Semi-Final

Week 1&2
NAV 224

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Capt. Floro R. Pusta Jr.
 TOPIC

 CELESTIAL BODY
 PARTS OF A MARINE SEXTANT
 CORRECT HANDLING AND USAGE OF A
MARINE SEXTANT
NAV 224 - CELESTIAL NAVIGATION For
SEMIFINAL 1st Semester SY 2020-21
Different Celestial
Bodies used in
navigation using
the relevant
information,
Charts & Other
Publication
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What is the meaning of celestial bodies?

By definition a celestial body is any natural body

outside of the Earth's atmosphere. Easy examples
are the Moon, Sun, and the other planets of our
solar system. But those are very limited examples.
The Kuiper belt contains many celestial bodies.
Any asteroid in space is a celestial body.
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What are the different types of celestial bodies?

Examples of astronomical objects include planetary systems,

star clusters, nebulae, and galaxies, while asteroids, moons,
planets, and stars are astronomical bodies.
Celestial navigation is the use of angular measurements
(sights) between celestial bodies and the visible horizon to
locate one's position in the world, on land as well as at sea. At
a given time, any celestial body is located directly over one
point on the Earth's surface.
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2001. Tabular Sight Reduction

The remainder of this chapter concentrates on sight reduction using the

Nautical Almanac and Pub. No. 229, Sight Reduction Tables for Marine
Navigation. The method explained here is only one of many methods of
reducing a sight. The Nautical Almanac contains directions for solving sights
using its own concise sight reduction tables or calculators, along with examples
for the current year.
Reducing a celestial sight to obtain a line of position using the tables consists of
six steps:

1. Correct the sextant altitude (hs) to obtain observed altitude (ho).

2. Determine the body’s GHA and declination (dec.).
3. Select an assumed position (AP) and find its local hour angle (LHA).
4. Compute altitude and azimuth for the AP.
5. Compare the computed and observed altitudes.
6. Plot the line of position.
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The introduction to each volume of Pub. 229 contains

information:
(1) discussing use of the publication for a variety of special
celestial navigation techniques;

(2) discussing interpolation, explaining the double second

difference interpolation required in some sight reductions,
and providing tables to facilitate the interpolation process;
and
(3) discussing the publication’s use in solving problems of
great circle sailings. Prior to using Pub. 229, carefully read
this introductory material.
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Celestial navigation involves determining a circular line of
position based on an observer’s distance from a celestial
body’s geographic position (GP). Should the observer
determine both a body’s GP and his distance from the GP, he
would have enough information to plot a line of position; he
would be somewhere on a circle whose center was the GP and
whose radius equaled his distance from that GP. That circle,
from all points on which a body’s measured altitude would be
equal, is a circle of equal altitude. There is a direct
proportionality between a body’s altitude as measured by an
observer and the distance of its GP from that observer; the
lower the altitude, the farther away the GP. Therefore, when
an observer measures a body’s altitude he obtains an indirect
measure of the distance between himself and the body’s GP.
Sight reduction is the process of converting that indirect
measurement into a line of position.
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Sight reduction reduces the problem of scale to manageable size. Depending on
a body’s altitude, its GP could be thousands of miles from the observer’s
position. The size of a chart required to plot this large distance would be
impractical. To eliminate this problem, the navigator does not plot this line of
position directly. Indeed, he does not plot the GP at all. Rather, he chooses an
assumed position (AP) near, but usually not coincident with, his DR position.
The navigator chooses the AP’s latitude and longitude to correspond to the
entering arguments of LHA and latitude used in Pub. 229. From Pub. 229, the
navigator computes what the body’s altitude would have been had it been
measured from the AP. This yields the computed altitude (hc). He then
compares this computed value with the observed altitude (ho) obtained at his
actual position. The difference between the computed and observed altitudes
is directly proportional to the distance between the circles of equal altitude
for the assumed position and the actual position. Pub. 229 also gives the
direction from the GP to the AP. Having selected the assumed position,
calculated the distance between the circles of equal altitude for that AP and
his actual position, and determined the direction from the assumed position to
the body’s GP, the navigator has enough information to plot a line of position
(LOP).
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To plot an LOP, plot the assumed position on either a chart or a

plotting sheet. From the Sight Reduction Tables, determine: 1) the
altitude of the body for a sight taken at the AP and 2) the direction
from the AP to the GP. Then, determine the difference between the
body’s calculated altitude at this AP and the body’s measured
altitude. This difference represents the difference in radii between
the equal altitude circle passing through the AP and the equal
altitude circle passing through the actual position. Plot this
difference from the AP either towards or away from the GP along
the axis between the AP and the GP. Finally, draw the circle of
equal altitude representing the circle with the body’s GP at the
center and with a radius equal to the distance between the GP and
the navigator’s actual position.
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One final consideration simplifies the plotting of the equal

altitude circle. Recall that the GP is usually thousands of
miles away from the navigator’s position. The equal altitude
circle’s radius, therefore, can be extremely large. Since this
radius is so large, the navigator can approximate the section
close to his position with a straight line drawn perpendicular
to the line connecting the AP and the GP. This straight line
approximation is good only for sights at relatively low
altitudes. The higher the altitude, the shorter the distance
between the GP and the actual position, and the smaller the
circle of equal altitude. The shorter this distance, the greater
the inaccuracy introduced by this approximation.
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2002. Selection of the Assumed Position (AP)

