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    Chapter 5

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    Samarth Shukla

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    of 14
    [5] CHOICE OF COAL MINING METHODS 5.1 BASIC MINING METHODS Coal scams ean be mined both by underground methods and surface mining methods depending on certain conditions eg thickness and dp ofthe seam; depth of occurence; the rao of overburden to col ‘Surfsce mining methods have been discussed in Chapter 15. ‘There are two basic underground coal mining methods. They ae: i) bord dnd pillar method, and ii) longwall method. Although the basic principles remain the same, there could be many variants of these wo methods (Figure 5.1) COAL MINING METHODS coo SURFACE MINING [UNDERGROUND MING METHODS. METHODS. ‘BORD AKO PILLAR METHOO LONoWALL METHOD towoitac Lowoman, SSovaNCING RetReaTi er Figure 5.1: Basle methods o mining Combining the main features of both longwall and bord and pillar methods; there if yet anther method of mining cal Seams wich is krown a shotwal taf fig. I incorporates te Scanned with CamScanner sense Wb WELLE Ee redominates are Australia, the USA and South Affica. ower, dv w he various advantages associated with longwall method, the present wend isto axoyt longwall method of mining even in those counres also where bord and pillar method omits. 52 BORD AND PILLAR METHOD ‘Fundamentally, the bord and pillar method of mining coal seams (Figure 5:2) involves the driving fa series of narrow headings in the seam parallel to each ether and connected by cross headings 5025 {bferm pillars for subsequent extraction, ether paial or complete 1s geological conditions or necessity for ‘Separing the srface, may permit. Keally te pillars shouldbe square but they are sometimes rectangular (rofhombus shape and the galeries surounding the pills are invariably of square cross-section. SS 1 ‘Scanned with CamSeannet 144 Principles and Practices of Modem Coal Mining Seams ‘oof and with high make of gas ae unsuitable for bord and pile method of mining. Also scams bighly prone to spontaneous beating should not be worked by bord and pillar methods. ‘Bord and pillar method of coal mining offers many advantages. The major advantages are: 1. The area to be immediately worked is proved, and so initial planning may be modified to deal with faults and intrusions without serious loss of output 2. All roadways in the seam are supported by sold coal fora long as they are required, instead ‘of being formed and maintained inthe goa. This results in beter and les cosy suppor. 3 Unproductive labour is reduced by the elimination of the packing of the goa. In thick seams no ripping at all may be necessary and in thinner seams les is required than in ‘unsettled ground, Moreover, the roadways seldom need subsequent enlargement. {As unproductive labour is reduced to a minimum, a high OMS (output per manshift) is achieved. 4. The system is not dependent upon the completion of specific operations by the end of cach shift, and the same operations are continued from one working shift to the next, ‘Maltiple shit geting wit all its advantages is easily possible. ‘5. Bord and pillar workings attract sire Iabour asthe mining operations are rather simpler. “The main disadvantages of bord and pillar method are: “The percentage of extraction is usually less than in longwall mining in similar conditions. ‘The need forthe constant flitting of machinery from place to place. ‘Subsidence in relation tothe surface cannot be controlled effectively. ‘Strata contol is not easy. Ventilation is generally poor because of multiple connections and large number of ventilation stoppings which provide sources of leakage. 6, Risk of spontaneous heating is more. ween ‘Scanned with CamSeannet ‘Grokee of Coal Mining Methods Figure 53 shows the layout of a district developed on room and pillar method. ‘The advantages of this method are: High degree of flexibility Improved efficiency in working of thinner seams [No costly equipment and elaborate arrangements are needed as would be necessary in Fongwall mining ‘As compared to'conventional bord and pillar method higher OMS and reduced cost per tonne of coal are obtained in ceain conditions. Mechanisation is simple and comparatively more efficient Efficiency of basting is high “The disadvantages ofthe room and pillar method are Ifthe stata are not competent. roof falls may take place in the rooms If the ribs are left in the goaf deliberately, they may erush and be the cause of spontaneous beating ‘Venilation is difficult, clearance of fumes and suppression o problems Tn gassy mines, ethane layering may take place due to wider galleries and reduced velocity of ventilating at. jiborne dust may create Scanned with CamScanner 148 Principles and Practices of Modem Coal Mining c 5.3 LONGWALL METHOD OF MINING ct Of Inte, the high