GOCE. (AM Physics Resource Book - Unit 02 Unit 2 Mechanics 33GOB (AL Physion | Kinematics “How fh instance, Abody moves ata certain intinee is denerihed ay He yelowiy of hy Definition of velocity Velocity is the rate of change of displacement of'a body in a exrtain direction Usual symbols used (o express velocity is wand u by the definition chang if disp dine ment velocity = © Velocity is a vector quantity and thus has ai associated direvtion © Slunitofvelocity ismy!, Relative motion Example 1 Suppose two motor ears travel along the same direction one Followed Iny the cathe, with spre of 100 km h!, A policeman standing on the side of'the road ¢ twots their speeds as 100 kan bby the speed gun, But (o one driver, the ather seem to be Stationury, ‘This shows that the velocity ofan ‘object depends on the “rel erenwe 0 fhame” of ywhowyver is obyery) ormeasuring the velocity, Ineveryday life this reference frame is considered the ground For example the police officer detected the Speeds of the I MOLON CAPS as he ys wl rest, Hut he would detect the speed incorrectly if he Was moving while detey ling the spexed Example 2 A passenger inside a moyi ict opposite diteetion to his ence Sbvervex that 9 on the ground moveu with aeloityi rclave tthe fue oftoeae a in equal Magnitude, Even though the ‘wee i etna hy at v0! Betsey ihe Herene Ne round, It Han Velocity relative ty the frame of reference ‘The actual velocity of, ‘an, aaa hject that i its velocity relive uo the ty ‘arth Gan be indicated Iyy, Ve "8 the Velocity of indicated as, y, "MEOH! Arotative tothe frame ot reFence ofthe whet Ihcan MBOK (el Ayn Resource Bovk - Unit -02 The relationship between the velocities relative to different frames of reference can be obtained as shown by the following example, Take Aand Bas two bodies moving with uniform velocities the Barth heading in the same direction along the same path they simultaneously pass the same point X with the uniform velocities ¥,, and v, (if Velocity of B, ‘That is, relative to B (oras seen by B) during a time “s’, Ahas displaced by anamount As, As =(5,-5,) 4s_G-s) Peet ah Yan = “Ms— Yar (As the velocities of A and B relative to the Earth has been concemed, v,=v,,.and vy 35Resource Book - Unit 43 ‘Since by properties of vectors, Vee Sl ves ‘Hence the relationship can be written as, ‘This shows that the velocity of one body relative to another can be expressed with their respective velocities relative toa third frame of reference. Worked examples 1. __ Amotorboat (B) speeds ata velocity of 60 km h* towards North. steady wind (W) blows from the North at a velocity of 40 kmh", Find the velocity of the wind felt by a passenger in the boat. Answer: Vax =607 wherethen ye, = 604 (E represents the Earth) Yue = 404 Yue =Ywet Yee = 401 +601 =(40+60)) =100kmh? L 2 —_ Amotoreycle(M)travels ata velocity of 100 km h* along a straight road. As it passes police car(C), the car begins to chase it ata : hi i of 10km hi. f de eropee iaiee apse ea a km h'!, Find the velocity ©! Nae = 160km te! Yen = 110 kmh" and verti oe GCE awhBCR COL Payne Heswnpve Bowk Unit a2 a Atrain (P) of length 180m travels ita ateaight track ala constant speed of Tk Wh A 110 the rail track, at a eoraitant ayotor car (NU) travels along a straight road olowe nnd pi speed of 8S kin ht! in the same 9, Hine the ti lnken by the rrieiarist (6 lirection aw the pass the train, Answer Ven 70 and Vay = 70 Yao * aS kmb! aur Yun Vow Maur 8S +70 85-70 ¥ 15 kmh! displacement As, velocity i ime 1, [SOx 10" 15 kn b= kn t f= 10h ' 3600 s Applications 1. Ttis observed that the sun mowes around the the Barth that moves (spins) about its axis, rth every day, But in the actual motion itis 2. When raining, the rain drops tall vertically downwards due to gravity, in still ait, Buta person inside moving train will observe the rain fill atan angle, Rectilinear motion under constant acceleration Graphs of motion Properties such as displacement, velocity or acceleration can be used to describe a rectilinear motion of a body, where, vwipolty = A disploement Acme ‘i A velocity Atime aTResource Book - nis 4, GCE. (AL) Physics Gag: Displacement - time graph ‘When the displacement ofa body moving inacertain 5 direction is plotted against time,the displacement (s)- time (/) graphs can be obtained. Ss, Ifthe graph of displacement (s)- time (1) is astraight line, 8; gradient = tan@ ' ' ' gradient = 1 " (0,0) 1 Ef as Figure |.2 gradient = — Ar gradient Lo f the body’ This shows that if the graph of displacement vs, time (é) is a straight line, then the described motion is a“uniform velocity”. Shown below are the successive positions of a vertically projected ball, when photographed during its motion under gravity, in equal periods of time, sia itis clear that when moving upwards its isplacement decreases and when moving oO oO downwords displacement increases, O, jO ole Q Q The shots are captured within equal time intervals ee ifits displacement is plotted against time, Staph will be as shown in Figure 1,4. Figure 13GCE (A/L) Physics Resource Book - Unit (0,0) Figure 1.4 t e Itisclearthatthe ball does not travel with a uniform velocity and hence the graph is non-linear. * When considering the two points X and Y on the graph, the velocity of the ball at these two instances