J Bus Psychol (2012) 27:255–269
DOI 10.1007/s10869-011-9247-0
Altering the Effects of Work and Family Conflict on Exhaustion:
Telework During Traditional and Nontraditional Work Hours
Timothy D. Golden
Published online: 6 November 2011
Ó Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2011
Abstract
Purpose The current study investigates the impact of
time and strain-based work-to-family conflict (WFC) and
family-to-work conflict (FWC) on exhaustion, by consid-
ering the moderating effect of telework conducted during
traditional and non-traditional work hours.
Design/Methodology/Approach Data were obtained from
professionals in a large computer company using survey
methodology (N = 316).
Findings Results from this study suggest that time and
strain-based WFC and FWC were associated with more
exhaustion, and that exhaustion associated with high WFC
was worse for individuals with more extensive telework
during traditional and non-traditional work hours.
Implications This study provides managers with findings
to more carefully design telework programs, showing evi-
dence that the adverse impact of WFC/FWC on exhaustion
may depend on the type of telework and level of conflict
experienced. This suggests that managers may need to be
more aware of the full range of characteristics which
encapsulate the teleworker’s work practices before making
decisions about how telework is implemented.
Originality/Value By differentiating the timing of tele-
work and its role on the WFC/FWC—exhaustion rela-
tionship, this study delves deeper into the contingent nature
of telework and suggests that the extent of telework con-
ducted during traditional and nontraditional work hours
may play an influential role. In addition, these consid-
erations are investigated in light of the bi-directional
T. D. Golden (&)
Lally School of Management & Technology, Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute (RPI), 110 8th Street,
Troy, NY 12180-3590, USA
e-mail: GoldenT@rpi.edu
time-based and strain-based nature of WFC and FWC,
helping to unravel some of telework’s complexities.
Keywords Telework
Flexible work
Telecommuting

Work–family conflict
Exhaustion
Telework generally involves using computer technology to
work from home away from the main worksite for a portion
of the work week (Bailey and Kurland 2002). With growth
of nearly 30% per year in the U.S. and other industrialized
countries (Office of National Statistics 2005; WorldatWork
2007), the dramatic trends in telework may in part be
spurred by the view that mixing work and home helps
relieve work exhaustion and conflict between work and
family (Bailey and Kurland 2002; Golden 2006). Exhaus-
tion has been linked to a host of other detrimental work
outcomes such as lower performance, burnout, increased
turnover, and adverse health effects (e.g., Carson et al.
2010; Cropanzano et al. 2003; Demerouti and Bakker
2006; Maslach et al. 2001; Moore 2000a; Shirom 2011;
Swider and Zimmerman 2010; Taris 2006). Given that
estimates report upwards of 80% of employees struggle on
a daily basis to meet work and family demands (Galinski
et al. 1993), identifying factors such as telework that might
alter the negative consequences of work–family conflict on
exhaustion is therefore becoming a top concern (Barling
et al. 2004). To date, however, research on work–family
conflict has tended to focus on traditional work modes
where work and family domains are highly segmented
(Eby et al. 2005), and research on work exhaustion has
been similarly focused (Moore 2000a, b).
Although the work–family conflict and exhaustion lit-
eratures are beginning to consider telework (e.g., Golden
2006; Standen et al. 1999), these literatures have treated
123
256
telework as an omnibus factor, examining it as a unidi-
mensional construct that only considers quantity/frequency
of telework (e.g., Golden 2006; Wiesenfeld et al. 2001) or
by generalized comparisons (e.g., Bailey and Kurland
2002; Igbaria and Guimaraes 1999). In part, this gap in the
literature may be due to definitional ambiguity. Telework
has historically been viewed as a substitution of work done
in at the main worksite with work done at the home loca-
tion (Madsen 2003; Nilles 1994; Pratt 1999). Telework,
however, is not exclusively conducted during traditional
business hours as it has generally been studied (e.g., Bailey
and Kurland 2002; Igbaria and Guimaraes 1999), since it
enables work to be easily accomplished during the eve-
nings or weekends from home (Ammons and Markham
2004; Kuglemass 1995). Telework during nontraditional
hours (hereafter referred to as nontraditional telework)
involves the substitution of work done at the main worksite
with work done at home during non-traditional work hours
using technology. In contrast to augmenting work done in
the office as with overtime or supplemental work (e.g.,
Duxbury et al. 1996; Venkatesh and Vitalari 1992), non-
traditional telework involves the flexibility to conduct work
at home instead of the typical ‘‘9 to 5’’ business hours.
Hence in this study, I distinguish between telework con-
ducted during traditional work hours (hereafter referred to
as traditional telework), and nontraditional telework. From
a researcher and practitioner perspective, failure to differ-
entiate between these forms of telework makes it difficult
to know why telework may influence work outcomes, since
such treatments otherwise allow for only more general
comparisons.
This study undertakes a more fine-grained analysis of
telework, as part of an investigation to understand when
work–family conflict impacts work exhaustion. Using a
sample of 316 teleworkers, this study expands the telework
literature to encompass both traditional telework and non-
traditional telework. Moreover, this study considers these
in light of the bi-directional time-based and strain-based
nature of work–family conflict (WFC) and family–work
conflict (FWC). Although some researchers have consid-
ered additional dimensions of conflict (e.g., Carlson
et al.2000), given that the emphasis has been primarily on
time- and strain-based forms (Adams et al. 1996; Rotondo
et al. 2003), these dimensions are considered here. Drawing
from the conservation of resources model (Hobfoll 1988,
1989), it is suggested that the collocation of work and
family domains inherent in traditional and nontraditional
telework may alter an individual’s resource recovery
opportunities, thereby influencing energy and exhaustion.
In addition to investigating WFC’s and FWC’s impact on
work exhaustion and the moderating role of telework on
this relationship, a more fine-grained analysis of telework
may be necessary if we are to shed insights into its poorly
123
J Bus Psychol (2012) 27:255–269
understood complexities (Gajendran and Harrison 2007;
Golden and Raghuram 2010).
Theory and Hypotheses
Work exhaustion is a growing concern for many profes-
sional-level employees, who must not only be responsive to
increasing demands and expectations from colleagues but
also to family demands spurred by changed family struc-
tures and expectations for high involvement in all aspects
of family activities. Work exhaustion is the depletion of
energy needed to meet job demands (Moore 2000a, b). It
occurs when employees feel unable to meet the demands
placed upon them (Hobfoll 1989; Lee and Ashforth 1996;
Wright and Cropanzano 1998). As noted by researchers in
the literature on exhaustion and burnout (e.g., Cropanzano
et al. 2003; Densten 2001; Wright and Cropanzano 1998),
exhaustion is central to the impacts sustained by individ-
uals struggling to cope with feelings of being over-
whelmed. Researchers have previously linked exhaustion
to an array of negative outcomes, including increased
absenteeism, turnover, physical illness, reduced satisfac-
tion, and lower job performance (e.g., Carson et al. 2010;
Cropanzano et al. 2003; Demerouti and Bakker 2006;
Maslach et al. 2001; Moore 2000a; Parker and Kulik 1995;
Shirom 2011). Meta-analyses have also supported the
adverse consequences of exhaustion on outcomes (Lee and
Ashforth 1996; Swider and Zimmerman 2010).
Individuals who experience conflict between work and
family are subject to exhaustion as a result of tension
between work and family domains, which is likely to be
draining on their emotional and physical energy. According
to the conservation of resources perspective (Hobfoll 1988,
1989), individuals strive to retain, protect, and build
resources such as energy and time. Moreover, during
recovery periods when not confronted with an immediate
need for resources, individuals attempt to recover and
stockpile resources to counter future losses (Lee and Ash-
forth 1996; Wright and Cropanzano 1998). To the extent that
conflict between work and family act to consume an indi-
vidual’s energy and other resources, and prevent ‘resource
stockpiling’ that may be necessary to ward off other current
and future resource needs (Hobfoll 1989), individuals are apt
to experience higher levels of exhaustion.
Individuals with a high level of WFC are prone to
exhaustion since conflicts associated with demands in the
work domain that interfere with family obligations are apt to
be psychologically and physically draining, hindering or
preventing an individual’s ability to cope and leading to
feelings of being overwhelmed (Hobfoll 1989). Time-based
WFC entails work interfering with time needed for family
activities (Carlson et al. 2000; Kossek and Ozeki 1998),
J Bus Psychol (2012) 27:255–269
initiating personal deficits that wear away emotional
resources and lead to exhaustion. With higher time-based
WFC, individuals are unable to accomplish demands in the
family domain due to time needed by work activities, cre-
ating time-based shortfalls that sap their emotional stamina,
pulling away energy that might otherwise have been avail-
able to cope with their resource demands (Hobfoll 1989).