productivity and production associated with longwall method of mining has ‘made this method the most popular method of mining. Even in countries where longwall method of mining was notin practice, the curent tread is towards adopting tis method of mining, ‘The longwall method of mining coal involves the extraction of the panel of coal to be worked by advancing the face forward (in the east of advancing longwall) on a wide front leaving behind the roadways serving it which are supported by packs of stone or other packings in the area of extraction (Figure 5.4. In the case of retreating longwall Figure 5:5) te face is retreated on the rosdways driven before opening out the face and as the face is retreated backwards, the goa is allowed to cave in or itis filed and the gate roadway is lost ‘This method can be employed almost inal geological conditions, though itis eminently suited for working thinner seams, ie, seams leis than 1.8 m thick. On the lower side, seams of up to 30-35 cm thickness have been worked by this method. Coal from a longwall, especially ia thin sean isthe cheapest coal a mine can produce’. 11s also desirable that thick seams (more than 4.8 m) be worked by this method in slices of 2 to 3 m. It can be practised in seams at depth and also in gassy seams or seams prone to spontaneous heating. ‘The longwall mining finds easy application in fat to gently inclined seams say up to 1 in 3. In steeper seams faces must be arranged at an angle to the rue dip or on strike depending on rcumstances. Coil seams with soft coals may be worked by longwall methods as pillars in bord and pillar mining may crush. Also seams with dirt bands can be worked by longwall method and the dirt ‘canbe disposed of and stowed inthe goa. In some seams floors have a tendency to creep and in such cases bord and pillar method isnot suitable but longwall method can be employed as by ‘00d quality packing the tendency ofthe floor to ereep can be reduced whereas in bord and pillar ‘method, the presence of many roadways may ageravate the problem, As stated earlier, there are two types of longwall method of mining: i) advancn reureating. 53.1 Longwall Advancing ‘The advancing method has the following main advantages and disadvantages Advantages |. This method enables fully productive operations to be commenced le development work. 2. It provides forthe maximum degree of extraction from the seam, 3. Subsidence is even over the working area and the rate and amount of subsidence can be regulated within limits by the method and quality of stowing or packing. 4. Itenables concentration of men and, therefore, large output can be drawn from relatively small working area. ‘Ventilation is more efficent Strata contol is cofmparatively easy Capital outlay on the face per tonne of production is generally less than in bord and pillar workings and ii) comparatively 4 ere * eLongwall oer Severs! Advantages in Thin Seams", Col Age, 1963 Vl 88, NO. 5. 9.67 Scanned with CamScanner ‘choice of Goal Mining Methods vr Disadvantages ‘Much lsbour and material are needed for supporting the working area both atthe face and along the roadway. 2 A rigid cycle of operations has 1 be followed, especialy in conventional lonevall ‘ining and because of rigid cycle of operationt non-attendance of workmen in the ‘working shift may have a disproportionate effect on the output 4, The longwall faces associated with the system of conventional Iongwall mining requite large concentration of met and the psychology. of group work seems tobe that the pro- autccffort is too oft reduced to the level of theless energetic members of the group. 14. Too much stone work is required and often large quantities of filling materials have to be brought from the surface which results in additional cost. 5. ‘The matoa does not involve proving ofthe are in advance ofthe main producing unity and dee when fut or inrusons ae encountered unexpectedly a serious loss of cusp may feu 6. For some distance behind the working face the roadways are in moving ground and require costly maintenance and hence increase in cos. 17. ‘As the roadways behind the face are in moving ground, the uninterrupted working of ‘Away belt conveyors is more dificult to ensure and cost of maintaining them is more than in roadways driven in slid ground 8, When longwall face has reached its boundary, the salvage ofall the support materials and leremoval of the plant must be erred out very quickly if serious losses are to be avoided. “This work necessitates the provision ofa lage salvage staff working intermitently. 