will be given by the gradients of the tangents drawn to the graph at the point X and ¥, where, (gradient), = S- (velocity) , (gradient), = oe (velocity) , Since, (gradient ) > (gradient), (velocity), > (velocity) , That is, the ball has travelled with a decreasing velocity, or with a “deceleration” vertically up wards. At the maximum height at the point Z, (gradient) = 9 Therefore, then the body has attained a zero velocity inthe vertical direction. wGCE. (A/L) Physics Resource Similarly, if'a motion is represented as follows, GCE (AL) 5 Q) ifth Ag = At i Ay v= v yy " itis clear that v, - deceleration or(-) ‘acceleration (@5 gradient decreases) G) BtoC= remains at rest (45 gradient = zero) (4) CtoD:-atC body tums back and ‘he gradients (-\ve and ts magni G)DtoE * deceleration (ag the m; (6) EtoF:-remain atrest (as grad Moves with an. acceleration in th tude is increasing]. ‘agnitude of gradient decreases) ient = zero) 42 ¢ (-) ve direction [asGGE, (AL) Physics Resource Book « 2, Consider the motion represented by the following velocity (v) - time (1) graph ¥, Describe the motion of the body between the following points (OWA QAwB @)BtC (4)CwD (3)DWE Answer: (1) OtoA- Starts the motion from rest and travels with a uniform acceleration (as gradient is constant and magnitude of velocity increases) Q) AwB- Uniform velocity (as the gradient is zero at acertain value of velocity) @) Bwc- Uniform deceleration and comes to rest at C (as the magnitude of velocity decreases and the gradient is constant). (4)CwD- ‘Starting from rest body moves in opposite to initial direction with a uniform: acceleration (as the magnitude of velocity increases and velocity is ‘expressed as negative and gradient is constant) 6) DwE- Body moves with a uniform deceleration in a direction opposite tothe initial direction and comes to rest at E (as the magnitude of velocity decreases and velocity values are expressed as negative and also the gradient is constant), 3. Arubber ball is thrown vertically upwards under gravity with a velocity of 40 m s* When it returns to the level of projection, it collides with a horizontal surfisce and rebounds with a velocity half of the velocity of collision. (1) Draw the displacements) - time (f) graph and velocity (v) «time (8), graph to express the motion described above, (2) (a) Determine time between the starting moment and the first collision (b) Determine the maximum height that by the ball reached, 43Answer: (1) When the ball is thrown up against gravity, itmoves upwards with 2 untiomm cs 10:ms? (g), then reaches the maximum height and then fall along the same ine = ms?(g)andwill direction with an equal magnitude of acceleration of 10 velocity of projection level of projection with a velocity 40 ms‘ (equal to Displacement - time graph Velocity vs. time graph @ © Bethe gradient of v-+ graph Sradient = acceleration ine et ee t= ti W= 4s *. time for |* ¢, tone =F 44Resource Book «Unit 02 GCE_(A/L) Physics (by by the area (4) of the graph area=displacement =H, Equations of motion ‘The relationships between the physical properties that describe a particular motion ofa body are called equations of motion. Ifthe initial velocity of a body is ‘v’, and if this body moves along a straight line with a uniform acceleration ‘a’ fora period */’ and obtains a final velocity ‘v’ making a displacement *s', its motion can be expressed bya velocity vs. time graphs in Figure 1.9. ay By the gradient=acceleration = Me utat By the area = displacements) (=) ls = |——]r Jemeet2a| Hence by the above two equations. + i (ucos@, Since horizontally, Acceleration =0 v=utat ¥ Su0088 Horizontal component remains constant, In determining the velocity of the ball ata given time using vector addition, it is clearthat its trajectory is a parabola. Worked Examples 1. Abus stopped ata bus halt takes off obtaining a velocity of 72 kmh! during 10s. Then it travels with this obtained velocity for 10s and comes to rest at another halt during another 5s, Ifall accelerations and decelerations are uniform, determine the acceleration, deceleration, total distance between the two bus halts and the average velocity of the bus. 47Resource Book - Unis yy ee Answer 1000 5 1 oe ——=2 x—=20ms 72 km hy 72% 0 “TR Tfaeceleration is “a Displacement during acceleration W ) s=|-—|t veutat ( 2 0+20 *20=0+a, x10 Berg a=2ms* 5, =100 m Displacement during uniform velocity “) se it ( 2 0 +20 et) 10=200m 3 a Deceeleration Displacement during deceleration (: =) veutat s- (4) 2 0=20-a, x 5 a,=4ms? 5 5-50 Total displacement = 100+ 200 + 50=350m 3 distance between the two bus halts = 350 m Average velocity = 10! Displacement Total time -—350__ 350 ; (lO+10+5) 95 "4m" 9 Whi ctocatcnnis sitbsmeioe 25 em ee ‘thigh- rise building. Itreaches the grown resistance is negligible and ball moves pore intlek speed of 16 ms". [fait (1) The height wo the child from the ground (2) The heigh the ball reaches after the rebounce 48GCE (AAS Physics. (3) The total time of flight of the ball between the first and the second collisions with the ground, Answers: (1) From the release, until ithits ground, by? =u + Jas (Q5P=O0+2xg%4 h= asia m 20 (2) Afterrebounce until itreaches the maximum height (A...) ty 0 =16'+2xexh *+2as 25 6 hiny’= Fy = 12-8 m (3) Between the 1*and2collisions, 1 s =u + =ar 3 1 “a O=16 = t+— - +3 (ae = 0=(32-gi)t “f= Oor(32—g/) = 0 butt 4#0..