Use the following arguments when entering Pub. 229 to compute altitude
(hc) and azimuth:
1. Latitude (L)
2. Declination (d or Dec.)
3. Local hour angle (LHA)

Latitude and LHA are functions of the assumed position. Select an AP

longitude resulting in a whole degree of LHA and an AP latitude equal to
that whole degree of latitude closest to the DR position. Selecting the AP in
this manner eliminates interpolation for LHA and latitude in Pub. 229.
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2003. Comparison of Computed and Observed Altitudes
The difference between the computed altitude (hc) and the observed
altitude (ho) is the altitude intercept (a). The altitude intercept is
the difference in the length of the radii of the circles of equal
altitude passing through the AP and the observer’s actual position.
The position having the greater altitude is on the circle of smaller
radius and is closer to the observed body’s GP. In Figure 2004, the AP
is shown on the inner circle. Therefore, hc is greater than ho.
Express the altitude intercept in nautical miles and label it T or A to
indicate whether the line of position is toward or away from the GP,
as measured from the AP. A useful aid in remembering the relation
between ho, hc, and the altitude intercept is: Ho Mo To for Ho More
Toward. Another is C-G-A: Computed Greater Away, remembered as
Coast Guard Academy. In other words, if ho is greater than hc, the line
of position intersects a point measured from the AP towards the GP a
distance equal to the altitude intercept. Draw the LOP through this
intersection point perpendicular to the axis between the AP and GP.
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Figure 2004. The basis for the line of
position from a celestial observation.
2004. Plotting the Line of Position
Plot the line of position as shown in Figure 2004.
Plot the AP first; then plot the azimuth line from
the AP toward or away from the GP. Then, measure
the altitude intercept along this line. At the point
on the azimuth line equal to the intercept
distance, draw a line perpendicular to the azimuth
line. This perpendicular represents that section of
the circle of equal altitude passing through the
navigator’s actual position. This is the line of
position.
A navigator often takes sights of more than one
celestial body when determining a celestial fix.
After plotting the lines of position from these
several sights, advance the resulting LOP’s along
the track to the time of the last sight and label
the resulting fix with the time of this last sight.
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Sextant
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1.Index mirror: large polished plate that reflects light.

2.Telescope: optical instrument made of lens that magnifies objects.
3.Telescope clamp: reinforcing circle.
4.Eyepiece: lens the user looks through.
5.Telescope printing: lens adjustment.
6.Frame: structure that serves as the base for the different parts of the sextant.
7.Graduated arc: graduated edge of the arc.
8.Locking device: apparatus that holds the sextant in place.
9.Drum: graduated button used to take measurements.
10.Index arm: type of ruler that determines direction or measures an angle.
11.Screw to regulate small mirror: piece of metal used to adjust the horizon
mirror.
12.Glass filter: colored transparent substance.
13.Horizon mirror: small polished glass plate that reflects light.
14.Glass filter: colored transparent substance.
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Sextant
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Sextant

The sextant derives its name from the extent of its limb
which is the sixth part of a circle, or 60 degrees. The
marine sextant is a double reflection instrument, used
for measuring angles in then same plane. The arc is
graduated into degrees from right to left from 0 to 120
(sometimes a little more). However the limb is only
1/6th of a circle due to the instrument double reflecting.
See the adjoining picture for more clarification.
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Care of Sextant

 Always Keep Sextant in Its Case, Secure at Sea When

Not in Use
 If You Must Set It Down, Set It on Its Legs - - Never on
Its Mirrors
 Do Not Drop the Sextant
 Keep It Moisture Free (Use Silica Gel Inside the Case)
 Keep Mirrors and Arc Clear of Debris, Wiping the
Mirrors With Lens Paper and a Small Amount of Alcohol
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Care of Sextant