9. Ventilation in the road-heads in the top road which may be 30-50 m ahead of the vancing face, is provided bya special line of ducts taking ina which has already been Teteed and contaminated with dust by passing along the face. Furthermore, air containing dust and shotfring fumes from the roadhead in the bottom road also has to pass along the face when the advancing method is used. 5.3.2 Retreating Longwall ‘To get over the dsodvaniages of advancing system long wall retreating bas been evolved. In his ‘cast the face works on a wide front asin advancing method but it rereats on preformed gates ‘he cold. The following are the advantages and disadvantages of retreating longwall meth: Advantages : 1. The gate roads are supported by solid coal at feast on one side. 2. The immediate area to be worked is pre-erplored, and planaing may be modified to deal ih fouls and intrusions without serious Toss in output. Before expensive machinery is Jfotalled, the area of coal to be worked is less of an unknown factor from the point of vJew of geological disturbances, whether this be in the form of actual faults or seam section or changing gradien 4, The necessity for the repair of roadways may be completely eliminated, resulting in ensderable saving in unproductive work and expenditure on support materials 44. When a power loader is used, the forming of the stable-holes necessary in longwall + MMtncing is eliminated or the work grealy reduced, with a consequent reduction in labour and shortfring. ‘On predrivenroodways of required dimension the coal cutting machine can be moved Sta ‘Scanned with CamScanner v8 ‘Principles and Practices of Mogem Coal Ming {orward atthe face ends ready for the next rip without stable holes having to be prepared as a separate operation or by cutting out the end stable hole onthe face. Tis isthe key to rapid advance, for the pre-won roadways in the scam do not have to be enlarged or maintained during the life of coal production in the panel itself, 5. The roadway conveyor suffers less loss of alignment and is more reliable, {6 Good ventilation is established and assured before panel extraction commences 7. Development workin is highly productive with low enst per tonne due to characteristics ‘of the continuous miner, where employed. Road drivages for development can be carried ‘out with the most modern machines with highest rate of advance. _ As the roadways are driven in advance of the retreating faces, there is greater Mlexibiity to defting operation and face workings. form of lining. Tis favourable case will ‘occur mainly when the main roof contains sandstone. On the other hand when the strata have 2 soft roof, the pressure’ wave precéeding the face tends to cause considerable damage in roadways driven driven by continuous ‘miners or similar machines, elimination of shotiring helps the roadway to stand well and make it possible to reduce the lagging of the lining. 10, The belts are at their maximum length when the face is started. Any defective section an bbe cut out asthe belt is shortened at regular interval 11. tis no longer necessary to transport arches and laggings inthe direction of roadhead, 12. The rezeaing method in some cases allows beter concentration than the advancing method. ‘Thus, the use of the reweating method in staggered faces makes it possible to work several adjacent seams simultaneously without causing serious damage on the roadways of the ‘overlying seam. On the other hand, in he case of advancing working, working in one seam influences the roadways of the staggered faces inthe overlying seams. Disadvantages “The retreating method suffers from certain disadvantages of which the main disadvantages se the following 1. Long narrow headings have tobe dkiven to open out he fae. Building up of production therefore, takes comparatively long tine. 2. In some seams iti economically impossible to drive a narow heading inthe seam on ' sccount of roof pressure, floor heave and other causes. Ifthe surrounding rocks and Pariculaty the ref sats are very sof, the maintenance of roadway i very dificult 4nd cosy, 43. There are conditions when the weight cannot be controlled onthe retreat, In some conditions, which may be natural or due to prior extraction ofa coal sam below or above, even wide headings eanot be driven economically owing to continuing pressures above and below the comparatively nartow width of heading extracted, 4. The removal of methane remains one ofthe greatest obstacles 1 the general adoption of the retreating method. ‘The total quanity of methane ceased by the retreating method is certainly not greater than the quantity of methane which would have been released if the advancing method Scanned with CamScanner choice of Coal Mining Mathods 149 had been used, But in the case of advancing working the methane escaping from the packs is added to the ventilation ar along the whole length of the top oad while in the fetreatng method, the methane escapes a the rear of the face. ‘The roadways require to be equipped with a line of ducting during driving. if driven singly. In etratng faces the éjtimumy’ output is obtained when the goa is caved. If towing is necessary the output tends to