¢= 32s 3, Aman skiing on ice slides down alonga banked cliff of angle of inclination 30° to the horizontal, If the surface has negligible friction determine, (1) The time taken and distance he travels when his speed increases from 5 ms” to 10ms". (2) The distance he will travel thereafter, during an equal period of time which you have got. as an answer in(1} above. Answers : Q)) “a= gsin30"= 5 ms" veutar 10=5+ Se te=ls 49——— beforecollision 4 _ 4, Oo © +— aftercollision = —+» ¥; Oo - © Figure 3.2 According to principle of conservation of linear momentum, momentum of the system before collision = momentum of the system after collision IM, Mtl = My, + MV, 62GCE (AL) Physicn Newton’s third law of motion you push on a wall, did you fall through the wall? You may say no, What Prevented you a ‘going through the wall? The wall pushes back on you with an equal ind oppo: the wall suddenly gives way, the push back on you is removes wall. ¢ force. If lowing you to fal nwards the jewton’s third law of motion When the objects interact (collide), they exert equal and ‘oppsite forces on com Applications of Newton’s laws ‘Worked examples: 1, An object of mass 20 kg is to be accelerated at 3 m s-2. What force is required? By Newton's second law, F=ma=20x3=60N 2. Acarofmass 1500 kg, travelling at 80 km fr’, is tobe stopped in 11 s. What forve is required? 80k he = 2041000 os 2a mg! 3600% The deceleration can be obtained fromequation vy su +r ByNewton’s second law, F=ma=1500 x (-2)=-3000N +, A force of 3000 N oppsite to the direction of velocity should be applied to stop the Car, © Aboxofmass 5 kg is pulled along ahorizontal floorbya force Pot 50, applied atan angle of 60" to the horizontal plane. A frictional force F' of 20 N acts parallel to the ' Calculate the acceleration of the box. 63Resource Book - Unit-02 GOCE, tA/L) Physics F =mato6kg mass 10—R =6x1 R=4N—e_- ao oe, 6 AS TLE TA put ower i mmioath pulley andl two rinmnoe of A hye ainel 6 ky ire atiached at the onde atthe siting 1 the mien are rolemwed fon tout, Cid the laitial acceleration at the tawwon and Hhetonalon of he tei (yo | TT lw the tonmion of the atetage ane a! inthe initial Lhe ma toOknsd oy Peta a) wodke, T Todo da (y equation (1) + equation (2) M14 a=02ge2me! From equation (2) i |e eT a PTeAxO2xg 4x =4ky @46N Self adjusting forces ‘Tension Consider piece of rope which is siretched along, Whal force prevents it from breaking’? Iisa force called tension, = +O Wigure 14 If this force is always acting in the roy has to be shrinked, Mut it does not happen. So this force appears only when itis stretched. When you pull the rope this force adjusts itsel to prevent the breakage of the rope, When you increase the pulling force the tension force alse will be increased, Since this tension force adjusts itwelf itis called asa “self-adjusting force". Teneion, thrust of compression and friction are self-adjusting forces ‘Thrust or compression This acts in a way of opposite to the tension, For example when you push a small piece of wood boy berth yenur hands a force of compression appears to prevent it {rom breaking.Resource Book - Unit -02 GCE. (AL) Physics, ven by itis also asel! “This force is changing itself to balance the external foree given by hands. So adjusting force: Eg ‘Thrust force acts. along the support to prevent the free from falling. Frictional force Friction isthe force that tries to stop materials sliding across each other. Frictional force prevents ‘oropposes relative motion, Microscopically all surfaces are rough, When such two surfaces placed in contact there willbe regions where the inegularities interlock , and points where hi [Pressure may result in temporary bonds, Anyattemptto slide the surfaces over one another will *eqqireaceriain amount of work tbe done iting and deforming the surface. This will require a force as the surface moves. In some circumstances friction is unwanted because it ‘wastes energy, However at some circumstances friction is useful. For example, braking a carare applied, friction between the wheels and the road surface is essential if the car is to be slowed down, Static friction Sometimes the force applied is nat la rge enough to overcome the fi i n. So, no movement takes place, though a force is applied, The fiction acting inthis situation ig called static friction. 66AML) Physics Sostatic friction acts between surfaces at rest when a force is applied to make one another, ‘Think of sliding a heavy case across a horizontal floor. Ifyou push it gently it doesn "timowe. Pash ita bit harder and it still doesn’t move. [in both cases the static fretional force has balanoest tty applied force. Static friction adjusts itself to equalize the applied force until the object st move. Limiting frictional force However, with enough force applied, the force of friction can be overcome ans! then takes place. The frictional force acting when the surfaces just beg called the limiting frictional force: Consider a case in which aman tries to push # heavy box on arous! e -- Figure 36 If we plot the frictional force against the applied force, the shape of Figure 3.7. the graph will be as showa in Appied force A Figure 37 Point ‘A’ indicates the instant at which the box just begins a2 thet stent io the en 3 . wstip over the surface. Sa the thction After point “A’ the box moves over the friction acting when the box is movi és ae Oe Momaas onan. The oTResource Rook = Unit? GCE. (AL) Physics ‘Although the frictional force between real surfaces will vary from one place to the next as the ‘local surface changes, itis possible to describe sliding friction by a fairly simple mule. This rule Jinks the normal foree between the two surfaces( that is how hard they are pressed together} to the frictional foree acting on them when they just begin to slip past one another(the limiting fiction) limiting friction between surfaces = normal contact force between surfaces FuR F=uR # is called the coefficient of static frietion and is roughly constant for a particular pair of ‘surfaces. Dynamic (or kinetic) friction The friction acting between two surfices as they slide over one another is called dynamic friction. Atthe instantthe surfaces just begin to slide the above relationship F = ju is valid and there the dynamic friction is equal to the limiting frictional force. ‘The dynamic friction acting on an object is also Proportional to the normal contact force between surfaces. If the dynamic friction is F and normal contact force is R, FoR Fl= aR i, is called the coefficient of dynamie friction According to the graph in Figure 3.7, F>E, HU, So, the coefficient of dynamic friction is always less than the Soeflicient of limiting friction, Worked example ) Amanis trying to push a packing case of weight 300 N across horizontal floor, Wh 'Sthe minimum horizontal force required to slide i, ifthe Sefitientoflicagisic between the case and the floor is 0.3 oe Toslide the case the applied force must just equal the limi F = pR =0.3x300=90N (i) Finally the man was able to Push the Pushing, he felt that the packing case is 87N force to maintain a constant velocit ig friction, packing case over the floor. When he started easily moving with less effort, He only needed ty: Calculate the Coefficient ofdynamic friction. 68Bat) Pyne Rewwmrye Mapd Unit a? Sine the man i maintaining a constant spect, the pushing free piven by the my ‘oquitl to the dynamic frictional fives, Let be the foree applied by the man and # be the dynamite trietional free » Es ma F=K=0 © Fek, Fawk 87 =, x300 M, 0.29 300GCE. (A) Phys —_ Equilibrium of Forces. eAOUnIN Of ot to be catlapsed under lay Thebridge in the Figured. 1 is bu 7 bydesigning each part of the bridge to be under equilibrium with heavy loads. Ses equililyri aan important role when building stable sin Conditions for Equilibrium, ‘igure 4.1 Asitis known, equilibrium is the state in which a body is.at rest without any Sr Totation when itisacted pon by assim of forex to, this Co happen, iis ¢ WhALOFY Motion thae th condition f i Fasyalernoft main fion for equilibrium ofa systemof forces i that when subjected to com should not SOMPOsitiON the gyster, reduce to a single force + resultant (to prevent motion) and ko t0 a couple of f a of forces oF torque (to prevent rotation). Considering this main Condition, the necessary ancl Sufficient cond: f cient Conditions for equilibrium, dependingon the number of. forces in the system, can 8 WS, é ¢ im the system, can | 5 CAN be stated as follows, "4 rium of two forces, 1. Conditions for the equil 2 oO Pp ————__/ Figure 1. The two forces should be collin 2. The two forces should be equal in magnitude 3. The two forces should act in opposite directions 70ait 2 Figure 4.3 1. Thethree forces should be coplanar, 2, Their lines of action should meet at a point. 43. The three forces should be able to be represented by three sides of a triangle taken in ‘order (this triangle is known as the triangle of forces) ‘ orelse Q >. Figure 44 1, Thethree forces should be parallel and coplanar. 2. The algebraic sum ofthe three forces in theirdirection should be zero, 3. The algebraic sum of the moments of the three forces about any point in their plane should be zero. ms for the equilibrium of any number of coplanar forces raic sum of the components of all the frees in any direetion should be zero tic sum of the components of all the forces i direction perpendicular to the ed direction should also be zero, ae tic sum of the moments of all the forces about any point in their plane should nE. (AL) Physics Note Justas three forces in equilibrium can of coplanar forces in equilibrium can be represe! represented bya triangle of forces, a larver nuinhey ted bya polygon of forces, Figure 4.5 States of equilibrium ‘There could be many ways in which a body can beplaced in equilibrium. These are calle of equilibrium of which one would be safe, another moderately safe and yet another unsafe, The three main states of equilibrium are known as 1. Stable equilibrium 2. Unstable equilibrium 3. Neutral equilibrium Eg: Figure 4.6 72ad) Physics as Resource Book - Uni consideran empty bottle which is placed in three states ax follows 1, Siableequlibeium Ifabody which is in equilibrium, when displaced slightly from its equilibrium position and released, retums to its original equilibrium position, then the body isin stable equilibrium 2, Unstable equilibrium Ifthe body which slightly displaced as above and released