Thermal Conductivity Materials conduct heat energy, by means of the molecular vibrations and mobile electrons. The temperature decrease along an insulated rod at the steady state is uniform and it is different from the temperature decrease along the rod, when it is!thermal contact with the environment. Steady state When one end of an insulated rod, is heated, the temperature all along the entire length of the tod increases, but in diffe }t quanti ‘ies, The 9 posite, end, sn ever reach at the same temperature of the heated aa, Wh fitn the heat sup aay to the heat dissipation from the opposite end, the rod has reached its steady state, there the temperature at different positions of the rod, remain at their respective constantvalues, over a period o of times, | heat lest Cohen ye calls) meyer ase dm ‘The side walls of an insulated rod do not transfer heat to the environment. Heat is transferred only from the opposite face. This is different, when the rod is not being insulated. Then the rate of heat loss is greater than in the previous case. And therefore, the 8 vs d graph shows a decreasing gradient. ee adie’ At the steady state the temperaturé of the complete rod will be the same.tate For applications of thermal conductivity, where we need to determine the(@mount)of heat energy conduction, the steady state of an insulated conductor is considered. Temperature Gradient G () a Q, 8 > 8 <—41—> > 62_ 88 oa aq. a S= _, Rate of change of temperature The gradient of the graph temperature vs distance, at steady state is a constant and is called the temperature gradient. It denotes the change of temperature with respect to the length of the thermal conductor. ‘The rate of heat transfer along an insulated rod at the steady state is proportional to its niform cross-sectional area (A), and the temperature gradient. The proportionality constant used here is called the thermal conductivity. e Where; a @= the amount of heat flow aaa +, =time taken a at a = Rate of heat flow ' =KAT £ dg a ae ‘A=cross -sectional area of the rod k= thermal conductivity s “2 Gaetd= temperature gradient sa 1= length of the conducting rod . Upbherence between 0, — 62 = Temperatures of 2 opposite faces ie conductivity ie . at the hotter Him Bee temp. ot the 2 opposite end: -1 Ww kK : 38 end1) The thermal conductivity does not depend on the rate of heakflow, area, length, temperature gradient of the conductor. It is a characteristic value for a given material, which only depends on its atomic nature. The thermal conductivity is defined as the rate of heat flow through a unit cross-section, of an insulated conductor, at steady state, under a unit temperature gradient. Good thermal conductors have larger values of thermal conductivity. da _ KA da -» ioe eA al dE dL - Substance Thermal conductivity /Wm" K" Silver 428 Copper a 401 a ‘Aluminium 235 Iron 75 Steel 45 Stain less steel 14 Glass or Ha(g) 1.18 Rubber 0.19 Fiber glass 0.048 Dry air 0.026 Polythene 024 ‘A metal rod of uniform cross-section and of length Im is well insulated and the 2 ends are maintained at 0°C and 100°C. Find the temperature at the middle of the rod and 20cm distance from each end. YoIR Where: @ = electrical conductivity R=V/ : R=plA “= potential gradient = Heat / time charge / timeAnalogy between rate of heat flocs through a thermal SOZAVA Conductor and rate of charge. R=KA! Flood Ccurrent ) through a (metal) conductor. 2) The temperature of either sides of a closed window is 30°C and 20°C. The area of the window is 0.4m? and its thickness is 2mm. The rate of heat energy flow into the room from outside through the window is 120kImin". Work out the thermal conductivity of glass. A simple activity to compare thermal conductivities. Four metal rods of equal lengths and diameters are immersed in a boiling water bath. All the rods are coated with wax beforehand. After a certain time interval the length of melted wax is different in all 4 rods Cu, having the highest thermal conductivity, transfers heat efficiently along its length. And you would observe wax is melted for a longer distance on the surface of the Cu rod, the melting of wax shows the heat transfer and the corresponding temperature increment qualitatively. 100°C boiling water bath al’s Apparatus, to determine the ‘Thermal conductivity of a metal, ——# (PTO) 40A uniform metal rod, of about 20cm length and diameter 4cm is well insulated with one end connected to a steam chamber, which is also insulated. The steam at 100°C is sent into the chamber, and it releases the latent heat to the end of the rod, and is coming out in water droplets at 100°C. In our calculations, we assume, only the latent heat of steam is transferred to the metal rod. The cross section of the rod can be calculated by measuring its diameter, before the rod is inserted into the’ f the measured diameter of the rod is d, the average cross- sectional area A, of the rod. A=nr2 ann() at steady state. ‘The temperature gradient is the same all along the length of the ro lod Garde # Therefore, 