Moreover strain-based WFC, or strain from work interfering
with family (Carlson et al. 2000; Kossek and Ozeki 1998),
entails the consumption of additional energy to cope with
anxiety and pressure that depletes personal resources and
leads to exhaustion. In this way, strain from work interfering
with family creates anxiety and drains energy that is likely to
result in higher levels of exhaustion.
Similarly, because time-based FWC involves family
demands that hinder or prevent time being spent on work
tasks due to one’s family/personal role (Netemeyer et al.
1996), higher time-based FWC is apt to wear away emo-
tional resources and lead to greater exhaustion (Hobfoll
1989). Whereas time spent in the family domain is not
available to spend on work, high levels of time-based FWC
are apt to create time-induced shortfalls that deplete per-
sonal resources and exhaust individuals trying to juggle the
opposing time demands (Hobfoll 1989). Furthermore,
strain-based FWC is likely to evoke exhaustion from
dealing with the burdens and anxiety generated by family
obligations that are incompatible with work (Kossek and
Ozeki 1999). With high strain-based FWC, the greater
anxiety and pressures are likely to tap emotional and
physical energy reserves and deplete resistance to stress
(Geurts and Demerouti 2003; Meijman and Mulder 1998),
draining energy and leading to greater exhaustion.
In this way, individuals with higher levels of time and
strain-based WFC and FWC are likely to have higher levels
of exhaustion and burnout (Allen et al. 2000; Demerouti
et al. 2004, 2005). Therefore, consistent with outcomes
reported in the work and family literature for those in
traditional work modes (Haar 2006; Hall et al. 2010;
Kossek and Ozeki 1999; Wittmer and Martin 2010), it is
expected that teleworkers with higher time and strain-based
WFC and FWC will experience higher levels of exhaustion
than those with less WFC and FWC. Stated formally,
H1 (a) Time-based WFC, (b) strain-based WFC, (c) time-
based FWC, and (d) strain-based FWC are positively
related to exhaustion.
Unpacking the Moderating Role of Telework
In contrast to more traditional work arrangements, tele-
work’s inherent flexibility in the location and timing of
257
work is likely to affect the ability to recover from WFC and
FWC and influence work exhaustion. Through shifts in
‘‘where’’ and ‘‘when’’ work is accomplished, telework may
influence the ability to recover from resource drains
(Hobfoll 1988, 1989) brought about by tension between
work and family domains and an individual’s ability to
cope with the conflict, with corresponding changes in
energy and exhaustion. Whereas a number of reviews of
the telework literature have noted the varying conceptual-
izations of telework and the narrow treatment of its effects
(e.g., Bailey and Kurland 2002; Baruch 2000; Gajendran
and Harrison 2007), and telework researchers are begin-
ning to consider telework’s more complex moderating
effects (e.g., Golden and Raghuram 2010; Wiesenfeld et al.
1999), this study differentiates two critical forms of tele-
work that have up to this point been undifferentiated. As
noted earlier, these are the amount of telework conducted
during typical work hours (traditional telework), and the
amount of telework conducted outside of typical work
hours (nontraditional telework).
These two forms of telework help characterize the
changed nature of work experienced by teleworkers
(Bailey and Kurland 2002; Kugelmass 1995; Valcour and
Hunter 2005), and the manner or degree to which indi-
viduals may be able to recuperate from the draining effect
of conflict (Hobfoll 1989; Nippert-Eng 1996a, b). Since
telework generally involves the collocation of workspace
within the home, the additional physical reminders of
conflict and lack of role demarcation may prevent psy-
chological disengagement (Kossek et al. 2006; Standen
et al. 1999), hindering recovery from conflict and
depleting additional energy and resources that lead to
exhaustion. By acting to influence the degree to which
time- and strain-based WFC and FWC depletes resources
that lead to energy loss (Hobfoll 1988, 1989), telework
may alter the ‘resistance capacity’ that leads to work
exhaustion. Considering that existing research examines
more generalized conceptualizations of telework rather
than considering them separately as done here (e.g.,
Bailey and Kurland 2002; Wiesenfeld et al. 2001), it is
hoped this more realistic and nuanced approach will shed
additional insights.
Extent of Telework During Traditional Hours
The extent of traditional telework refers to the degree to
which a teleworker’s work activities are conducted at
home during traditional work hours using technology,
instead of at the main worksite (Kraut 1989; McCloskey
and Igbaria 1998; Olson 1989). Similar to telework
‘‘intensity’’ (Gajendran and Harrison 2007), individuals
123
258
with extensive telework spend a larger proportion of their
week teleworking from home rather than the corporate
office, thereby collocating their work and family and
altering their ability to recover from the time and strain-
based conflict between domains. Extensive telework is
likely to have a detrimental effect on an individual’s
ability to cope with the energy and resource drains
associated with conflict between work and family, leading
to higher levels of exhaustion. Individuals who telework
more extensively experience more constant physical
reminders of the conflict between work and family due to
their greater presence in the home (Kossek et al. 2006;
Standen et al. 1999). Examples include laundry, bills, and
the routines of family members such as school buses.
Unlike counterparts who spend little time at home, those
who telework extensively therefore have more constant
and salient reminders of the conflict (Fiske and Taylor
1991), which adds anxiety and drains energy. Moreover,
these serve as a continual irritant preventing psychologi-
cal detachment and subsequent recovery (Demerouti et al.
2007; Fritz et al. 2010; Taris et al. 2006), leading to
higher levels of exhaustion (Bakker et al. 2008).
For individuals who telework extensively, this lack of
reprieve and recovery from the time and strain-based
conflict between work and family is apt to be draining on
energy levels, yet this is likely to be especially draining
among individuals with high levels of WFC/FWC, since a
reprieve under these conditions may be particularly nec-
essary. With high WFC/FWC and a large proportion of the
workweek spent working at home, the inability to physi-
cally and mentally distance oneself from conflict is par-
ticularly problematic (Sonnentag and Fritz 2007) and is
likely to prevent recovery and self-regulatory resources
from being effective (Baumeister et al. 1998). While
greater presence in the home is apt to be of benefit in terms
of saved commute time and strain (Baruch 2000; Igbaria
and Guimaraes 1999), these are likely to be off-set by the
additional resource drains stemming from mental and
physical preoccupation with high levels of conflict and the
associated lack of recovery time (Demerouti et al. 2007;
Fritz et al. 2010; Taris et al. 2006). Consequently, the
increase in exhaustion brought about by rising levels of
WFC/FWC should be exacerbated by extensive telework,
because working extensively at home in conjunction with
high levels of conflict deceases the individual’s ability to
recover and depletes additional energy and resources.
H2 The positive relationship between WFC/FWC (H2a:
time-based WFC; H2b: strain-based WFC; H2c: time-
based FWC; H2d: strain-based FWC) and exhaustion will
be moderated by telework, such that exhaustion will be
higher for individuals with more extensive traditional
telework.
123
J Bus Psychol (2012) 27:255–269
Extent of Non-Traditional Telework
The extent of nontraditional telework refers to the amount
of time spent teleworking at home during non-traditional
work hours. Though receiving far less attention in the lit-
erature than telework conducted during traditional work
hours (Bailey and Kurland 2002; Towers et al. 2006),
nontraditional telework replaces traditional work hour time
with nontraditional work hour time (Fenner and Renn
2004; King 1998; Towers et al. 2006). Often discussed in
the popular press (e.g., Zeytinoglu et al. 2009), individuals
engaged in nontraditional telework generally work some of
the day during regular work hours, but also spend evenings
or weekends teleworking from home to make up for hours
not worked during the regular work day. More extensive
nontraditional telework is likely to exacerbate WFC’s
impact on exhaustion, since spending a greater proportion
of work periods during evening hours is likely to interfere
with rest and recovery that typically takes place during
these periods (Fritz et al. 2010). From a COR theory per-
spective (Hobfoll 1988, 1989), nontraditional telework
represents a decrease in recovery periods from the tension
created by conflict between work and family, given that
evenings and other extended periods away from conflicting
demands tend to bolster psychological detachment and
recovery (Sonnentag and Fritz 2007). Because working
during the evening hours in the midst of other family
routines and rhythms may prevent mentally distancing
oneself from work (Etzion et al. 1998), extensive nontra-
ditional telework is likely to hinder more complete recu-
peration from the conflict and lead to greater resource drain
and exhaustion.