 If Sea Water Spray Gets on the Sextant, Rinse With Fresh

Water and Dry Gently With a Soft Cotton Cloth or Lens
Paper
 Use Light Pressure When Cleaning
 Occasionally Oil and Clean the Tangent Screw and Teeth on
the Side of the Limb
 When Stowing for Long Periods Use a Thin Coat of
Petroleum Jelly to Protect the Arc
 If the Mirrors Need Re-Silvering Take the Sextant to a
Sextant Repair Shop
STCW Table A-II/1 The optical
principle used in
The Principle of the Sextant a sextant is this:
given that a ray
of light is
reflected from
two mirrors in
succession, then
the angle
between the first
and last direction
of the ray is
twice the angle
between the
mirrors. This is
the angle that is
read off on the
‘arc’ after the
navigator ‘shoots
a star’ (takes an
altitude).
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Sextant and Altitude Corrections

Altitude as indicated by
a sextant or similar
instrument before
corrections are applied.
It is the angle measured
in a vertical plane
between an artificial or
sea horizon and a
celestial body, without
application of any
corrections.
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How to use a Sextant
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Perpendicularity

 Cause - index glass not perpendicular to the plane of

the instrument.
 Test - put index arm at approximately 25o and check
the direct and reflected image of the arc.
 Adjustment - adjust the screw on the index mirror
until both images of the arc are lined up.
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Perpendicularity
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Side Error

 Cause - horizon glass not perpendicular to the plane

of the instrument.
 Test - Direct and reflected image of the same star
should appear as one when the arc is moved through
zero.
 Adjustment - adjust the outer screw on the mirror.
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Side Error
No Side Error
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Side Error
Side Error Present
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Collimation Error

 Cause - telescope is not parallel to the plane of the

instrument.
 Test - Use inverting telescope with cross-wires
parallel to the plane of the instrument and view two
objects at least 90o apart.
 Adjustment - collar on the telescope but this should
not be loosened.
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Collimation Error
No Collimation
Error

Collimation
Present
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Index Error

 Caused by mirrors not being parallel when

sextant is set at zero
 Usually removed mathematically
 Methods of checking:
 Observe Sun “on” and “off” the arc
 Observe a star (make images coincident)
 Observe the horizon (Make images
continuous)
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Index Error

TRUE
SUN

Reading Reading

TRUE
SUN

Index Error “ON” the Arc Index Error “OFF” the Arc
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HOW TO ADJUST ERRORS OF
MARINE SEXTANT
There are three main errors of marine sextant, which can quite easily be
corrected by the mariner. A fourth error, for “collimation”, can also be corrected,
with care and attention, but only to an older sextant where telescope collars are
fitted with adjusting screws.

1. The first error, of Perpendicularity, is caused by the index mirror not being
perpendicular to the plane of the instrument. To check if this error is present,
clamp the index arm between a third and half way along the arc, remove the
telescope, and look obliquely into the index mirror, observing the true and
reflected arcs of the sextant. Hold the sextant horizontal, arc away from the
body. If the true and reflected arcs are not in line with each other, then an
error of perpendicularity must be considered to exist (Figure 1).
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To correct the error, adjust the screw at the rear of the

index mirror until the true and reflected arcs are brought
together in line
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2. The second error, side error, is caused by the horizon mirror
not being perpendicular to the plane of the instrument. There are
two ways of checking if this error is present. The first is by
observing a star. Hold the sextant in the vertical position with the
index arm set at zero, and observe a second magnitude star
through the telescope. If the true and reflected stars are side by
side, then side error must be considered to exist (Figure 3). It is
often the case when checking the instrument for side error that
the true and reflected stars are coincident. If this is the case, a
small amount of side error may exist, but a minor adjustment of
the micrometer should cause the true star to appear below the
reflected image. Should, however, the reflected image move to
one side rather than move in a vertical motion, side error may be
considered to exist.
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The second way is by observing the horizon. Set the index arm at
zero and hold the sextant just off the horizontal position. Look through
the telescope at the true and reflected horizons. If they are
misaligned, as indicated in Figure 4, then side error must be
considered to exist.

To correct for side error, adjust the centre screw furthest from the
plane of the instrument at the back of the horizon mirror, to bring
either the star and its image into coincidence or the true and reflected
horizons into line.
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3. The third error, index error, is caused by the index mirror and
the horizon mirror not being out of parallel to each other when the
index arm is set at zero. To check whether index error is present
by observing a star, look through the telescope when the sextant
is set at zero, and if the reflected image of the star is above or
below the true image, then index error must be considered to
exist. Should the true and reflected images be coincident, then no
error will exist. To check by observing the horizon, set the index
arm at zero, hold the sextant in the vertical position, and observe
the line of the true and reflected horizons; if they are seen as one
continuous line, then no error exists, but if the line between the
true and reflected horizons is broken, an adjustment needs to be
made to remove the error.
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This adjustment is made by turning the screw nearest to the

plane of the instrument. Index error may also be checked by
observing the sun. Fit the shaded eye piece to the telescope.
Clamp the index arm at about 32′ off the arc and observe the true
and reflected images to the position of limb upon limb. Repeat
the observation with index arm set at about 32′ on the arc, and
note the two readings of both observations. The numerical value
of the index error is the difference between the two readings
divided by two, and would be called”on the arc” if the “on the arc”
reading were the greater of the two, and “off the arc” if the “off the
arc” reading were the greater.
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Let us consider an example:

Adjust the micrometer to bring the true sun into contact with the reflected sun

Note the reading, for example

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Repeat the observation, but with images the other way about.