does not return to its original equilibrium position, then the body is in unstable equilibrium, : 3, Neutral equilibrium Ifthe body in equilibrium when displaced slightly as above and released remains to be in itsnew equilibrium position, then the body is in neutral equilibrium. From the above three states of equilibrium it can be seen that the unstable equilibrium position is themost unsafe position. Itcan also be seen that lower the position of the centre of gravity ofa body the more stable or safethe body is. However the main factor of stability ofa badyis the potential energy possessed by the body. Lesser the potential energy (mgh) of a body, more stable the body is and as the potential energy increases the body becomes more unstable. Worked example ‘A body of mass 500g is hung from a fixed point by means ofan inextensible, light string and is then pulled aside by a horizontal force F until the strings inclined at 60" to the horizontal. Findthe value of F Using the triangle of forces c 05g (N) tr : iN, A FE 05g (N) s NS BResource Book - Uni GCE. (A/L) Physies Ifthe above string brakes undera tension of 15 N, find the maximum value of the force F and its tensicr As F increases, the angle of inclination of the string to the horizontal decrease increases until it reaches the braking value, Let @ bethe inelination of the stringat the braking. ‘vension, From the triangles of forces ABC, ISN SN P+ =15? F°=225.25=209 Fey200=102 N =14.14N 74Figure 5.1 {fabody gets displaced when an external unbalanced force acts on it, then that force is said to do work. The amount of work done is given by the product of the displacement of the point of action of the force and the force: acting in that direction. Figure 5.2 Ifthe force is acting at an inclination to the displacement, then the work done is equal to the Product of the component of the force in the direction of the displacement and the displacement. work done =F cos #.5 =F-s cos @ Energy Energy is introduced as the capability of doing work. ’ When abody does werk, the body releases an amount of energy equal to it, while when work is ‘nthe body an equal amount of energy is stored init ‘Unit of measurement of energy is the joule (J), the same as the unit cheat: exes in various forms such as light, sound , heat electricity, chemical, nuclear and ‘energy, the latter being subdivided into potential energy and kinetic energy. 3Potential energy and kinetic energy When a body on the ground is raised from the ground toa higher level, a certain amount of w is done on it and this work is stored in itas energy. This energy is referred to as potential en Also work has to be done ona body at rest in order to make it move and this work too is store initas energy which is referred to as kinetic energy. Kinetic energy As mentioned above kinetic energy is the energy possessed by a moving body showing tha moving body has a capability of doing work unlike a body at rest. {fa body is in linear motion the kinetic energy possessed by it is called translational kinetic ‘energy: The kinetic energy possessed by a rotating body is called rotational kinetic energy ‘Translational kinetic energy ‘When a body moving with a velocity v is added upon by an opposing force F let the body comes to rest after moving a distances, vo Fe] F ie s Figure 5.3 Applying F = ma to the body ~F=ma m Using y? =u? +2a5 o=v+2-£ ie m 2Fs m FP 2. m 1 a Fs=—my 2 76GCE (AA) Phepses Resource Book « tnit 99 Work done W= Fs * Weim » Translational kinetic energy of the body, Potential energy Potential energy has two forms namely gravitational potenti, ial ener BY and elastic Potential energy, Gravitational potential energy Themechanical energy stored in a body due toits gvitatonal potential energy, Position in the gravitational field is known as Suppose thata body of mass m is raised from position A 108 position Bata height h. The force of gravitational mg hk attraction acting on the body is F =mg vertically P04... a downwards. Work has to be done against this force and hence this work is me [F W=Fs=W=mgh This work gets stored in the body as. ‘gravitational potential Poomgh C-—--. nena mms Gravitational potential energy = mgh Figure 5.4 heath beds lowered from position Ato aposition Cata height energy is released. Hence Sxavitational potential energy at position C is less than that at position A, "ational potential energy atC = —mgh Sas 3 “econtingy if the gravitational potential energy atsome level ina gravitational felis considered ‘Ste gravitational potential energy’at aheight above that levels +meh. hat ata height h below that level is -mgh- eae Potential energy Sched ing has an ability to do work. This energy Spring (or a rubber bans) oa compressa! spring bya spring is called elastic potential energy. 