Moreover, because individuals who engage in extensive
nontraditional telework tend to work a significant propor-
tion of their time during evening or non-standard hours
(e.g., Kugelmass 1995; Nilles 1994), the neighbors, friends,
and family members of these teleworkers may not fully
understand or adhere to traditional social customs that
respect boundaries around work time (Standen et al. 1999).
Instead, they may possess expectations for participation in
activities that demand additional time and energy during
these work periods (Stephens and Szajna 1998), thereby
further hindering resource recovery and adding to
exhaustion. For individuals with high WFC/FWC, this lack
of recovery and draining effect is likely to be especially
apparent, as the salience and intensity of WFC/FWC in the
home domain after regular work hours is likely to be higher
than for individuals with less conflict. With more constant
preoccupation with the conflict and a lack of recovery
periods in the evening hours due to extensive nontradi-
tional telework, those with high WFC/FWC are likely to
experience even more resource drain and exhaustion
(Bakker et al. 2008). In addition, while nontraditional
J Bus Psychol (2012) 27:255–269
telework may permit working less during regular work
hours and may therefore provide some resource recovery
opportunities, these are likely more than off-set by the
intrusion into traditional family time that depletes further
resources and hinders time spent with family to truly
facilitate rest and recovery (Hobfoll 1988, 1989; Fritz et al.
2010). The draining effect of high work family conflict and
extensive work outside of regular work hours, although
unique to each family setting, therefore serves to intensify
the exhaustion experienced. Thus, the increase in exhaus-
tion brought about by rising levels of WFC/FWC is likely
exacerbated by extensive nontraditional telework, since
working extensively during periods outside of regular work
hours in conjunction with high levels of conflict decreases
the individual’s ability to recovery and depletes additional
energy and resources.
H3 The positive relationship between WFC/FWC (H3a:
time-based WFC; H3b: strain-based WFC; H3c: time-based
FWC; H3d: strain-based FWC) and exhaustion will be
moderated by nontraditional telework, such that exhaustion
will be higher for individuals with more extensive nontra-
ditional telework.
Interaction Between Traditional and Nontraditional
Telework
Whereas extensive telework during traditional or nontra-
ditional hours is likely to exacerbate the effects of high
WFC and FWC on exhaustion, the interactive effects of
telework during both time periods may also influence
exhaustion. Although prior research has not empirically
considered the interaction of these two variables with
WFC/FWC, the scant available evidence suggests that their
combined effects will alter work exhaustion. Following
earlier arguments, with more extensive telework during
traditional and nontraditional times, time and strain-based
WFC and FWC are apt to be salient to the individual a
much greater proportion of time, compared to those indi-
viduals who telework little. Whereas individuals who work
predominantly at the main worksite may benefit from
recovery opportunities due to a greater separation of work
and family domains (Demerouti et al. 2007; Fritz et al.
2010), individuals with extensive traditional and nontra-
ditional telework are not afforded such buffering effects.
Instead, these individuals have a higher comingling of
work and family cues (Standen et al. 1999), which pre-
cipitate more constant and continual exposure to the
existing conflict between work and family (Demerouti et al.
2007; Fritz et al. 2010; Taris et al. 2006). Indeed, for those
with extensive traditional and nontraditional telework
accompanied by high levels of conflict between work and
259
family, the ever-present tension between demands in each
domain is likely to be especially draining on their physical
and emotional energy (Bakker et al. 2008). With greater
tension and accompanying anxiety, these individuals are
apt to miss out on sufficient periods of time to recover from
such resource drains, and such constant exposure is likely
to further sap energy levels and increase exhaustion
(Hobfoll 1988, 1989). While there is likely to be some
saved energy and resources due to less commuting and
extra time during regular work hours (Stephens and Szajna
1998), these are also likely off-set by the greater tension
brought about by collocation of work and family domains
and the corresponding lack of sufficient recovery time
(Hobfoll 1989). Compared to those who engage in limited
traditional and nontraditional telework and have little
conflict between work and family, extensive teleworkers
are likely to experience less adequate recovery time and
more exposure to the tension between work and family
domains, eroding resources which leads to higher levels of
exhaustion.
H4 There will be a three-way interaction between tradi-
tional telework, nontraditional telework, and WFC/FWC,
such that the relationship between WFC/FWC (H4a: time-
based WFC; H4b: strain-based WFC; H4c: time-based
FWC; H4d: strain-based FWC) and exhaustion will be
stronger for individuals with extensive traditional and
nontraditional telework.
Method
Sample and Procedure
The collection of data was undertaken in a large computer
company. The company’s highly technical workforce
developed computer solutions for clients, which often
necessitated work–family trade-offs due to work demands,
and management desired to implement programs so as to
better understand what could be done to curtail exhaustion
among its employees. While norms existed for working
traditional business hours (e.g., 8:30 am–5:30 pm),
employees desired greater freedom in where and when they
worked. The telework program was established at the
company as a means to address these employee quality of
life concerns *15 months before the survey was admin-
istered. Technology professionals offer an ideal sample
since the location of their work is often flexible enabling
them to participate in telework programs, and this group of
workers is often prone to exhaustion since they typically
face excessive job demands which force coping with sig-
nificant work–family conflict (Moore 2000a). The sample
was constructed based on records provided by the company
123
260
for individuals who teleworked. A senior manager sent
participants an email inviting them to take part in the study.
The email contained a link to a web-based survey. Partic-
ipation was voluntary and respondents were assured con-
fidentiality. Requests for participation were sent to 800
salaried technical professionals in the firm, with 316
completed surveys received (39% response rate). Typical
of many technology professionals, respondents were
mostly male (71%), nearly 30 years of age on average, and
had an average tenure of 28 months (SD = 16 months).
On average there were 2.45 children living at home with
the respondent, and most of the respondents had children
(88%).
Measures
Work–Family Conflict (WFC) and Family–Work Conflict
(FWC)
Conflict between work and family was assessed using the
bidirectional measure developed by Carlson et al. (2000)
with time-based and strain-based subcomponents. This
measure has been shown to capture the time and psycho-
logical strain aspects of conflict and has been widely used
with sound psychometric properties (e.g., O’Driscoll et al.
2003). The measure contains twelve items using a 5-point
likert scale; six items which assess WFC (three for time-
based WFC, and three for strain-based WFC), and six items
which assess FWC (three time-based FWC, and three
strain-based FWC). Example WFC items include ‘‘My
work keeps me from my family activities more than I
would like’’ (time), and ‘‘Due to all the pressures at work,
sometimes when I am home I am too stressed to do the
things I enjoy’’. Example FWC items include ‘‘The time I
spend on family responsibilities often interfere with my
work responsibilities’’ (time), and ‘‘Because I am often
stressed from family responsibilities, I have a hard time
concentrating on my work’’ (strain). Items were averaged
to form overall scores (time-based WFC, a = .94; strain-
based WFC, a = .93; time-based FWC, a = .89; strain-
based FWC, a = .95).
In order to ensure this measure of conflict between work
and family had sound properties in the sample, additional
evidence was sought of discriminant validity by conducting
a series of confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs). The pro-
posed four-factor model was examined, in which each
factor corresponded to items assessing either time or strain
components of WFC and FWC, and compared to one and
two factor models representing the more generalized forms
of conflict. Results indicated that the proposed four-factor
model [v2 (48, N = 316) = 132.2 p \ .000, Comparative
Fit Index (CFI) = .98, Incremental Fit Index (IFI) = .98,
Goodness of Fit Index (GFI) = .94, Tucker–Lewis Index
123
J Bus Psychol (2012) 27:255–269
(TLI) = .97, Root Mean Square Error of Approximation
(RMSEA) = .07, Akaike Information Criterion
(AIC) = 192, Expected Cross Validation Index
(ECVI) = 1.2, Normed Fit Index (NFI) = .97] was supe-
rior to a two-factor model representing the more general-
ized form of work–family and family–work conflict [v2
(53, N = 316) = 808.6 p \ .000, CFI = .82, IFI = .83,
GFI = .66, TLI = .78, RMSEA = .21, AIC = 858,
ECVI = 2.7, NFI = .81], and to a general one-factor work
and family conflict model [v2 (54, N = 316) = 1501.1
p \ .000, CFI = .66, IFI = .66, GFI = .49, TLI = .59,
RMSEA = .29, AIC = 1549, ECVI = 4.9, NFI = .65]. It
was also superior to a two factor model comparing time-
based and strain-based dimensions collapsing WFC and
FWC [v2 (53, N = 316) = 1274.88 p \ .000, CFI = .72,
IFI = .72, GFI = .53, TLI = .65, RMSEA = .27,
AIC = 1324, ECVI = 4.2, NFI = .72]. Thus, given the
significant v2 differences (p \ .001) and the better fit of the
proposed four-factor model to the other models, it was
concluded that proposed WFC and FWC (time- and strain-
based) are best captured as separate constructs.