drop. 84 SHORTWALL METHOD _A variant of longwall method js shortvall mining (Figure 5.6) in which the length of faces is ‘much smaller than is normal with Iongwall mining. The shortwall was developed to employ the ‘usual room and pillar equipment but with geometric simplicity and the advantages of self ‘advancing hydraulic roof support. Support design enabled continuous miner ‘and a shuttle car to be used to extract a coal block. This method is very popular in Australia and the USA. This method gives high production and productivity. a, vee Figure 5.8: Shorwell mining method (Ate Aye, 7. “innovations In Underground Cost Mining” BHP “ooh. Bu, Nov. 1979, 23 2), p. 19) 5.5 FACTORS INFLUENCING CHOICE OF MINING METHODS ‘Ashas been described in Chapter 2 coal seams have varying thicknesses, dips, and structures and ‘cur at different depths. It follows, therefore, that a method of mining proved successful in one 21 of conditions cannot be applied for mining a seam in a different set of conditions. Hence, becomes a prerequisite to make a correct choice ofthe method of mining for success. The factors ‘which influence the choice of mining methods are: (1) Physical, and (2) Technical and economical, The physical factors of importance ae the following: (i) Thickness ofthe seam: (i) Gradient of the seam; (ii) Depth of the seam: (iv) Shape of the deposit: (V) Structure and. Geological abnormalities; (vi) Gassiness and proneness to spontaneous heating; (vil) Scanned with CamScanner 150 ‘Princples and Practices of Modem Coal Mining oo Characteristics of the roof and floor rocks, and (vil) Hydrogeological conditions. The important a technical and economic factors are: (}) Technological development and availability of machines =n ) Economic’ value ofthe coal mined, whether iti in abundance or in short supply. And, finaly, availablity of technical skill and the experiences prevaling in country also influence 55 the choice of mining method. The Kod) 5.5.1 Depth of the Seam Sing Coal seams occur at difference depth. In some colliery takes they may be outcropping of oa ‘occurring at shallow depths and in some other takes they may occur at considerable depths. When ‘ich the seams outerop or occur at shallow depts, they may be mined by open-pit mining methods but, Jere ifthe overburden becomes too large due tothe increase in the depth ofthe seam, they are mined ost boy underground mining methods. These days technological developments in transport system ba have enabled mining of coal seams by opencast methods from much greater depths. The ‘tin Mukunda opencast coal mine in the Jhaia coalfield is planned to a depth of 480 m. wd ‘As the depth ofthe seam increases, the pressure ofthe superincumbent strata increases; this pat increase is about 023 kg perm? per m depth and for this referred at greater depths. Some authors believe thatthe limit of bord and pillar type of mining is 300, ‘ett 1m beyond which the longvall method of mining should be adopted as it lends itself well to stata on ‘control. Whereas in some other locales, this limit is fixed at 600 m. Also with the increase in depth the 3 owt sn bord and pillar type of mining not virgin rock temperature increases and the gat content of the coal seams increases and in some coals the wall rocks become weaker. Hence asst of mining which can give beter veilation ‘and roof control will be the obvious choice and from these considerations the longwall type of wl. ‘becomes the choice. With further increase in depth. 1g of coal becomes difficult due to very | sod vigin rock emperue. Inthe Brish coll the depth beyond which coal mining wil nt be ae possible due to high virgin rock temperature has been suggested at 1524 m (Bromilow, 1955) and in wort India, due to high geothermic gradient this depth may be much less. All the same, considerable coal tyb sss Ee hs ph ort grater dps For nn sich deep cams Underpound pet Bet eal may ban arate proposition. com 552 Shape of the Deposit sa Coal seams occur as shest-ke deposi and have undergone varius changes in thei shape on account of tectonic disturbances or genetic reasons. As found today the seams may be 1) regular; ~ 3) undulating, or 3) contorted. Regular sean are sible or eonenional oe byerlie ming, Ca But seams which have undulation in the rot present diffculies it worked by convenon ent mir ‘Such seams could, however, be worked, by hydraulic mining, though flume efficiency lass Will be affected. Seams which ocour at ponds can be worked by open pit mining meth inl Underground mining methods ar not sulted to watk such deposi. coal ‘Sometimes seams split and form fish tail like structures. Working of these scams is fraught semi with seta contol problems and selection of «state method of ning Such depots may Be Sialic mae ses Extreme folding, thickening and thinning and faulting make the working of coal seams thefi ical and corect choice of mining mend a complex problem as has ben he ease wih the ret ‘working of Patra sea, North of Spain. A secon of tis seam is given Ia Figure 2.5. For vac ths cam in some parts hrizoal sing ands level caring hve proved succes so ‘When he vraionin thickest is oo mich is often dif to find eu the ight ype of as Scanned with CamScanner CPoiee of Coal Mining Methods 151 smechines which can be deployed in such seams and mechanistion in such seams becomes ‘ecreasingly dificult. 