7eR tani bie Resource Book - Unit -0) EE A Ee Figure 5.5 fis the extension in a springacted upon bya force F then this extension is directly proportions to the magnitde of the force. Fox The constant of proportionality & is known as the spring constant. The energy stored in such 2 spring is given by | Want : pOrosvovsvessreTi—r ree «Elastic potentia enerzy W = io? Figure 5.6 i When the force increases, the extension increases when the spring is extended by an extension +, the average elastic force acting onthe spring, i F< ( O+F 2 ~, The work done by the average elastic force, waF's-(O28) S 2 r=—x 7 eee Whee _ Elastic potential energy Force(F) The area under the graph: the graph of force (F) ‘Aganist extension (x), is : Fx Therefore this area is equal to the work done by the force and the eleastri¢ potential energy stored in ithe spring. Extension (x) (0,0) a Figure5.7 aFigure 5. A young boy has the ability to climb:a set of steps at a much shorter time than an old person. This indicates that the young boy is more powerful than the old person. The rateat which a body is doing work or the rate at which it releases energy is called power work power = time ra The unit of measurement of power is “watt” (W) 1 Wal 3s" Relation between power and velocity work power = 0% time P=Fu power = force « velocity Efficiency ‘The energy possessed by an equipment cannot be totally converted into : useful energy as fit gets converted into other forms(eg. heat). Thus.a portion of the a EMETEY gets wasted, Efficiency Useful Power Cutt power input Principle of conservation of energy ‘The total energy ofa closed system remains constant. However, within a system one form of ney can get convened ino another form of energy. 00% 9Eg. Ina vehicle the energy of the fuel (petrol) gets converted into heat, sound and mechanica| ‘The potential energy possessed by the water at the top of a hydro-power house this energy When falling to the bottom and gets converted into kinetic energy on the turbines. This energy |: converted into electrical energy by the turbines. Principle of conservation of mechanical energy Eh. If'in a certain process the conservation of energy takes place only between kinetic energy and Potential energy, then in that process the sum of the kinetic energy and the potential energy remains a constant. This is the principle of conservation of mechanical energy. Kinetic energy + potential energy = constant zm - A =k =m mg In some cases, potential energy may be in the forms of gravitational and elastic potential energy. Kinetic energy may also be in the forms of Tanslational and rotational kinetic energy, Eg: Amango hanging from atree ata height of 3.2 m from the ground, drops from rest and falls on to the ground. Find the velocity of the mango when itstrikes the Ground (disregard the air Tesistance) Figure 5.9 Applying the principle of Conservation of energy, kinetic energy + potential energy = kinetic ‘energy + potential energy at position A at position B Wee 0+ mgh = on +0 righ =m 1ox3.2= 1 2 10x6.4 = v= 8ms" 80Rotational motion and circular motion Most of the motions in the universe can be explained by straight line and rolational motion. ‘Straight line motion is determined by the straight line distance changes and the rotational motion is determined by the angular changes Angular Displacement (9) The angular displacement is the rotation of a point or a straight line about particular axis in a particular sense Itis a scalar quantity Ifa particle at P, at a distance r from the origin ‘O’ rotates through an angle @ and if's is the are length, s ‘ Then g=— Figure 6.1 r s=r Unit of is radian which is denoted by the symbol ‘rad’ J rad is equivalent to the angle subtended at the centre ofa circle by an are equal in length to the radius. Since the circumference ofa circle of radius ris 2ar . theangle subtended at the centre ofthe 5 1 circle by the circumference is —* 227 = 22 r Thus 360° is equal to 27 rad, Angular velocity (ca) The angular velocity is the rate of change of angular displacement. It isa vector ‘quantity. Direction is given by righthand cork screw rule, Ae At K Unit of wis rad s~ Figure 6.2 81Mesnseen Hook Late a GEE 1A) Physics . mation () ing boy at. omnent i tho angular wevecden it ‘The rate of change of angular velocity of a moving bod ‘at that moment. = | 0 Unitof eis rads? Iangular velocity varies from , to «@, during a time period of a = then, angular acceleration & = a patie 4 beoume util A fs was feiss oi a speed of 10 rounds per seconel, Due to a power failure ee a with a constant angular deceleration after 10 seconds, Find the angular deceleri Initial angular velocity @ = 2x10 Final angular velocity m0 Time taken for the deceleration t=10 Aw _ 0-210 “a 10 Angular deceleration = 9 rad § Angular acceleration =-27 rad 8 ‘Note:- The angular acceleration ean occur in three ways 1. Change of magnitude without changing the direction ofthe a 2. Change of direction of angular velocity without changing the m 3. Both the magnitucie and direction changes of ‘angular velocity, gular velocity, nagNitde, only the magnitude ofthe angular velocity changes without Changing the rotating plane, then the direction of the angular acceleration isalong the direction ofthe: angular velocity, Afthe rotating plane Changes, angular acceleration will be along the direction of the chan; ge of angular velocity, Figure 6,5 2Reswuree dowk > v v=ra Av = rdw Av Aw ab Figure 6,5 where a, the acceleration along the tangent. [particle P moves with «uniform angular velocity Then Aw=0 a=0 @,=0 ‘Therefore, fora particle moving along a circular path with uniform, it s : angular velocity, the acceleration ilong the tongent is zero. But theres an acealeration towards the centre, nomnal to the tanger I'd. is the acceleration towards the centre of the circular path, 83yurce Book - a2 GCE. (A) Phy Resource Book Unit 0) a, = =a’ =v. a, ‘This acceleration is the centripetal acceleration. Since the ii “a : direction of motion of the particle changes with time, the particle #?