Work Exhaustion
Work exhaustion was measured via the 5-item scale used
by Moore (2000a) based on the work exhaustion subscale
of the General Burnout Questionnaire (Schaufeli et al.
1995). This measure was derived from the Maslach and
Jackson (1981) exhaustion scale adopted to reflect general
exhaustion in the work context. Items were rated on a
7-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree; 7 = strongly
agree). An example item includes ‘‘I feel emotionally
drained from my work’’. Items were averaged to form an
overall score (a = .91).
Telework During Traditional Hours
The extent to which employees engaged in traditional
telework was assessed by asking participants to indicate the
proportion of hours in an average workweek they spent
working from home during typical work hours. This mea-
surement approach has been used in a number of other
studies (e.g., Golden 2006; Raghuram et al. 2003) and
captures the proportion of time employees spend during
typical hours teleworking instead of working from their
main worksite (e.g., corporate office). Responses ranged
from 3–100%, representing the full range of time spent
available to telework.
Telework During Nontraditional Hours
The extent to which employees engaged in telework was
measured by asking participants to indicate the proportion
J Bus Psychol (2012) 27:255–269
of hours in an average workweek they spent working from
home during the evenings or weekends rather than during
the typical business day. Similar methods have been used
by others (e.g., Duxbury et al. 1996; Venkatesh and Vita-
lari 1992), which capture the proportion of time spent
working during periods of the day that do not fall within
the organization’s typical working hours. Responses ran-
ged from 2 to 60%, indicating the varying proportion of
time they spent during the week working outside of typical
work hours.
Control Variables
Based on prior research and to mitigate spurious effects,
age (years), biological sex (1 = male, 2 = female), num-
ber of children, tenure (months), and total work hours were
controlled in all analyses. While the sample is typical of the
largely male technology-based workforce, biological sex,
age, and number of children were controlled since they
may influence levels of work family conflict and the
experiences of teleworkers (Bailey and Kurland 2002;
Belanger 1999; Parasuraman and Greenhaus 2002). Total
work hours were controlled in order to eliminate its
potential influence on work exhaustion. Similarly, tenure
was controlled since there is some indication that the length
of time spent working in the organization may change
telework outcomes (Ramsower 1983).
Confirmatory Factor Analysis
To examine the distinctiveness of the scales a CFA was
also conducted on the measures of work exhaustion, time-
based WFC, strain-based WFC, time-based FWC, and
strain-based FWC. The fit of the proposed five factor model
was empirically tested to examine whether it fit the data
better than did competing models (Kelloway 1998). As
anticipated the five factor model indicated an adequate fit
with the data, [v2 (109, N = 316) = 267.3, p \ .001,
CFI = .97, IFI = .97, GFI = .91, TLI = .96, RMSEA =
.06, AIC = 355, ECVI = 1.1, NFI = .95]. In contrast,
other conceivable models with fewer factors did not exhibit
adequate fit statistics. For instance, a two factor model that
included work exhaustion and combined time-based WFC,
strain-based WFC, time-based FWC, and strain-based
FWC into one factor exhibited a poor fit, [v2 (118,
N = 316) = 1664.6, p \ .001, CFI = .72, IFI = .72,
GFI = .55, TLI = .67, RMSEA = .20, AIC = 1734,
ECVI = 5.5, NFI = .70], as did a two factor model where
exhaustion and strain-based WFC/FWC was a single factor
[v2 (118, N = 316) = 2523.0 p \ .000, CFI = .56, IFI =
.56, GFI = .42, TLI = .49, RMSEA = .25, AIC = 2593,
ECVI = 5.2, NFI = .55]. A one-factor model exhibited a
similarly poor fit, [v2 (119, N = 316) = 2718.6, p \ .001,
261
CFI = .52, IFI = .53, GFI = .41, TLI = .46, RMSEA =
.26, AIC = 2786.6, ECVI = 8.8, NFI = .52]. These
analyses provided further support that the measures are
empirically distinguishable.
Results
Descriptive statistics including the means, standard devia-
tions, and correlations for variables are shown in Table 1.
Hierarchical regression analyses were used to test the
hypotheses, and following accepted procedures for calcu-
lating interaction effects, variables were centered (Cohen
et al. 2003). Consistent with scholars studying flexible
work (e.g., Shockley and Allen 2007) regression were
analyzed for the forms of work–family conflict, with con-
trol variables entered in the first step followed by the main
effects of time- and strain-based WFC and FWC in step 2.
In step 3, direct effects were entered. Then in step 4, the
focal 2-way interaction terms were entered into the equa-
tion. In step 5, the two-way interaction (traditional tele-
work x nontraditional telework) was entered. Finally, the
three-way interaction terms were entered in step 6 of the
regression equation. The incremental variance explained in
the final step represents an estimate of the size of the three-
way interaction when predicting work exhaustion.
Hypothesis 1 predicted positive relationships between
time-based and strain-based WFC and FWC with exhaus-
tion. As shown in Table 2, this hypothesis was supported
for time-based WFC (H1a: b = .30, p \ .001) and strain-
based WFC (H1b: b = .36, p \ .001), but not for time-
based FWC (H1c: b = .04, p [ .05) or strain-based FWC
(H1d: b = .07, p [ .05). Higher work–family conflict was
associated with higher work exhaustion (time and strain-
based), whereas family–work conflict was not, providing
partial support for the hypothesis.
To assess moderation of the relationships between
work–family and family–work conflict with exhaustion,
variables were entered into the regression models follow-
ing procedures outlined by Baron and Kenny (1986).
Moderators were entered as a block into the regression
analysis because doing so takes into account their simul-
taneous effects, and therefore represents a more conser-
vative and robust approach (Kohler and Mathieu 1993). As
shown in Table 2, Hypothesis 2, which predicted that the
extent of traditional telework would moderate the rela-
tionship between time-based and strain-based WFC and
FWC with exhaustion, was partially supported. Telework
during traditional hours moderated the relationship
between time-based WFC (H2a: b = .16, p \ .05) and
strain-based WFC (H2b: b = .24, p \ .001), but not time-
based FWC (H2c: b = .07, p [ .05) or strain-based FWC
(H2d: b = .15, p [ .05). To further interpret the
123
262 J Bus Psychol (2012) 27:255–269

Table 1 Descriptive statistics and correlations among variables

Variables Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

1. Age 29.67 7.61 –

2. Sex 1.29 0.45 .09 –
3. Children living at 2.45 2.08 -.01 -.03 –
home
4. Tenure 28.29 16.70 .33** -.08 -.04 –
5. Hours worked per 54.71 9.12 .04 .14* .12* .04 –
week
6. Work exhaustion 3.49 1.57 .02 .04 -.07 -.04 -.02 (.91)
7. Time-based WFC 3.50 1.30 .08 .13* .36** .06 .32** .14* (.94)
8. Strain-based WFC 3.15 1.46 .08 .15** .48** -.01 .19** .16** .56** (.93)
9. Time-based FWC 2.67 1.31 .04 -.01 .39** -.03 .00 -.02 .51** .54** (.89)
10. Strain-based FWC 2.11 1.37 .04 .03 .42** -.04 .06 -.03 .47** .60** .58** (.95)
11. Traditional 0.24 0.16 -.06 .09 .01 -.05 .17** -.07 .02 -.13* -.19** -.15** –
telework
12. Nontraditional 0.17 0.09 -.05 .14* -.04 -.04 .10 .01 .06 -.06 -.13* -.14* .33**
telework
Notes: Age is in years; sex (1 = male; 2 = female); tenure is in years; traditional telework denotes the extent of telework conducted during
traditional work hours; nontraditional telework denotes the extent of telework conducted during nontraditional work hours
* p \ .05, ** p \ .01

interaction effects, I followed the procedures recommended
by Cohen et al. (2003) by creating two simple regressions
of WFC and FWC on exhaustion, given conditional values
of the telework (mean ±1 SD). As shown in Fig. 1 (time-
based WFC) and Fig. 2 (strain-based WFC), when tele-
work is extensive, exhaustion increases at a faster rate, as
expected. Individuals who had extensive telework tended
to have lower levels of work exhaustion at low and mod-
erate levels of time and strain-based WFC compared to
those with more limited telework, whereas for those with
high WFC higher work exhaustion was experienced.
