Nursery rearing in RAS systems

Juvenile pike-perch (BW 0.2-10 g) are reared in 2-5 m³ RAS tanks. Water temperature ranges
from 22-24 °C. The stocking density is limited to 10/litre. The daily feed ration is 12-10 percent
of biomass. During this phase, stocks are graded every 2 to 4 weeks. Light intensity is reduced
from the hatchery level to 20-30 lux at the water surface. The stocking density (BW >3 g) is
reduced from hatchery levels to 6 individuals/litre. The biomass of the fish observed with BW
3-10 g does not exceed 10 kg/m³. Juveniles destined for intensive on-growing are retained until
they reach a minimum of 15 g BW. Typically, the nursery phase lasts 8-10 weeks.

Nursery in ponds

Polyculture with carp

Ponds are used for less intensive carp production (500-1 000 kg/ha). The ponds are stocked
with pike-perch spawners (2 males + 1-1.5 females/ha), fertilized eggs (0.5-1.0 nest/ha),
hatched (2 000-10 000/ha) or summer fry (2 000–5 000/ ha). Juveniles are harvested in the fall
with carp. The production is 20-25 kg/ha of fall fry with a mean BW of 10-15 g. Production is
characterized by high variability in subsequent years.

Monoculture

This method is rarely used but is being developed. Ponds (0.2-2.0 ha) are stocked with 4 000-6
000/ha summer fry (BW - 0.2-0.5 g). The ponds are fertilized with manure (20 tonnes/ha) two
weeks before stocking. The ponds are also stocked with fodder fish species (spawners, eggs
and hatchlings of roach (Rutilus rutilus), tench (Tinca tinca) and gudgeon (Gobio gobio).

Hatchery production
Two types of hatchery production are employed, an extensive/intensive method and a solely
intensive method. Hatchery-reared seed is not normally used for producing juveniles to be
reared in ponds

Extensive/intensive method (ponds → RAS)

Larvae are reared in earthen ponds in which natural or semi-natural pike-perch reproduction has
previously been conducted. The optimal surface area of rearing ponds for larvae is 0.5-2.0 ha,
with a mean depth of 1.2-1.5 m. Organic fertilization is applied - manure (5-8 tonnes/ha).
Depending on atmospheric conditions, the fry are collected 6-8 weeks after the larvae hatch.
One ha of pond surface area produces 50-250 kg of summer fry with a mean BW of 0.20 to 0.70
g. In order to harvest the summer (and fall) fry produced in earthen ponds, it is necessary to
drain the water from the ponds. The fish crowd into harvesting cages placed behind the outlet
box. Fry can also be harvested using floating harvesting pens placed in front of the outlet box.
The fry are then transported in plastic bags with oxygenated water (30 litres water + 30 litres
oxygen). From 600 to 3 000 summer fry are stocked per bag, depending on fish size, water
temperature and transport time. Oxygenated transport tanks can handle from 18 000 fry/m³
(transport time 15 h, water temperature 20 °C) to 120 000/m³ (transport time 2 h, water
temperature 15 °C).

The fry are stocked into a RAS that comprises circulation tanks with volumes of 1.0-3.0 m³ (tank
depth >40 cm; optimum 70-100 cm). Light intensity measured at the rearing tank surface should
not exceed 50 lux. The optimum temperature for rearing fry is 22 °C. The initial stocking density
is 5-8 fry/litre (1.5-3.0 kg/m³). The fish are fed commercial salmonid feeds with a high protein
content (>50 percent) and a fat content of 12-18 percent. In the initial phase of rearing
(adaptation period to new feed) the particle size of the feed is 0.4-0.7 mm. Feed is provided ad
libitum for 16-24 h per day. The daily feed ration in the first week is 15-17 percent of biomass.
The adaptation period is 2 to 3 weeks. Survival during this period is 50-90 percent. Cannibalism
is a factor that can limit the efficacy of this method. The fish must initially be sorted precisely.
They are then sorted again after 3-4 weeks of rearing. Typically, the total length of the hatchery
rearing phase is 8-12 weeks.

Intensive method (RAS)

The techniques used for rearing pike-perch larva intensely in RAS is more akin to those
employed for marine than for freshwater species in both character and difficulty. There are three
critical periods that impact the final success of intense rearing:
Transformation to exogenous feeding. Larval pike-perch are tiny and after hatching their
alimentary tract is a simple, anatomically undifferentiated tube. The stomach and pyloric caecae
do not form until about two weeks following hatching (TL 8-13 mm; 210-273 °D). The first
exogenous food must be of an adequately small size <200 µm.
Inflation of swim bladder. Pike-perch are physoclistic (no connection between the alimentary
canal and the swim bladder). The brief swim bladder inflation period is between 4-11 days post
hatch (DPH) (84-231 °D). If the swim bladder fails to inflate during this period, normal
development of the anterior segment of the larval alimentary tract renders this impossible.
Period of intensified cannibalism. The first cannibals appear very early when the larvae reach
TL 10-14 mm (256-322 °D) and intensify after the fish have grown to TL 20 mm.
Larvae are reared in 0.5-1.5 m³ circulation tanks. For the first two weeks, a spray system is used
to break the surface tension of the water (this provides larvae access to atmospheric air and
allows them to fill their swim bladders). Initial stocking density ranges from 20 to 50/litre and the
water temperature is 20 °C. Two methods are used for the initial feeding of larval pike-perch:
Method 1. In this method both commercial feed and Artemia nauplii are fed to the larval
pike-perch during the first 14 days. During this period brine shrimp are provided at ~200-300
nauplii/fish/day, given in a minimum of 3 portions/day. After 14 days, the larvae are fed
commercial feed exclusively. The granule size in the first 10-14 days of rearing is 0.1-0.3 mm,
while in the third and fourth weeks it is 0.2-0.4 and 0.3-0.5 mm respectively. The feed has a high
protein content (55-62 percent) and a lipid content of 10-16 percent. Feed is delivered ad libitum
24 h/day with an automatic feeder.
Method 2. In this method larval pike-perch are fed brine shrimp exclusively for the first 14 days
at a rate of ~500 nauplii/fish/day, delivered every 1-1.5 h for a minimum of 16 hours per day.
After 2 weeks the larvae are trained to accept commercial feed; the period required to do this is
usually 3 days. After 3-4 weeks of rearing (BW >50 mg) the fish are sorted, and the fish with
inflated swim bladders (ISB) are separated from those with non-inflated swim bladders (NSB).
This is carried out in an aqueous solution of sodium chloride and etomidate at a dosage of 10 g
sodium and 1 ml of etomidate/litre of water. After the fish have been anaesthetized in this
solution, the individuals with ISB rise to the surface, while fish with NSB sink to the bottom. After
this procedure, only individuals of good biological quality (ISB individuals) are retained for
further rearing.

