet and Finite rm the begining i important for second language leamers Without sh istry they a likely to fave many problems wih basi etence ss ture whe formation of questions apd neptives and withthe making of | tees and of number gresmene Even fly advanced lames sometines use nonfiite vee group where a inte verb group is require, fr example (36 hve ite exes xe sometines I swineig with my ete Nott in tis example, he presence ofthe Subject in the Second ease requires the presence of Fine In eter wort, anoint else wit heiherSubjct nor Finite would be possible excep sometines Swimming ‘hy rather) te ase wr both actos (sep sometimes {esmimming wih my brother. ‘Problems wth number agremen can be paricuary persistent as inthe folowing rom an advanced lame: (07) 77ers rng te as quar oft year eve Ben 4a this example, the rolem no doubles in the entiation of imports rater han eel athe ead (ce the prt of he non eroup wich eter ‘ies th number green: Se Section 221) the noun group which = Funconing as Subject. Such lack of Sobjec-Finte agreement i que common i native speaker speck and in many esses would hardly be16 Functional Engteh grammar sotied. However, informal writen English such Ick of agreement is Teparded a uraccepabe ‘Questions for discussion + How usetl do you think tie for earners of Engish to have some fxplot knowiedge ofthe functions of Subject and Fite? How ‘might this knowedge be developed? «+ How can intermediate or savances learners who sil make fe ‘quent agreement errs in har wtten work be heped to develop ‘ettecing eit inthis area? 1.62 More functions: Object, Complement, Ajunct, and Predieator Subject and Finite are just wo functions hat cn be dete in clans. In urbe 15 (ke alk movement of ts el the sea-serpet would oer rn king boat) the seserpent wae eid as Saber and would as ine. Tw ete fantionl continent canbe set in his clase — Sn Objetfohing Boats ad an Adumet ith a guick movement of ts ‘Onecs normaly follow te Fine and he est of the verb group. Like subjects, they ae pclly realized by noun groups. A characteristic of Onset ty can orally become the Subjects of related passive ‘oie canes a inthe pasve voce version of number 1S (18) «hing at won Be ovr byte sen seet Some clauses may have two Objects — an Indirect Object (10) and Direct Object (DO), Telnet Object precedes te Direct Objet. Both ‘Objects can usualy become Subjects of elated passive voice clases, or camel (0) ive Yu yourpner {38 2 Yu wil be even your oper {08 & You paper wi bee you omever, clauses wich have inking verb ike be ok and have, dono fave Objects They have what re called Complement (09) Most wes were “gone ‘Some basic concapts 17 (ao) “You” look “Soya (41) Thon nasa tine Norman har Coren ea be rized by ntun rou, smiles, active rups, and peeposional pases The various kinds f Complement vl Seenpored ia Chapter 7 ‘Adjunct are tpily realized ty prepositional phrases or adver soups. They canter fiction as Subjects ad it soften possible 1 omit {her without making he lnuseungramanatcal (0s wok a quck movement (oft tall oul be oie fom number 15) “The only contin fhe cle ember 15 for which fnction has ot eben ntfs the word vera The abl for ti constitnt it Predictor The Predictor is everything inthe ver group excep the Fite: nother words, a pontine ver group such shaving been examined onsite ony of Predator wherea fine verb proup sich sha eon ‘tamined consists of & Finite (has) and a Predictor (Geen examined), ‘Sometimes a Finite verb group consis of only one word as in they exam dined he objec arly ts case, the single Word examined elzes both Fine and Predator functions Task 16 1. Ident all be Adjunct inthis sentence trom Extract 3° ‘Aer a wid youth, he emaced the way of ascetic, became a begging ‘monk clod Boa Ohsma and wert Crna sta Buda missony, ‘owing newt shoep penance fr wis night of dobaochery. 2. What kine of experiatal meanings are expressed by the Ad: Junets in this sentence? ‘3. Which verb groupe inthe gontence consist enyof a Predieator? ‘Summary |, Forma nd fnctiol prenatal nays fer int approaches tnd assumptions. Formal analysis tends to be primarily iteresed in Interested in meaning and conte. Functional tae tendo view Tangurge ar communicative resource anda be primar interested ia tow hnguisiesrctirer expres meaning. Sie aren18 Functona Engish grammar 2. Four levels flings analysis an be iene: semantics (mean- ing), gammar (he arangement of wore and word shape) uso ‘tbuliy), and phonology (renunciation 1, Within grammar sel, ou aks of ergaizton canbe recognized: sentence, clase, rupee and Word 4 Riproup can be hough of aan expanded word. A pre has 2 5. Embedding kes lace when uni fone fn usedas continent thin anor ua these o a Tower rake 6, The major word elses are nous, vb, adjectives and adver 1. Neary every cause expose three Kinds of esing:experenti ‘meaning wich sconcemed with he represetaion a ou experince ‘tthe world and of the foes word of ou thoughts and feelings, Inerpersonal meaning, which congemed with langage as iter thon andthe expression of judgments ad attades; pd textual meat Ing, which ongeies the former So kinds of meaning it cert 1. Five causevan prammatcal functions are Subject, Fite, Preicatr, Object Adjunct 9, Subjects normally precede te Fite in delartiv clases and deter rie the peron and numberof the Fite (f marke). Sbjct re "ypc reatied by noun pops 10 Fits ae normally marked Tor tense ad may be marked fo umber ‘agresmen (agreeing with he person an numberof the Sued) 11, Predicmor Factions ele by everything inthe ve grow except 12, Objects ypclly follow the Fite and Predicate in declarative clauses. A eonstuer functioning as Object in an aetive clause can normaly become the Sujet of related passive laze. Objet re ‘pally realiaed by noun soups 15, Adjunct are addon constituents tat cannot Become Subjects of felted elses and can often be omited. Adjunct re ypcly ral "Be by adver group and peepstionsl phrase Key terms introduced Tai tat Atematiee ted in the fd ctve ‘ance sometines divided nto Adjunct, Conjunc, ‘ Disney adverbial, sve la ar of secech Complement Die Object, embedding Finite {sma grammae fcr fal ganar eunmar op ir Objet epee! mening iene Ta amber arent Opt Phonon pene Fredor Prepositions Object, repostiona pase ak Subject tex meaning ve word ‘Some basic concapts 19 (his erm sometines covers Direct Obie, Indiret Object, ad Complement) complement ‘elvan fr enbeding ffi clases oat Propostions,ideatona (his ater tm in: ‘lds Toil meaning swell ac experien- ‘ial esning) frit vers fe sexta Phrase (sed oe bts eroup and phase) forsee oan clases Paria pease, ifniive phrase Complement Prada smeines refers tthe eneton of the whole verb gop, icluting the Fine eposional complement tno complex ‘Pragmatic funtion (is tem it eometimes ‘exended to cover interpre! mesnings)