Hypothesis 3, which predicted the extent of nontradi-
tional telework would moderate the relationship between
time- and strain-based WFC and FWC with exhaustion,
received partial support as well. Nontraditional telework
moderated the relationship with time-based WFC (H3a:
b = .13, p \ .05) and strain-based WFC (H3b: b = .14,
p \ .05), but not time-based FWC (H3c: b = .18, p \ .05)
or strain-based FWC (H3d: b = .01, p [ .05) given the
lack of significant variance accounted for in the regres-
sions. As shown in Fig. 3 (time-based WFC) and Fig. 4
(strain-based WFC), when nontraditional telework is
extensive, exhaustion increases at a faster rate, as expected.
Individuals who had extensive nontraditional telework
tended to have lower work exhaustion at low levels of time
and strain-based WFC compared to those with more lim-
ited nontraditional telework, whereas for those with high
WFC higher work exhaustion was experienced.
Hypothesis 4, which predicted three-way interactions
between traditional telework, nontraditional telework, and
time-based or strain-based WFC/FWC in predicting
exhaustion, was not supported. Traditional telework’s
interaction with nontraditional telework did not moderate
the relationship between time-based WFC (H4a: b = .03,
p [ .05) or strain-based WFC (H4b: b = .07, p [ .05), nor
did it moderate the relationship between time-based FWC
(H4c: b = .13, p [ .05) or strain-based FWC (H4d:
b = .01, p \ .05) with exhaustion.
Discussion
This study examined the extent to which time-based and
strain-based WFC and FWC impacts work exhaustion, and
if the extent of telework during traditional and non-tradi-
tional work hours played an influential role. By building
on earlier telework research, this investigation extends
the study of work and family conflict’s consequences to
teleworkers, by empirically examining if time- and strain-
based WFC and FWC impacts exhaustion among profes-
sional workers who telework. As anticipated, time- and
strain-based WFC was found to have a positive association
with exhaustion, suggesting that individuals who have high
time-based and strain-based WFC experience greater
depletion of resources that lead to higher levels of
exhaustion. Counter to expectations, FWC was not asso-
ciated with higher levels of exhaustion, considering both
time and strain-based dimensions. This suggests that con-
flict due to family interference with work may have dif-
ferent effects on exhaustion, perhaps reflecting the

123
J Bus Psychol (2012) 27:255–269 263

Table 2 Hierarchical regression analysis

Hypotheses H1a, 2a, 3a, 4a H1b, 2b, 3b, 4b H1c, 2c, 3c, 4c H1d, 2d, 3d, 4d
2 2 2
b DR b DR b DR b DR2

Step 1 .01 .01 .01 .01

Age .02 .03 .04 .04
Sex .02 -.01 .05 .05
Children -.11 -.13* -.04 -.04
Tenure -.06 -.07 -.06 -.06
Hours worked -.06 -.03 -.01 .00
Step 2 .04*** .05*** .00 .00
Time-based WFC .30***
Strain-based WFC .36***
Time-based FWC .04
Strain-based FWC .07
Step 3 .01 .01 .01 .01
Extent of traditional telework -.07 -.02 -.09 -.08
Extent of nontraditional telework -.02 -.01 .03 .00
Step 4 .04*** .06*** .01 .01
Traditional telework 9 time-based WFC .16*
Nontraditional telework 9 time-based WFC .13*
Traditional telework 9 strain-based WFC .24***
Nontraditional telework 9 strain-based WFC .14*
Traditional telework 9 time-based FWC .07
Nontraditional telework 9 time-based FWC .18*
Traditional telework 9 strain-based FWC .15
Nontraditional telework 9 strain-based FWC .01
Step 5 .01 .01 .01 .01
Traditional telework 9 nontraditional telework -.02 -.01 .04 -.01
Step 6 .00 .00 .01 .00
Time WFC 9 traditional 9 nontraditional tele .03
Strain WFC 9 traditional 9 nontraditional tele .07
Time FWC 9 traditional 9 nontraditional tele .13
Strain FWC 9 traditional 9 nontraditional tele .01
Final F 2.51*** 3.53*** .88 .68
Values represent standardized regression coefficients from the final equation
* p \ .05, ** p \ .01, *** p \ .001

asymmetrically permeable boundaries which scholars have
suggested between work and family (Ashforth et al. 2000;
Nippert-Eng 1996b). These results reinforce the bidirec-
tional nature of conflict between work and family found by
other researchers (e.g., Frone 2000). Whereas individuals
may adopt telework as a means to enhance their quality of
life (Bailey and Kurland 2002), given higher levels of
WFC, higher levels of exhaustion are likely to ensue.
More importantly, by encompassing two previously
undifferentiated types of telework and their role influenc-
ing the WFC/FWC—exhaustion relationship, this study
delves deeper into the contingent nature of telework and
suggests that the extent of telework during traditional and
non-traditional work hours are highly influential on work
exhaustion. More extensive traditional telework appears to
moderate the impact of time-based and strain-based WFC
on work exhaustion, such that more exhaustion is associ-
ated with higher levels of WFC and this is made worse
when individuals telework extensively. As shown in Fig. 1
(time-based WFC) and Fig. 2 (strain-based WFC), in
comparison to individuals with limited telework, those with
extensive telework who had high WFC tended to have
higher levels of work exhaustion. For those with high
WFC, it may be that while working extensively as a tele-
worker could alleviate strain due to reduced commutes
(Guimaraes and Dallow 1999), other factors in these

123
264
Limited Traditional
Telework
Exhaustion
Extensive Traditional
Telework
Time-Based Work-to-Family Conflict
Fig. 1 The moderating role of telework during traditional work hours
on the time-based work-to-family conflict–exhaustion relationship
Limited Traditional
Exhaustion
Telework
Extensive Traditional
Telework
Strain-Based Work-to-Family Conflict
Fig. 2 The moderating role of telework during traditional work hours
on the strain-based work-to-family conflict–exhaustion relationship
situations may become more dominant. For instance,
increased home distractions, cognitive preoccupation with
family-member needs, and a lack of reprieve due to the
collocation of work and home may off-set any gains in
resources (Ammons and Markham 2004; Kossek et al.
2006), thwarting any benefit in terms of exhaustion. Absent
the physical and corresponding psychological separation to
facilitate resource replenishment (Hobfoll 1989), tele-
workers who have high WFC may suffer increased
resource drain and exhaustion compared to those with less
123
J Bus Psychol (2012) 27:255–269
Exhaustion
Limited Nontraditional
Telework
Extensive Nontraditional
Telework
Time-Based Work-to-Family Conflict
Fig. 3 The moderating role of telework during nontraditional work
hours on the time-based work-to-family conflict–exhaustion
relationship
flexibility. Future research investigating detailed work and
family domain segmentation (Ashforth et al. 2000; Nip-
pert-Eng 1996b) among teleworkers with high WFC may
shed additional insights into this possibility.
With respect to telework during nontraditional work
hours and its contingent effects, results suggest that this
form of telework moderates the impact of time-based and
strain-based WFC on exhaustion, such that more exhaus-
tion is associated with higher levels of WFC and this is
made worse when individuals telework extensively during
non-traditional hours. As shown in Fig. 3 (time-based
WFC) and Fig. 4 (strain-based WFC), in comparison to
individuals with limited nontraditional telework, those with
extensive nontraditional telework who had high WFC
tended to have higher levels of work exhaustion. As
occurred with traditional telework, extensive nontraditional
telework appears to exacerbate the rising impact of time
and strain-based WFC on exhaustion. Perhaps the exten-
sive nontraditional telework, as well as the cognitive pre-
occupation with WFC during this time (Kossek et al.
2006), serves to siphon off further personal resources and
hinder energy replenishment (Hobfoll 1988, 1989). Since
working extensively during the evening hours in the midst
of other family routines and rhythms may prevent mentally
distancing oneself from work (Etzion et al. 1998), exten-
sive telework during nontraditional work hours appears to
hinder more complete recuperation from the conflict that
typically takes place during these hours (Fritz et al. 2010),
thereby leading to greater resource drain and exhaustion.
An additional factor not studied here may be the extent to
which individuals maintain psychological distance from
J Bus Psychol (2012) 27:255–269
Exhaustion
Limited Nontraditional
Telework
Extensive Nontraditional
Telework
Strain-Based Work-to-Family Conflict
Fig. 4 The moderating role of telework during nontraditional
work hours on the strain-based work-to-family conflict–exhaustion
relationship
the continual irritants brought about by collocation of work
and family domains, through means such as doors and
other physical separation methods. Future research inves-
tigating such refinements may be especially insightful, and
given the important role that flexibility plays in telework
arrangements (e.g., Mokhtarian et al. 1995), the results
discussed here highlight the need for further more detailed
studies so as to understand nontraditional telework’s pre-
cise effects.