2 thermometers are immersed in small eaviied itn the rod; With a measurable gap, around 10cm. temperature gradient = aa 0, > 82 At steady state, the temperature gradient remains constant over the length of the rod, over a period of time. ay aL Pcm ON ‘L Ce ya y) Ls tS L___,s(em) In that case, even if you change the position of the thermometers, T; and T2 in contact with the rod, the temperature gradient should remain the "But the reading 8, 6: and! may differ, But still their ration is the same. Even if you increase the gap between the thermometers the differenteof their reading 0, — 6, increases, but the gap {too increases, maintaining the temperature gradient a constant.Ifthe 2 thermometers are kept too closer, the difference between their readings may not be a ae - ‘ measurable one. Though the ¢ still remains the same. Rate of temperature increase at steady state. a4 ies" Bl Pes" Is t/s ae fom temperature °C 4 At steady state. ToT 1; Ts, Ty 10°C Ms pian oc Fey errs FS theme fe time the thermometer reading don't fluctuate over a period of under a constant temperature gradient. If the rod is not being insulated; If both ends are kept at the room temperature in a non-insulated rod, all the thermometers would indicate the same reading, which is nearly equal to the room temperature. ofc Teo Ty. Ty Te My Ty 1007 time /sthe heat energy of the rod which is at steady state is transferred to the circulating water, through the Cu tube. The transferring of heat may not bé 100% efficient. But we assume that the rate of heat transfer from the metal rod is equal to the rate of heat absorption by water. The water should be circulated from a lower temperature, towards a higher. Then it continuously absorbs heat, while circulating. If the direction of water circulation is reversed, that is, water is flowing from a higher temperature to a lower, water tends to release its already absorbed heat energy from the rod, in the colder region. To have a noticeable temperature difference, that is @:~ 04, the rate of water flow through the Cu tube should be smaller. Since only a constant amount of heat is received at the opposite end of the rod, for a given time interval Experimental Procedure Set the constant pressure head, until it outputs water at a suitable constant rate. Connect the steam generator. Circulate water through the Cu tube Wait until the 4 thermometer show non-fluctuatini has arrived , that is the rate of heat transfer through any cross-section of the rod is equal to the eading S =", which indicates that the steady state rate of heat absorption of circulating water. dhe mass of : be hr Measurg,a df) container and collect the water coming out from the Cu rod for a certain period of time. eg: 10 min and measure the container with water. The difference gives mass of water circulated, within the given. time.If the rate of water circulation is known in advance, only the time interval (¢) is measured to find the total mass of water circulated ‘Throughout the time interval (t), the four thermometer readings should remain steady. ‘The diameter of the rod is measured, using a micrometer screw guage. KA (i= 02) ms (6, 6) 1. i) Inan experiment to determine the K of a metal, water is circulated at a constant rate of 0.01kgs'', . refers under a temperature difference 20°C. 2 thermo, immersed at 0.1m gap within the rod show 80°C and 40°C. The diameter of the rod was obtained 0.7m. S.H.C of water 4200Jkg"! K". Find K. i) If the rod is in thermal contact with steam, find the gap between the hot ©”“of the rod and the thermometer which reads 80°C. What mass of steam is condensed within a period of 10min? The steam condenses and gives out its latent heat to the rod, «. rate of condensation of steam is equal to the rate of heat flow to the rod and the rate of heat absorption by the water circulating in the Cu rod at steady state inside an insulated system. A metal rod of thermal conductivity 200WK"! m" and of uniform diameter 0.07m is at steady state, in gn insulated system, connected to a steam clffnber. 2 thermometers, are immersed at "tn gap at any 2 different points along its length. °”©-~ reads 80°C, and the other, which farther, reads 8. Heat is supplied by steam at a constant rate of 1000W. i) Work out the rate of condensation of steam in 10min? 0.265 fy ii) Work out 9 67°C The constant pressure head connected at the opposite end supplies water to circulate at a constant meters inlet e, = rate the 2 thermo, fixed af the A and the a of the Cu tube en 20°C and respectively + fs 5 “ loos rate. of er ihre ugh 4 S.H.C.0f 4200 Jkg'K? Find the mass F once eae ech (19957) 1 Determination of thermal conductivity of a Insulating Material (eg: Rubber or wood) Insulators conduct thermal energy a little, but the rate of heat flow is not uniform along a considerable length, at the steady state. Therefore, the transfer of heat energy is considered uniform, ‘across a very small distance eg: thickness of a rubber tube and thickness of a wooden disk. In experiments, we assume the