55.3 Thickness of the Seam ‘Fa thickness ofthe coal seams varies from afew centimeters to several metres. A lignite bed in Fkins on the slopes of Ural mountains former USSR is 160 m thick. In Indi. coal seam in Sera coalfield anains te thickness of 162-m, The word's thickest coal seam 230.73 m thik Soe at Loy Yang. Vietoria, Australia at a depth of 21.3 m from the surface. The commen eer scams in which mining has been going on in the world are 0.4 m to 10 m thick. SEER Cipeay has pt coal seams in four groups acording to thee thickness: () very thin 0310 Fm cid thin O' to 1-5 am: (i) medium thick 1.5 to 35 m, and (iv) thick over 35 m thick, In ‘Lae. seams more than 48 m thick are donsidered as thick. There is no futher subdivision into serSea medium thickness. But roughly seams less than 1.8 m thick are considered as thin seams Breast beween LB and 48 m as of medium thickness. Guin, Singh and Misra, (1978) have ‘Fa the upper limit of thin seams a 15 m. ‘ery thin scams Tess than 0.3 m are not considered workable by conventional mining methods Yet they may contain good coal and their exploitation may be atractve for special oF Setomic reasons. For instance, ina country where there may be scarcity of coking coal the TSting of such thin coal sears may also merit consideration anda suitable method of mining seme Sr must be found. Hydraulic mining may be used in such seams with success, though the Raina performance of hydraulic mining i inthe thickness range of 10-15 m. Coal seams 0-5 Sritg hick must be worked by longwall methods. In India, seams up to 1.2 m thick have Been Patted by bord and pillar methods, though with reduced efficiency, At LB rm thickness, ‘TENimum preductivty hus been obtained by ongwall method. Seams 1.8 to 3.5m thick can be Filked ciher by longwall or bord and pillar method. In India, seam upto 4.8 m thick are worked Ped an pila methods and extraction of pills i permite wit aving in such eam, When Tr Ncknes ofthe seam is more than 48 m slice mining in mult-ifts on longwall pater isthe oe teiGiee: In France, very thick seams up to 28 m thick have been worked by sublevel «rin in one pass. Thick and step Seams can be mined profitably by hydraulic mining: 1 the Seer ecume sceur close tothe surface, open pit mining becomes a very atractve proposition. 5.5.4 Gradient of the Seam Gaal seams occur at varying gradients from 0-90" and are generally classified as moderately Or cally dipping, semi step or seep seams. For example, Shevyakov (1958) gave the following saree of coal seams according to theit gradients: () gently dipping | 0-25": ‘tutined: 25-45" and (i) steeply pitching-45° -98. Based onthe practices followed inthe Ruy vee lneld Fatasche and Pots (1954) classified seam gradients as follows: (j) flat-0-20°; Semi-steep +20 40% and (i steep measures +40". ih fat or gently dipping cal seams coal or stone which ae broken or dislodged remain at het sies but in steep measures they may rol down. In certain cass cal pillars may also slide dow and felling stone in the goat has a endeney to lsh the working in bedi side nse seams. Mi etoda which are selected for working steep seams, must, therefore, take into consideration te sere fects of dips. For example, in sleep measures bord and pila type of working will not be See ln tick and step seams, horizon slicing isthe obvious choice, But fhe seam hin ‘eePar the same time step, the face must be worked by breast stoping asin metallferous mining atic orf mechanical cating is done, special types of machines wil be neded. Cos! cut or ‘Scanned with CamScanner 182 Principles and Practices of Modem Coal Mining on dislodged from the seam rolls down on the floor under the action of gravity and is loaded into dis ‘mine cass at the lower level though chutes a in the Asturian coalfield, Spain. In moderately thick and nearly vertical seams, mining with towing in ascending order as practised at Marlebache 58 Colliery in Lorin Coalfield. France, may be desirable. Thick and steep seams are also‘suited for ni ‘hydraulic mining asthe layout of shury pipe range on favourable gradient is easier. In India, at some collieries thick and steep seams have been developed on bond and pillar system on modified horizon system of mining bt extraction of pillars has not been successful In fiat measures, conventional mining, bord and pillar or longwall mining, is successful; the

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