Given the apparently similar moderating role of tradi-
tional telework and nontraditional telework, it seems that
individuals who work extensively in either of these forms
of telework may be particularly susceptible to energy drain
and exhaustion, since they lack the physical separation and
associated cognitive reprieve offered by more separated
work and family domains (Nippert-Eng 1996a, b; Olson-
Buchanan and Boswell 2006). In other words, in these
conditions it may be that the constant and salient physical
reminders of work and home found with extensive presence
at home (Ammons and Markham 2004; Goldsborough
2000; Mirchandani 1999) precludes individuals from
greater psychological separation and the needed reprieves
from the draining effects of high WFC and FWC (Green-
haus and Powell 2003), thereby depleting resources and
leading to more work exhaustion. In this way a telework-
er’s recovery from the draining effect of high time-based or
strain-based WFC and FWC are apt to be of shorter
duration and less fulfilling (Meijman and Mulder 1998),
preventing adequate energy from being replenished and
contributing to exhaustion (Hobfoll 1989). Future research
investigating such lack of resource stockpiling or recovery
265
opportunities that might otherwise counter future losses
(Lee and Ashforth 1996; Wright and Cropanzano 1998)
therefore seems especially promising.
Whereas the data in this study do not support the
anticipated three-way interaction between traditional tele-
work, nontraditional telework, and WFC/FWC, it may be
that other more influential factors come into play when
considering these interactions, or that they may simply
cancel each other out (Kohler and Mathieu 1993). Given
that this is an initial examination into more refined aspects
of telework to include traditional telework and nontradi-
tional telework, researchers need to understand if the pat-
tern of results found here is typical of telework’s influential
role. From a larger perspective, however, considering the
widespread benefits of telework reported by researchers
and practitioners such as job satisfaction, autonomy, and
other quality of life benefits (Baruch 2000; Stephens and
Szajna 1998), it may be that the exhaustion from WFC is
off-set by other considerations in the mind of the tele-
worker. In other words, whereas for the highest levels of
WFC extensive traditional telework and nontraditional
telework may exacerbate exhaustion, this may be an
acceptable trade-off for individuals seeking telework’s
other benefits. For this sample, telework was a voluntary
work mode, and as such these results may be a reflection of
the experiences of those who choose to telework in
response to WFC/FWC. Although these possibilities
remain tentative pending further investigation, this study
demonstrates the pressing need to understand more com-
pletely the many differential impacts of telework. Under-
standing such complex interactions and trade-offs may be
key to revealing future insights into the nature of telework
and its contingent effects.
Given that results presented here cannot infer causality
and the influential role of telework is likely to remain
elusive without inferential capability, future investigations
into telework may benefit from studies whereby conditions
can be experimentally manipulated so that causality can be
more clearly determined. While the hypothesized interac-
tions demonstrate the importance of understanding types of
telework rather than considering telework as one omnibus
variable, understanding interactions are clearly fundamen-
tal to future research and investigating them in a longitu-
dinal manner may prove particularly insightful. Such
longitudinal investigations would also help untangle tele-
work’s potential association with work–family conflict.
Although a recent meta-analysis did not find support for a
relationship between flexible work arrangements like tele-
work and WFC or FWC (Mesmer-Magnus and Viswesva-
ran 2006), other studies have (Gajendran and Harrison
2007; Golden et al. 2006). Results from supplementary
analyses mirrored these equivocal findings. For example,
telework was not associated with WFC whereas it was
123
266
associated with FWC for traditional telework but not
nontraditional telework. These analyses and prior findings
in the literature highlight the need for future longitudinal
studies and perhaps even experience sampling methods to
explicitly test associations and resource drains suggested
earlier.
In terms of other limitations, the data reported here is
self-reported, so that future studies would benefit from
additional data sources that may be compared to self-report
data. Moreover, participants in this study were all tech-
nology professionals, and it may be that these results are
not entirely applicable to employees in other fields or
industries, so care should be taken when attempting to
generalize these results to other groups of individuals. In
addition, given that 88% of participants in this sample had
children with an average of 2.45 children at home, results
obtained here may not be applicable to other groups of
individuals with less substantial child-rearing activities in
the home. Finally, given that WFC and FWC are related to
exhaustion, and exhausted employees are more likely to
suffer performance decrements or leave the organization
(e.g., Carson et al. 2010; Cropanzano et al. 2003; De-
merouti and Bakker 2006; Maslach et al. 2001; Moore
2000a; Parker and Kulik 1995; Shirom 2011; Taris 2006),
it is critical that future researchers investigate other aspects
of work that could reduce or contain rising levels of
exhaustion. Such findings would have direct implications
for flexibility policies (e.g., Kossek et al. 2006) and other
employee work-life programs, with far reaching
consequences.
Managers and professionals seeking to make decisions
about this work modality may find the results presented
here particularly intriguing, as they seek out avenues with
which to contain the impacts of WFC and FWC experi-
enced by their employees. In particular, this research sug-
gests that teleworkers with higher WFC and FWC tend to
experience more exhaustion than those with less conflict,
and the impact on work exhaustion depends on the extent
of telework conducted during traditional and non-tradi-
tional work hours. Results suggest extensive traditional
telework and nontraditional telework may exacerbate
exhaustion for individuals with high time and strain-based
WFC, whereas exhaustion may be lower for teleworkers
with extensive telework who have low WFC. Given that
the influence of traditional telework and nontraditional
telework on exhaustion was similar among this group of
voluntary teleworkers, managers may have some leeway in
allowing employees to telework according to individual
employee preferences, and potentially permit subordinates
to flexibly employ telework to meet their own individual
desires. Results also suggest that telework may offer a
means with which to reduce exhaustion levels, at least for
individuals without high levels of time- or strain-based
123
J Bus Psychol (2012) 27:255–269
WFC. Extensive traditional telework and nontraditional
telework therefore seem to be beneficial in terms of
exhaustion for those with moderate levels of WFC, sug-
gesting that employees without high WFC may be able to
reap some resource replenishment from extensive
flexibility.
Finally, the results suggest that managers need to be
especially aware of making individual telework decisions
without considering the full range of characteristics which
encapsulate the teleworker’s work practices. For those with
high WFC, although extensive telework during traditional
and non-traditional work hours appear to generate more
exhaustion than lower levels of telework, this does not
occur for individuals with more moderate levels of conflict
between work and family. As these complex interactions
illustrate, managers may need to be cognizant of the home
situations of their employees, in terms of the degree of
WFC and FWC, when making telework decisions if they
are to maximize telework’s benefits. It may also be that
telework’s flexibility reduces the impact of selected stress
and strains but also introduces new ones. Although such
interpretations remain tentative pending further research,
the growth and continued importance of telework in many
work organizations requires continued researcher-practi-
tioner collaboration to understand this expanding form of
virtual work.
References
Adams, G. A., King, L. A., & King, D. W. (1996). Relationships of
job and family involvement, family social support, and work-
family conflict with job and life satisfaction. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 81, 411–420. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.81.4.411.
Allen, T. D., Herst, D. E., Bruck, C. S., & Sutton, M. (2000).
Consequences associated with work-to-family conflict: A review
and agenda for future research. Journal of Occupational Health
Psychology, 5, 278–308. doi:10.1037/1076-8998.5.2.278.
Ammons, S. K., & Markham, W. T. (2004). Working at home:
Experiences of skilled white collar workers. Sociological
Sprectrum, 24, 191–238. doi:10.1080/02732170490271744.
Ashforth, B. E., Kreiner, G. E., & Fugate, M. (2000). All in a day’s
work: Boundaries and micro role transitions. Academy of
Management Review, 25, 472–491. doi:10.2307/259305.
Bailey, D. E., & Kurland, N. B. (2002). A review of telework
research: Findings, new directions, and lessons for the study of
modern work. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23, 383–400.
doi:10.1002/job.144.
Bakker, A. B., Demerouti, E., & Dollard, M. F. (2008). How job
demands affect partners’ experience of exhaustion: Integrating
work-family conflict and crossover theory. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 93, 901–911. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.93.4.901.
Barling, J., Kelloway, E. K., & Frone, M. R. (2004). Handbook of
work stress. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator
variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual,
strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality
J Bus Psychol (2012) 27:255–269
and Social Psychology, 51, 1173–1182. doi:10.1037/0022-
3514.51.6.1173.