> . has thisacceleration. 4a, fthe particle! rotates with nonuniform angular velocity, it will have an acceleration along the tangent also. Then the resultantaccelenation will not be towards the centre. The Figure 6.6 resultantaccacleration @, isgiven by a, =a; +a, tang=—! Note Note: P will always be momentarily at rest. In the pure translatory motion [(Figure 6.7 (a) ] of s moves to the righthand side with the same ae cue and the centre as well In the pure rotational moting [Figure 6.7 (b)] every point of the wheel rotates with es witht angular velocity w about the centre, The points i . same linear speed ¥. points in the outer edge of the wheel move with the ‘The rolling motion Figure 6.7 (c) is acombination ofthe motions given by (a) andl (b) al ‘a) and (b) above B4Ce nin GCE (AL Phy Motion with Uniform angular acceleration Consider a bodyrotating about an axis. Let initial angular velocity ©, Angular velocity aftertime tis @ Angular displacement if er istheangular acceleration Moment of Inertia (J) The mass ofa body is ameasure of itsreluctance to any change of linearmotion. The corresponding property for rotational motion is called moment of inertia Ifaparticle P of mass m is revolving (rotating) in a circular path of radius r; then the moment of Inertia of P about the centre O'is given by oO Unit of Fis kg m? Figure 6. >———_* P Moment of Inertia of a system of particles Ifa system of particles of masses #1 ,, 191 > 5101 y,..., mm are situated at perpendicular distances NsTaslys--51, fromthe axis /, Then the momentof inertia of the system of particles I, is given by oe > 2 T= my? + mgr? + myn? ++ mare Len Note: Moment of inertia isa scalar quantity Examples [ 85Resource Book - s s pas 1) Momentf enact axniform od offengn 25 mass M pouADOS Pi through the end of the rod is given by c S a i-ime .- 2) Moment of inertia ofa uniform. rod of length Z, mass M about an axis pessing normally through the midpoint ofthe rod is given by es 1 2 t=iMt oa 12 le- 3) Moment ofinertia ofa uniformcircular dise orsolid cylinder of ———Figure6.11 radius R, mass M about an axis normal to the plane passing through = the centre is given by e ‘s Figure 6.12 (4) Moment of Inertia ofa uniform solid sphere about an axis through the centre is given by y =| aes = 5 7==MR* 5 Rotational kineticenergy =| sw CS) Figure 6.13 Figure 6.14 Consider an object rotating about an axis throygh a fixed point © on the object, with a uniform angular velocity @). Let particles of masses ™,.™,,m,,.... m ot oe ie a ‘ a ed at distances Tro lyoTyseooT fespectively from point © be moving with as B with speeds yy, Vv Then the rotational kinetic energy of the body, 86Resource Book - Lintt 02 (al Pay where / = ym The quantity /iscalled the “moment of inertia” of the object about the axis of rotation. “/” depends on the position of the axis of rotation and how the mass of the bodyis distributed about it. Angular momentum (L) Angular momentum of a rigid body rotating about an axis The angular momentum (L.}ofa lamina moving with an angular velocity cxabout an axis passing through O is given by L=pr =E(my,)r, =E(my,o)r, =L(m, 13 Jo Figureé.15 (Angular momentum) =(Momentof inertia) x (Angular velocity) L I x a Note: Angular momentum, isa vector quantity. Its direction is given by the right hand cork screw rule.GCE AL) Physics ange of linear momentum. Likewise in fined as the rate of change of angular Torque (r) In translatory motion, force is defin rotational motion, torque or moment 0 ‘momentum. ed as the rate of chi f the force is de! From the relation 1, = Ja AL Ale does not change with time at oat Equation (2) is similar to Newton's 2" law, F = ma Direction of torque can be obtained by the same way as the direction of angular momentum is obtained Principle of conservation of angular momentum The total angular momentum ofa system remains constant provided no extemal torque acts on the system. Initial angularmomentum=Final angular momentum T@=I'a' Comparison of translatory motion and rotational motion ‘Translatory motion Rotational motion veu+at OS is Oe uty Qt | | o-(aie it 3 Z ee il la S=ut+—at O=a,t+—at 2 2 u’ + 2as @! =0y +248 88Resource Book Applications of the principle of angular momentum Tile ti-rar on ice revolving ended. (1) Anice skator is pla slowly with her hands ands Aftera small time if she bend her with the body she will revolve faster. According to the law of conservation of angular momentum, la=l'o' arm te ">a thigh Bae ie BP igure 6.17 Thelw (2) A student sitting on a freely rotating stool holds @ two heavy weights in his extended arms.When 2 = he bring the weights in, the speed of rotation ~ hy. increases. When he extends his arms, the speed of rotation decreases. According to the Law of conservation of angular momentum, with the changes of moment of inertia, angular velocity ofthe rotating system changes. Figure 6.18 (3) The diver leaves the high diving board above the swimming pool, 4 gets the vertical velocity by pulling the board. He then bends and pulls his arms and legs (Figure 