Ongrowing techniques
Ongrowing in recirculation systems

This method is still under development; fewer than ten facilities in Europe are currently using it.
Juveniles of 15-30 g are stocked. In the initial stages (BW 15-100 g), when 2-5 m³ tanks are
used, the stock is maintained at 10-30 kg/m³. Larger tanks (20-30 m³) are used for the final
stage, in which the fish are reared to >1 kg at a maximum stocking density of 80 kg/m³. The fish
are sorted 2 or 3 times, firstly at 100-150 g, secondly at 200-250 g, and thirdly when the fish
attain 500-600 g. Fish of >1 kg can be obtained after about 15-18 months of on-growing in RAS.

RAS grow-out feeds are high in protein (42-50 percent) and low in lipid (8-14 percent). In the
early stages (15-80 g), feed particle size is 2.0-2.5 mm, while in the final stage (1.0-2.0 kg) it is
9.0-13.0 mm. Feed is delivered using automatic feeders at least three times per day. Typically
FCR does not exceed 1.0:1.0 (BW <1.0 kg) or 1.3-1.5:1.0 for larger fish (BW >1.0 kg).

The thermal optimum for pike-perch growth is about 27-28 °C but fast growth rates are already
noted at 23 °C. Oxygen saturation at the inflow is maintained at 100-120 percent, while at the
outflow it should not fall below 50 percent. pH should be 6.5-8.2. Typical levels of total ammonia
nitrogen (TAN) and nitrite (NO2-N) measured at the outflow of the rearing tanks do not exceed
0.40 mg TAN/litre and 0.15 mg NO2-N/llitre.

Ongrowing in ponds

Pike-perch is reared as a so-called supplementary fish in polyculture with carp. A minimal

stocking rate is normally used, namely 20-100 individuals/ha of fish aged 3+. After 3-4 years,
the fish achieve body weights of 400-1 000 g and the production of market-sized pike-perch can
be as high as 5-50 kg/ha.

Feed supply
The pike-perch that are reared in ponds feed on zooplankton, zoobenthos, and fodder fish
species.

Those reared in intensive (RAS) culture are fed salmon (Salmo salar), rainbow trout
(Oncorhynchus mykiss), and sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) feeds produced by commercial
feed manufacturers. Sinking feed is used, which is delivered with automatic band feeders either
several times daily or continuously. Recently, two or three commercial feed manufacturers have
begun to produce feed specifically formulated feed for pike-perch but the nutritional
requirements of pike-perch are not well understood; feed formulae are currently being
developed and perfected.

Harvesting techniques
Market-sized pike-perch and carp reared in earthen grow-out ponds are caught in the fall by
draining the ponds. Fish weighing 1-2 kg (usually ~1.5 kg) are produced in RAS. However,
restaurants prefer fish weighing between 2-4 kg, for which they pay higher prices. Before
harvesting, fish are starved for 2-3 days.

Handling and processing

Pike-perch are susceptible to stress and sensitive to manipulations. The use of anaesthetics is
recommended, for example during artificial reproduction. After manipulation, such as grading, it
is recommended that the fish are bathed in a sodium chloride solution as a stress reduction
measure (bath time 1 h in a 0.5-1.0 percent NaCl solution).

Slaughter yields at various stages of processing are as follows: gutted fish (84-88 percent BW);
headed gutted carcass (63-66 percent BW); fillet with skin (54-57 percent BW), fillet without skin
(48-51 percent). 100 g of skinned fillet of wild-caught pike-perch from natural conditions
contains 215 mg of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), while the PUFA level of pike-perch
cultured in RAS is 730 mg. The content of essential fatty acids - eicosapentaenoic (EPA, 20:5
n-3) and docosahexaenoic (DHA, 20:6 n-3) are 32 and 103 mg in wild-caught pike-perch and
140 and 370 mg in cultured pike-perch respectively. The ratio of n-3PUFA/n-6 PUFA ranges
from 3.2 to 4.4.

Production costs
The following contribute to the costs of producing 9-10 g fingerlings in RAS (initially stocked with
0.2-0.5 g summer fry from earthen ponds): labour 40 percent, energy 28 percent, feed 12
percent, fry 20 percent.

The cost of producing 10 g fingerlings in RAS (2009) is ~ USD 0.6/individual. Labour costs are
43 percent of the overall costs, depreciation 12 percent, and feed 7-10 percent. The way to
lower costs is to increase the scale of production and to improve culture efficiency, especially
survival. The cost of producing marketable pike-perch (final BW 1.5 kg) is estimated to be USD
6.2-7.0/kg.