Note the reading, for example

Take the difference of the two readings and divide by 2.

Index error is (36-27)/2 = 4.5′ off the arc.

This error must be subtracted from the future sextant readings.

The accuracy of the observations may be checked by adding

the numerical values of both readings together and dividing the
number by four.The resulting value should equal the semi-
diameter of the sun for the period at which the observation was
taken.
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combined. Should this undesirable condition be apparent, the

mariner can resolve the problem by removing each error a little at
a time, as shown in Figure 5. The correction is made by turning
the second and then the third adjustment screws alternately, by a
small amount each time, until concidence of image is achieved.
Collimation error
This is an error caused by the axis of the telescope not being
parallel to the plane of the instrument.To check whether the
error is present, insert the inverting telescope, setting the
eyepiece so that one pair of the cross wires are parallel to the
plane of the sextant.
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To check by observation of two stars (selected about 90° apart),

move the index arm to bring the two stars into exact contact with
each other resting on the wire nearest to the plane of the sextant.
Now tilt the sextant upwards so as to bring them on to the wire
which is furthest from the plane of the instrument. Should the
images diverge or converge from the top intersections of the wires,
it must be assumed that an error of collimation exists, and that the
axis of the telescope is not parallel to the plane of the instrument.
This error can be corrected by adjustment of the two screws in the
collar or telescope mounting.The screws are moved together, one
being tightened, the other slackened, to align the stars on the top
intersection
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which will bring the telescope back to parallel with the sextant
frame. (Not all sextants, however, have adjustable collar screws.)
Non-adjustable errors
1.Centering error
This error could be caused by wearing of the pivot on which the
index arm moves, perhaps because the index arm is not pivoted
at the exact point of the centre of curvature of the arc.
2.Prismatic error
This error is caused by the two faces of the mirror not being
parallel to each other.
3.Shade error
This is an error caused by the faces of shades not being parallel
to each other. If it is known to exist, the telescope is used in
conjunction with the dark eyepiece.
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4.Graduation error
This error may be encountered on the arc itself or on the vernier or
micrometer scales. If the micrometer drum is known to be correct,
then the first and last graduations on the drum should always be
aligned with graduation marks on the arc.
The manufacturer tables all the non-adjustable errors and issues
the sextant with a certificate usually secured inside the lid of the
case. The combination of the above four errors is known as
“Instrument Error”.
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Taking Sights
Calculate expected altitude/bearing first
Take observations with best horizon
Always swing sextant for good altitude
In poor visibility reduce height of eye
Use strong shades when observing the Sun
Take multiple observations of each body in poor
conditions
Possible to take observations in strong moonlight but
treat with care
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Sextant Calibration

If badly knocked, dropped or physically damaged

The mirrors lose their reflective coating
Parts of the equipment are missing
There is strong reason to suspect the accuracy of the
instrument
The calibration certificate is more than 10 years old
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Determination of Observed Altitude (Ho)

 We must make some corrections to hs to come up with

the Ho, which we need to use the altitude-intercept
method.
 These corrections account for
 index error (error in the sextant itself)
 difference between visible and celestial horizon,
due to the observer’s height of eye
 adjustment to equivalent reading at the center of
the earth and the center of the body
 refractive effects of the earth’s atmosphere
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Index Correction

 There may be some error present in the sextant

itself; this is known as index error.
 This is easily determined by setting the sextant to
zero and observing the horizon; if there is no error,
the view looks like the next slide...
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Dip Correction
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Dip Correction

 Next, we must account for the difference between the

celestial horizon and the visible horizon, due to our height
of eye.
 This is known as the dip correction.
 The dip correction is dependent upon the observer’s height
of eye.
 Values of the dip correction are tabulated inside the front
cover of the Nautical Almanac.
 The formulae are;
 Dip = 0.97 x Square Root (Ht of Eye in feet)
 Dip = 1.76 x Square Root (Ht of Eye in meters)
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Apparent Altitude

 Now, by applying the IC and the dip correction, we

can determine the apparent altitude (ha).
 Simply put,
ha = hs + IC + dip
END OF SEMIFINAL
WEEK 1 & 2