insulators (poor thermal conductors) obey the equation Bora se + ah 44cea ; and external dismeter A. mnsider a rubber tube of internal diameter dp. The thickness of the wall of the rubber tube would be, $-B4n-n) Cah) eg ay da St 2 Then the thickness is the difference between the external and internal radii of the rubber tube. Heat is made to flow through the rubber tube's wall and the temperature gradient is obtained by sending steam through the rubber tube for a considerable period of time. This method is more effective than sending hot water, as steam contains more heat energy. Temperature of the inner surface of the rubber tube is assumed to be the temperature of the steam. And that of the outer surface is measured Wmmersin, . by SE "the rubber tube in a water bath, Ae aa cuter roll — om Fanererey d- thickness of the rubber tube — > steam — > t a —————— Y * Q, a a) tr a Disk method - To determine the @, bottom thermal conductivity of wood : : | > x | Xx seo / x ©8Osde x The Readings a 7 1. the mass of the dry empty calorimeter (mo) Mass of the calorimeter with water (1, ) Mass of water in the calorimeter (m, - mo) Initial temperature of the system (01) Final temperature (@:) Length of the rubber tube immerse in water External and internal diameters otibe they tube. (dy Id, ) NO yVeP epge Before immersing the rubber tube, send steam through it for a considerable period of time and then immerse the rubber tube and continue sending steam. Maximum, amount of rubber tube is immersed in water to increase the surface area of heat transmission. The temperature difference between the inner and outer walls of the rubber tube = (2) - 100 Area h tothe heat flow = 2nrl =n Ot | =m +m)! Rate of heat absorption by the calorimeter and water is equal to the rate of heat released through the wall of the rubber tube. varies From a, to @, O2~ 03 Behaviour of Gases * ‘The gases do not have a constant volume or density. That is because the gas molecules constantly move about, making frequent collisions with the other molecules,. as their inter-molecular interactions are very poor. The pressure, volume and temperature are -""** =P" arameters, which can be measured, and the no.of molecules, average molecular mass, velocity of a gas molecules are microscopic variables which cannot be directly measured. ‘And the study of the behaviour of gases, that is, how the pressure, volume and temperature vary w.r.t each other is carried out under certain assumptions. A gas which satisfies the following conditions is called an ideal gas, and at very low pressures and high temperatures, real. gases almost behave AL very ow’ pressures’ andthigh temperaiures, realy gases almost: behave. ideally.1) No interaction between gas molecules. 2) Collisions between gas molecules are perfectly clastic, 3) Collisions between gas molecules and the container are perfectly elastic. 4) the volume of the gas molecules is negligible compared to that of the container. ast aoe Re te, 7S —a_, a NV const: 1) Boyk's law =P a4 P=kKV PV=k PLV) = PAV2 2Charle’s law =VaT V=kT wT=k 2=2 3) Pressurelaw =PaT P=KT P/T=K Bea Be Th inversely (1) For a fixe d mass of a gas under constant temperature, pressure varies(indirectly)proportional pio the wonane} (2) Fora fixed mass of a gas under constant pressure, the volume ve directly proportional to the absolute temperature of the gas sample. (3) For a fixed mass of a gas under constant volume, the pressure varies directly proportional to the absolute temperature of the gas sample. A ‘ fe Vv + PV4g leg P Pe legv vy p evek 7, Ty eay logPV= teyk Aey P+ deg = beyk 7 Eee 5 4 log P= deyk ~ beg 47 e v dey p= Lag V4 deg K Yer mae?Since PV =k, k only depends on mass and temperature the gradient of the graph p Ws I/v gives the constant k. k is higher at higher temperatures, and therefore the slope of the graph is steeper for higher temperatures. fC mpm eat at constant temp: Ma © veK ; Vv Top KLgt arson) VOT O 3S tc) -27Bus © ae PCa) 2 TE) ea@ — esas Boyle's Pi Vr=P2V! yi =m Po Pim. wh Pao Tae Pa vs Pave et The combined effect of the 3 parameters related to a gas is shown here. The mass is kept constant and p,V, and T are changed simultaneously. Still you have the same value for the ratio 5, given the gas sample begaves ideally.Py k 7 - a2 3 ~1 “ oem vn i units [k]= 225" = Nmk! Ny xm” 2 Nm K | K | % =k (boyle's \ & =k (boyle’s law) | | @Y =k (Cuarles law) | zr Bob 1/2 | 22) = (pressure law) ented j i esos 20g I deal G as Equation | 69 ace Py = -Ba8 Ox00 \ + 7k | PV =kT es Bg aga —a{-_ ESE 2- 2], | Y } PV=RT for | mol of gas { pV=nRT_ |fora gas sample with n no. of moles. Where ; P= pressure (pa, Nm?) V =volume (m°) n= no of moles (mol) ‘T= absolute temperature (Kk). K R= Universal gas constant: R=8314 Jmol! k? (per mele) Let r be the gas constant per kilogram. Then, um, nR= mer ™ nR=mr m Ramer mM R _ y, «depends on PVemr T ow the type of Py- Rt Gas: Risa constant for | mol of any type of a gas anywhere in the universe, at any temperature. But r depends on the molecular weight (type of the gas) mot kg"! k'! x 10% Kk! kg Ra 8-34 Tet KR! 49Dalton's Faw of partial pressures. v We PP + + Pu I 2 ment Pressure in a container is the sum of the partial pressures of the gases that occupy the container. “ ‘aseous pressure According to the kinetic theory of gases, the gas molecules collide with the walls of the container to ~ -tally elastically- 1@- Kinetié energy and momentum change exerted by the gas molecules perpendicular to the wall of the container. The rate of change of momentum produces a normal force which produces the pressure on the gas by the walls of the container. This happens due to Newton's yn law. When the gas molecules exert an equal pressure on the walls of the container. action reac momentum change along { J mV sin 6-mv sind = 0 momentum change along <—> <— = <_ mV sin @ — mv sin6 = 2mvsin@ Fie DIY —» PE \ ot Mean (Average) speed Gas molecules in the container may have different velocities. with different magnitudes and directions. Irrespective of the directions, we can consider an average speed. Vat Vato Ve “LY Cog or Dy -. steve 50When the velocities of gas molecules are squared, the effect of their directions is not considered. The total of all the square velocities divided by all the no. of gas molecules gives the mean square velocity. Gen SVE HVE VB tot ve = vi + vEeve + 7 Cove # Cons Cave < Crms Kinetic Equation ‘Where : P- Pressure of the gas sample PV==mNC? -V -volume of the gas sample m= mass of “Je gas qaolecule. bar. N-no. of molecules of gas PV=nRT RT = 4mNC? at 1 ‘C2 - mean square velocity pv=3mN mass of one mN = total mass Pris _ reot mean | ioe gas wolecule Gguare a & ‘The root mean square velocity of a gas sample is proportional to the square root of its absolute temperature. i -1)2 pv=imNC? Kg mst nee, woe ges kg (ms")?= kg (ms) “The pressure or density of a gas shows no effect on the root mean square velocity when they are considered individually‘The ratio P [P together determines the cps. i.e. If we try to increase the pressure of a gas sample by compressing it definitely the density increases and the ratio P/P is maintained constant, provided no temperature changes occur. The speed of gas molecules affects the propagation of sound waves by means of compressions a wand 7 rel and rarefactions. Therefore, Cis and the speed of “"*: waves on a particular gas lies within a normal range. = yiNC? Lone Pv == NING? 5 mN = Me Total mass = Pv=iMC? . KE. mean =$MC? (M= welar mass) Within Imol of a gas, there is an Avogadro no. of molecules. Na= 6.023 x 10? [All the molecules may not posses the same K.E. energy as they've different individual velocities. Therefore the total K.E. for Imol of a gas is expressed in terms of the mean square velocity. On increasing temperature, all the gas molecules in the sample increases their K.E. aa a 3kT Ce aT 23FT 2 K. Emean= 5% QM sar KE wean = Gu E, aT R_ 2K (Boltzmann constant) is = Na Ly rasxio? SK 52Max well's Distribution of Molecular speeds. On the basis of statistical medians, JamesClark Maxwell showed that the actual distribution of _ molecular speeds with in a sample of gas varies as depicted below with the temperature. 1x105(Wm? um?) —~—_ ve 240 Am a car) The peak of the >is the most probable speed. i.e. the speed at which most no. of molecules posses. A molecule selected at random is most likely to have the above speed. Since the curve is not symmetrical, the average speed of the molecules is not equal to the most probable speed. The area under the curve gives the total no.of molecules in the gas sample. + As the temperature increases the curve flattens and the peak more to higher speeds still the area under the curve remains the same. Thermodynamics The heat energy exchanged between the system and the surrounding through a boundary, is quantitatively analyzed. A system may posses many thermodynamic properties. eg: pressure volume temperature A (am).A thermodynamic property is a physical quantity which varies on the energy transfer in the form of heat and work between the system and the surrounding, Work done in a thermodynamic process Consider a cylinder in which a constant volume of air is trapped at pressure P and temperature T using a piston. If we slowly push a piston inwards a very infinite distance Al such that the pressure remains a constant. aL The work done by the external: agent will be considered negative. If the air inside the cylinder expands by itself, the work done is considered positive. Ty AV =Vf—-Vi PV i Yom vi Mott Av 4) as PAV = (+) ged Work is done by the system (system expands) Internal Energy ‘The gas molecules in a container posses translational K.E. vibrational K.E, rotational K.E. Due to the intermolecular interactions, potential energy component is present. In gaseous state, the K.E. is more prominent. In solids, the potential energy sored in system cannot dirctly be measured, Iteral energy changes with temperature 2d ionally. ‘Therefore change of internal energy can be measured only with respect to the femperature change. 54