6.19)so that the moment of Inertia is todecrease. Hence the angular velocity will increase. So he P» will revolve very fast at height, When he gets closer the water level be extends his legs and arms as shown and gets his angular velocity reduced. Figures,19 (4) When the string inside the tube is pulled downwards. Theangular velocity: of the particle revolving onthe table will increase. As r decreases / will decrease, To keep fa constant, dw will increase,Resource Book Univ 3 Ce es (8) Since angular momentum isa vector quantity, keeping the magnitude constant, ifonly the direction is changed that is enough to affect Fi the system. ‘This can be shown using aeyele a, wheel, Aperson sitting on a rotating, chair is kooping the rotating cycle wheel as shown int Figure 6.21 (i). The direction of the angular moment is chown in the figure, [fhe tums the awboe! upside down as shown in Figure 6.21 (ii). Then the chair will start to rotate inthe ‘opposite direction to which the wheel is (a) rotating. he Ww | t | ‘Acoomding to the law of conservation of angular imineinen, Figure 6.21 Antal angular = Initial angular Angularmomentum Angular momentum momentumefl + momentumof = ofthe wheelafterit + ofman and chair the wheel theman and chair has tumeddown after the wheel tumed dowr L a 0 -L + L L= Here g Sonate magnitude of the angular momentum of the wheel is not changing ‘Hence thechairwill motte with double the angular momentum of the initial value. Applications related to reluctance to change of angular momentum mAt= AL Torque * Time = Change of angular momentum ‘The above equation shows that a torque should be applied to change the angular momentum, (1) When a byeycle is drvven it will be in equilibrium by itself withouy le ele iv mol moving, itis difficul! w keep in equilibrium, a. belo Figure .22(2) Spinning top will bein equilibrium when itis rotating eo a ! nwill fall when the spin stops: Fig yet correctly only if (3) The bullet from the gun will attack the the bullet ismoving with rotation. If there is no rotation it will follow apath of a projectile g —- Figure 6.24 (4) The young coconut will not burst when it falls while rotating. its angular momentum is in the vertical downward direction. Therefore, it hits the ground vertically and minimizes the possibility of bursting. (5) When rabaana is rotated by a man, it will be in equilibrium. But it cannot be kept in equilibrium if it is not rotating. ‘Circular motion When « body moves along a circular path around a fixed Pont or an axis outside it as the centre, the body is said to perform circular motion igure 6.26 Egd Axtone attached tothe end of w string being whirled around circular path, 2 arth orbiting around the Sun along an approximately circular path, 3. Amotoreyele ora bicycle taking a circular bend. 9Resource Book - Uniti) yn considera body attached to a string bein: constant speed. sidered its magnitude is constant Jar path the directic - To study circular moto! . whirled around & circular path with When the vel! of the body is con: sinoethe speed is constant, However along acircu ously changing. ofthe velocity is contin As Figure 6.27 When anyone of magnitude or direction ischanging it means that the velocityis changing. Changing velocity means acceleration. ‘Hence itcan be concluded thatany body performing c even if the speed is constant. jreular motion is doing so with an acceleration, Let v, and v, be the velocities of the body at two points Aand B seperated by the time interval Ar Itcan be seen that the vector ¥ y, +(—v, )passes through the centre O At isdirected towards the centre of the circular path of the circle. Hence the acceleration @ = — Figure 6.28 Thus the acecleration of a body performing circ i ward ig circular motion is directed entre of the circle and is hence knownas “centripetal acceleration”. eu It can be proved that if vis the speed and r is the radius of the circle. 2 Centripetal acceleration ‘a’ = Also if wis the angular velocity vere (re) x 2 —= rai .. Centrpetal acceleration i Since a body is moving with an acceleration only under the action of performing circular motion is doing so under the action of an ext ‘§n external force, a body Ofthe centripetal acceleration This forces thus known a8 “cenripetay eet ezton | force” and is given by.Centripetal foree on several objects undergoing circular motion. Object performing circular motion Centripetal force 1. Stone attached to a string Tension in the string 2.Earth revolving around the Sun Gravitational attraction of the Sun. 3. Motoreyele taking a circular bend Friction of the road Applications of centripetal foree = 1 The conical pendulum ia i Ht Considera body performing circular motion in a horizontal plane, while being hung froma fixed point O above by means of a string. r The centripetal force F =" = mre” needed for this circular r motion is provided by the horizontal component 7 sin @ of the tension in the string, while its vertical component T cos @ balances Figure 6.29 — the weight of the body. Tsin@ = 7 Tcos6 = mg tan =~ g 2. Amotorcycle taking a circular bend Considering a motoreyele (or a bicycle) moving along a circular bend of radius ‘r’ with a ae a mv speedy’ The centripetal force # = ""— needed for this motion is provided by the frictional force.