Baruch, Y. (2000). Teleworking: Benefits and pitfalls as perceived by
professionals and managers. New Technology, Work and
Employment, 15, 34–49.
Baumeister, R. E., Bratslavsky, E., Muraven, M., & Tice, D. M.
(1998). Ego depletion: Is the active self a limited resource?
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1252–1265.
doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.5.1252.
Belanger, F. (1999). Worker’s propensity to telecommute: An
empirical study. Information and Management, 35, 139–153.
Carlson, D., Kacmar, K. M., & Williams, L. J. (2000). Construction
and initial validation of a multidimensional measure of work-
family conflict. Journal of Vocation Behavior, 56, 249–276.
doi:10.1006/jvbe.1999.1713.
Carson, R. L., Baumgartner, J. J., Mathews, R. A., & Tsouloupas, C.
N. (2010). Emotional exhaustion, absenteeism, and turnover
intentions in childcare teachers: Examining the impact of
physical activity behaviors. Journal of Health Psychology, 15,
905–914. doi:10.1177/1359105309360697.
Cohen, J., Cohen, P., West, S. G., & Aiken, L. S. (2003). Applied
multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral
sciences (3rd ed.). Mawhaw, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Cropanzano, R., Rupp, D. E., & Byrne, Z. S. (2003). The relationship
of emotional exhaustion to work attitudes, job performance, and
organizational citizenship behaviors. Journal of Applied Psy-
chology, 88, 160–169. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.88.1.160.
Demerouti, E., & Bakker, A. B. (2006). Employee well-being and job
performance: Where we stand and where we should go. In
S. McIntyre & J. Houdmont (Eds.), Occupational health psychol-
ogy: European perspectives on research, education and practice
(Vol. 1, pp. 83–111). Maia, Portugal: ISMAI Publications.
Demerouti, E., Bakker, A. B., & Bulters, A. J. (2004). The loss spiral
of work pressure, work-home interference and exhaustion:
Reciprocal relations in a three-wave study. Journal of Vocational
Behavior, 64, 131–149. doi:10.1016/S0001-8791(03)00030-7.
Demerouti, E., Bakker, A. B., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2005). Spillover
and crossover of exhaustion and life satisfaction among dual-
earner parents. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 67, 266–289.
doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2004.07.001.
Demerouti, E., Taris, T. W., & Bakker, A. B. (2007). Need for
recovery, home-work interference and performance: Is lack of
concentration the link? Journal of Vocational Behavior, 71,
204–220. doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2007.06.002.
Densten, I. L. (2001). Re-thinking burnout. Journal of Organizational
Behavior, 22, 833–847. doi:10.1002/job.115.
Duxbury, L. E., Higgins, C. A., & Thomas, D. R. (1996). Work and
family environments and the adoption of computer-supplemental
work-at-home. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 49, 1–23.
doi:10.1006/jvbe.1996.0030.
Eby, L., Casper, W. J., Lockwood, A., Bordeaux, A., & Brinley, A.
(2005). Work and family research in IO/OB: Content analysis
and review of the literature (1980–2002). Journal of Vocational
Behavior, 66, 124–197.
Etzion, D., Eden, D., & Lapidot, Y. (1998). Relief from job stressors
and burnout: Reserve service as a respite. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 83, 377–585. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.83.4.577.
Fenner, G. H., & Renn, R. W. (2004). Technology-assisted supple-
mental work: Construct definition and a research framework.
Human Resource Management, 43, 179–200. doi:10.1002/hrm.
20014.
Fiske, S. T., & Taylor, S. E. (1991). Social cognition. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Fritz, C., Sonnentag, S., Spector, E., & McInroe, J. A. (2010). The
weekend matters: Relationships between stress recovery and
267
affective experiences. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 31,
1137–1162. doi:10.1002/job.672.
Frone, M. R. (2000). Work-family conflict and employee psychiatric
disorders: The national comorbidity survey. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 85, 888–895. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.85.6.888.
Gajendran, R. S., & Harrison, D. A. (2007). The good, the bad, and
the unknown about telecommuting: Meta-analysis of psycho-
logical mediators and individual consequences. Journal of
Applied Psychology, 92, 1524–1541. doi:10.1037/0021-
9010.92.6.1524.
Galinski, E., Johnson, A. A., & Friedman, D. E. (1993). The work-life
business case: An outline of work in progress. New York:
Families and Work Institute.
Geurts, S. A. E., & Demerouti, E. (2003). Work/non-work interface:
A review of theories and findings. In M. Schabracq, J. Winnubst,
& C. L. Cooper (Eds.), The handbook of work and health
psychology (2nd ed., pp. 279–312). Chichester: Wiley.
Golden, T. D. (2006). Avoiding depletion in virtual work: Telework
and the intervening impact of work exhaustion on commitment
and turnover intentions. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 69,
176–187. doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2006.02.003.
Golden, T. D., & Raghuram, S. (2010). Fostering teleworker
knowledge sharing: The role of altered relational and techno-
logical interactions. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 31,
1061–1085. doi:10.1002/job.652.
Golden, T. D., Veiga, J. F., & Simsek, Z. (2006). Telecommuting’s
differential impact on work-family conflict: Is there no place like
home? Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 1340–1350.
doi:10.1037/0021-9010.91.6.1340.
Goldsborough, R. (2000). Making telecommuting work. Commercial
Law Bulletin, 15(1), 34–35.
Greenhaus, J. H., & Powell, G. N. (2003). When work and family
collide: Deciding between competing role demands. Organiz-
atoinal Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 90, 291–303.
doi:10.1016/S0749-5978(02)00519-8.
Guimaraes, T., & Dallow, P. (1999). Empirically testing the benefits,
problems, and success factors for telecommuting programmes.
European Journal of Information Systems, 8, 40–54.
Haar, J. M. (2006). The downside of coping: Work-family conflict,
employee burnout and the moderating effects of coping strate-
gies. Journal of Management & Organization, 12, 146–159.
Hall, G. B., Dollard, M. F., Tuckey, M. R., Winefield, A. H., &
Thompson, B. M. (2010). Job demands, work-family conflict,
and emotional exhaustion in police officers: A longitudinal test
of competing theories. Journal of Occupational and Organiza-
tional Psychology, 83, 237–250. doi:10.1348/096317908X
401723.
Hobfoll, S. E. (1988). The ecology of stress. New York: Hemisphere.
Hobfoll, S. E. (1989). Conservation of resources: A new attempt at
conceptualizing stress. American Psychologist, 44, 513–524.
Igbaria, M., & Guimaraes, T. (1999). Exploring differences in
employee turnover intentions and its determinants among
telecommuters and non-telecommuters. Journal of Management
Information Systems, 6(1), 147–164.
Kelloway, E. K. (1998). Using LISREL for structural equation
modeling: A researcher’s guide. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
King, J. (1998). Long hours, cold dinners and vacation interrupts.
Computerworld, 31, 1.
Kohler, S. S., & Mathieu, J. E. (1993). Individual characteristics,
work perceptions, and affective reactions influences on differ-
entiated absence criteria. Journal of Organizational Behavior,
14, 515–530. doi:10.1002/job.4030140602.
Kossek, E. E., Lautsch, B. A., & Eaton, S. C. (2006). Telecommuting,
control, and boundary management: Correlates of policy use and
practice, job control, and work-family effectiveness. Journal of
123
268
Vocational Behavior, 68, 347–367. doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2005.07.
002.
Kossek, E. E., & Ozeki, C. (1998). Work-family conflict, policies, and
the job-life satisfaction relationship: A review and directions for
organizational behavior/human resources research. Journal of
Applied Psychology, 83, 139–149. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.83.
2.139.
Kossek, E. E., & Ozeki, C. (1999). Bridging the work-family policy
and productivity gap: A literature review. Community, Work and
Family, 2, 7–32. doi:10.1080/13668809908414247.
Kraut, R. E. (1989). Telecommuting: The trade-offs of home work.
Journal of Communication, 39, 19–47.
Kugelmass, J. (1995). Telecommuting: A manager’s guide to flexible
work arrangements. New York: Lexington Books.
Lee, R. T., & Ashforth, B. E. (1996). A meta-analytic examination of the
correlates of the three dimensions of job burnout. Journal of
Applied Psychology, 81, 13–133. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.81.
2.123.
Madsen, S. R. (2003). The effects of home-based teleworking on
work family conflict. Human Resource Development Quarterly,
14, 35–58. doi:10.1002/hrdq.1049.
Maslach, C., & Jackson, S. E. (1981). Maslach burnout inventory
manual (2nd ed.). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologist Press.
Maslach, C., Schaufeli, W. B., & Leiter, M. P. (2001). Job burnout.
Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 397–422. doi:10.1146/
annurev.psych.52.1.397.
McCloskey, D. W., & Igbaria, M. (1998). A review of the empirical
research on telecommuting and directions for future research. In
M. Igbaria & M. Tan (Eds.), The virtual workplace (pp.
338–358). Hershey, PA: Idea Group Publishing.
Meijman, T. F., & Mulder, G. (1998). Psychological aspects of
workload. In P. J. D. Drenth & H. Thierry (Eds.), Handbook of
work and organizational psychology, work psychology (Vol. 2,
pp. 5–33). Hover: Psychology Press.
Mesmer-Magnus, J. R., & Viswesvaran, C. (2006). How family-
friendly work environments affect work/family conflict: A meta-
analytic examination. Journal of Labor Research, 4, 555–574.
doi:10.1007/s12122-006-1020-1.
Mirchandani, K. (1999). Legitimizing work: Telework and the
gendered reification of the work-no-work dichotomy. The
Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology, 36(1),
87–107.
Mokhtarian, P. L., Handy, S. L., & Salomon, I. (1995). Methodolog-
ical issues in the estimation of the travel, energy, and air quality
impacts of telecommuting. Transportation Research Record A,
29A, 283–302.
Moore, J. E. (2000a). One road to turnover: An examination of work
exhaustion in technology professionals. Management Informa-
tion Systems Quarterly, 21(1), 141–168.
Moore, J. E. (2000b). Why is this happening? A causal attribution
approach to work exhaustion consequences. Academy of Man-
agement Review, 25(2), 335–349. doi:10.2307/259017.
Netemeyer, R. G., Boles, J. S., & McMurrian, R. (1996). Develop-
ment and validation of work-family conflict and family-work
conflict scales. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81, 400–410.
doi:10.1037/0021-9010.81.4.400.
Nilles, J. M. (1994). Making telecommuting happen: A guide for
telemanagers and telecommuters. New York: Van Nostrand
Reinhold.
Nippert-Eng, C. (1996a). Calendars and keys: The classification of
‘‘home’’ and ‘‘work’’. Sociological Forum, 11, 563–582. doi:
10.1007/BF02408393.
Nippert-Eng, C. (1996b). Home and work: Negotiating boundaries
through everyday life. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
O’Driscoll, M. P., Poelmans, S., Spector, P. E., Kalliath, T., Allen, T.
D., Cooper, C. L., et al. (2003). Family responsive interventions,
123
J Bus Psychol (2012) 27:255–269
perceived organizational and supervisor support, work-family
conflict, and psychological strain. International Journal of Stress
Management, 10(4), 326–344. doi:10.1037/1072-5245.10.4.326.
Office of National Statistics. (October, 2005). Labor market trend.
Retrieved June 13, 2008 from http://www.statistics.gov.uk/
about/platforms/lmt/.
Olson, M. H. (1989). Organizational barriers to professional telework.
In E. Boris & C. R. Daniels (Eds.), Historical and contemporary
perspectives on paid labor at home. Urbana, IL: University of
Illinois Press.
Olson-Buchanan, J. B., & Boswell, W. R. (2006). Blurring bound-
aries: Correlates of integration and segmentation between work
and nonwork. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 68, 432–445.
doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2005.10.006.
Parasuraman, S., & Greenhaus, J. H. (2002). Toward reducing some
critical gaps in work-family research. Human Resource Man-
agement Review, 12, 299–312. doi:10.1016/S1053-4822(02)
00062-1.
Parker, P. A., & Kulik, J. A. (1995). Burnout, self- and supervisor-
rated job performance and absenteeism among nurses. Journal of
Behavioral Medicine, 18, 581–599. doi:10.1007/BF01857897.
Pratt, J. H. (1999). 1999 Telework America National Telework
Survey: Cost/benefits of teleworking to manage work/life
responsibilities. Dallas, TX: International Telework Association
and Council.
Raghuram, S., Wiesenfeld, B., & Garud, R. (2003). Technology enabled
work: The role of self-efficacy in determining telecommuter
adjustment and structuring behavior. Journal of Vocational
Behavior, 63, 180–198. doi:10.1016/S0001-8791(03)00040-X.
Ramsower, R. M. (1983). Telecommuting: The organizational and
behavioral effects of working at home. Ann Arbor, MI:
University Microfilms International.
Rotondo, D. M., Carlson, D. S., & Kincaid, J. F. (2003). Coping with
multiple dimensions of work-family conflict. Personnel Review,
32, 275–296. doi:10.1108/00483480310467606.
Schaufeli, W. B., Leiter, M. P., & Kalimo, R. (1995). The general
burnout inventory: A self-report questionnaire to assess burnout
in the workplace. Paper presented at Work, Stress and Health’95:
Creating Healthier Workplaces, Washington, DC.
Shirom, A. (2011). Job-related burnout: A review of major research foci
and challenges. In J. C. Quick & L. E. Tetrick (Eds.), Handbook of
occupational health psychology (2nd ed., pp. 223–241). Wash-
ington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Shockley, K. M., & Allen, T. D. (2007). When flexibility helps:
Another look at the availability of flexible work arrangements
and work-family conflict. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 71,
479–493. doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2007.08.006.
Sonnentag, S., & Fritz, C. (2007). The recovery experience
questionnaire: Development and validation of a measure for
assessing recuperation and unwinding from work. Journal of
Occupational Health Psychology, 12, 204–221. doi:10.1037/
1076-8998.12.3.204.
Standen, P., Daniels, K., & Lamond, D. (1999). The home as a
workplace: Work-family interaction and psychological well-
being in telework. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology,
4(4), 368–381. doi:10.1037/1076-8998.4.4.368.
Stephens, G. K., & Szajna, B. (1998). Perceptions and expectations:
Why people choose a telecommuting work style. International
Journal of Electronic Commerce, 3(1), 70–85.
Swider, B. W., & Zimmerman, R. D. (2010). Born to burnout: A
meta-analytic path model of personality, job burnout, and work
outcomes. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 76, 487–506.
doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2010.01.003.
Taris, T. W. (2006). Is there a relationship between burnout and
objective performance? A critical review of 16 studies. Work &
Stress, 20, 316–334. doi:10.1080/02678370601065893.
J Bus Psychol (2012) 27:255–269
Taris, T. W., Beckers, D. G. J., Verhoeven, L. C., Geurts, S. A. E.,
Kompier, M. A. J., & Linden, D. (2006). Recovery opportunities,
work-home interference, and well-being among managers.
European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 15,
139–157. doi:10.1080/13594320500513889.
Towers, I., Duxbury, L., Higgins, C., & Thomas, J. (2006). Time
thieves and space invaders: Technology, work and the organi-
zation. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 19,
593–618. doi:10.1108/09534810610686076.
Valcour, P. M., & Hunter, L. W. (2005). Technology, organizations,
and work-life integration. In E. E. Kossek & S. J. Lambert’s
(Eds.), Work and life integration: Organizational, cultural, and
individual perspectives (pp. 61–84). Athens: LEA Publishers.
Venkatesh, A., & Vitalari, N. P. (1992). An emerging distributed
work arrangement: An investigation of computer-based supple-
mental work at home. Management Science, 38, 1687–1706.
Wiesenfeld, B. M., Raghuram, S., & Garud, R. (1999). Communi-
cation patterns as determinants of organizational identification in
269
a virtual organization. Organization Science, 10, 777–790.
doi:10.1287/orsc.10.6.777.
Wiesenfeld, B. M., Raghuram, S., & Garud, R. (2001). Organizational
identification among virtual workers: The role of need for affili-
ation and perceived work-based social support. Journal of Man-
agement, 27, 213–229. doi:10.1016/S0149-2063(00)00096-9.
Wittmer, J. L. S., & Martin, J. E. (2010). Emotional exhaustion
among employees without social or client contact: The key role
of nonstandard work schedules. Journal of Business Psychology,
25, 607–623. doi:10.1007/s10869-009-9153-x.
WorldatWork. (2007, February 8). Telework trendlines. Retrieved from
http://www.workingfromanywhere.org/news/pr020707.html.
Wright, T. A., & Cropanzano, R. (1998). Emotional exhaustion as a
predictor of job performance and voluntary turnover. Journal of
Applied Psychology, 83, 486–493. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.83.3.486.
Zeytinoglu, I. U., Cooke, G. B., & Mann, S. L. (2009). Flexibility:
Whose choice is it anyway? Relations Industrielles, 64(4),
555–575.
123