Geoinformatics - from basic to specialized knowledge

including instruction to the Desktop GIS MensorGIS

Markus Penzkofer

November 2016
Image on the cover:
Map extract around Königssee, Bavaria, Germany,
generated using the printing function of MensorGIS
Contents

1 Introduction 9
1.1 Applications of Geoinformatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2 Aim of this Paper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2 Overview over the Basic Knowledge of Geoinformatics 11

2.1 Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Surveying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3 Geodesy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.4 Cartography and Photogrammetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.5 Informatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.6 Geoinformatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

3 Basics of Mathematics 13
3.1 Trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.1.1 The Radians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.1.2 The Right-angled Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.2 Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.2.1 Descriptive Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.2.2 Analytical Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.3 Matrix Computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.3.1 Vectors and Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.3.2 Matrix Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.3.3 Linear Equation Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.4 Analytical Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.4.1 Equations of Straight Lines and Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.4.2 Sections of Straight Lines and Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.5 Interpolation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.5.1 Linear Interpolation on the Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.5.2 Linear Interpolation in Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.5.3 Correlation Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.6 Affine Mappings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.7 Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.7.1 Topology in general . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.7.2 The Graph Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

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4 Basic Calculations of Surveying 21
4.1 Basic Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.1.1 Survey Coordinate System and Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.1.2 Grid Bearing and Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.2 Planimetric Determination of Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.2.1 Classic Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.2.2 Polygonometric Point Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.2.3 Polar Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.3 Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.3.1 Similarity/Helmert Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.3.2 Affine Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.4 Marked-out Routes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.4.1 Applying the Elements of Marked-out Routes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.4.2 Methods of Staking out Arcs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.4.3 Formulae for Clothoid Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.5 Height Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.5.1 Geometric Height Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.5.2 Height Determination by Levelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.5.3 Satellite-based Height Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

5 Basic Calculations of Geodesy 35

5.1 Basic Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.1.1 Geodetic Reference Systems and Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.1.2 Ellipsoid Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.1.3 Geodetic Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.2 Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.2.1 Transformations Three-dimensional ↔ Geodetic Coordinates . . . . 37
5.2.2 Transformations Geodetic ↔ Projected Coordinates . . . . . . . . . 38
5.2.3 Datum Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.3 Geodetic Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.3.1 Gauß-Krüger Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.3.2 UTM Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.4 Satellite-based Position Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.4.1 Development of the Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.4.2 Principle of Measurement using GPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
5.5 Models of Adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
5.5.1 Fundamental Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
5.5.2 Robust Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

6 Basics of Cartography and Photogrammetry 47

6.1 Basics of Photogrammetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.1.1 Principle of Photogrammetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.1.2 Methods of Photogrammetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.1.3 Products of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing . . . . . . . . . . 48
6.2 Generation of the Map Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.2.1 Geometric Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

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 6.2.2 Graphic Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.2.3 Thematic Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.3 Cartographic Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
6.3.1 Azimuthal Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
6.3.2 Cylindrical Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
6.3.3 Conic Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
6.3.4 Special Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
6.3.5 Fundamental Properties of Distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6.4 Cartographic Processing of Elevation Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6.4.1 Visualization of Elevation in Situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6.4.2 Elevation Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
6.4.3 Analysis of the Landform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

7 Basics of Informatics 59
7.1 Computer Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
7.1.1 Image Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
7.1.2 Interpolation Methods for Grey Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
7.1.3 Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
7.2 Programming Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
7.2.1 Programming Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
7.2.2 Development Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
7.3 Structures and Methods of Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
7.3.1 Structuring Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
7.3.2 Methods for Processing Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
7.4 Data Formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
7.4.1 XML (Extensible Markup Language) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
7.4.2 Image Data Formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
7.5 Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
7.5.1 The Entity-Relationship Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
7.5.2 Basic Database Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
7.5.3 Connection in Programming Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
7.5.4 Database Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
7.6 Distributed Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
7.6.1 Client-Server Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
7.6.2 Web Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
7.6.3 Web Technologies for Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
7.6.4 Middleware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

8 Geoinformatics 69
8.1 Data Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
8.1.1 Raster Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
8.1.2 Vector Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
8.1.3 Attribute Data (Alphanumeric Data) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
8.2 Data Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
8.2.1 Data Formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
8.2.2 Geo-Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

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 8.3 Data Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
8.3.1 Feature Classes and Feature Class Catalogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
8.3.2 The Simple Feature Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
8.3.3 Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
8.3.4 Reference Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
8.3.5 Metadata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
8.4 Data Visualization in GIS Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
8.4.1 Geometric Visualization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
8.4.2 Thematic Visualization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
8.5 Data Capture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
8.5.1 Capture of Geometric Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
8.5.2 Capture of Attribute Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
8.5.3 Data Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
8.6 GIS Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
8.6.1 Attribute Queries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
8.6.2 Basic Spatial Queries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
8.6.3 Three-dimensional Analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
8.6.4 Statistical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
8.6.5 Topological Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
8.7 Modern GIS Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
8.7.1 Geo Web Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
8.7.2 Location Based Services (LBSs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
8.8 Application of GIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
8.8.1 Available GIS Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
8.8.2 Fields of Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
8.8.3 GIS Products and GIS Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

9 Practical Application in MensorGIS 83

9.1 Application of Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
9.1.1 Trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
9.1.2 Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
9.1.3 Matrix Computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
9.1.4 Analytical Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
9.1.5 Interpolation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
9.1.6 Affine Mappings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
9.1.7 Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
9.2 Application of Surveying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
9.2.1 Planimetric Point Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
9.2.2 Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
9.2.3 Marked-out Route . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
9.2.4 Point Determination in Height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
9.3 Application of Geodesy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
9.3.1 Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
9.3.2 Geodetic Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
9.3.3 Models of Adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
9.4 Application of Cartography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

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 9.4.1 Creation of the Map Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
9.4.2 Cartographic Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
9.4.3 Processing of Elevation Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
9.5 Application of Informatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
9.5.1 Computer Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
9.5.2 Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
9.5.3 Structures and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
9.5.4 Data Formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
9.5.5 Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
9.6 Application of Geoinformatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
9.6.1 Data Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
9.6.2 Data Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
9.6.3 Data Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
9.6.4 Data Visualization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
9.6.5 Data Capture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
9.6.6 GIS Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
9.6.7 GIS Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
9.6.8 Application of GIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
9.7 Tutorials for MensorGIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
9.8 Program Modules of MensorGIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
9.8.1 Modules for Definition of Program Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
9.8.2 Modules and Forms for Implementation of GIS Functionality . . . . 93
9.9 Project Format of MensorGIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

10 Appendices 101
Appendix A: Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Appendix B: Internet Addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Appendix C: Constants and Reference Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Appendix D: Formula Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Appendix E: History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Appendix F: Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

7
List of Figures

4.1 Arc Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

4.2 Forwards Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.3 Backwards Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

5.1 Direct Geodetic Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

5.2 Inverse Geodetic Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

9.1 MensorGIS: Atlas Viewer (Fitted View) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

9.2 MensorGIS: Attribute Query by SQL syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
9.3 MensorGIS: Surveying Tutorial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
9.4 MensorGIS: Georeferencing incl. Resampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
9.5 MensorGIS: Orthophoto with GPX and DHM Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
9.6 MensorGIS: Free Stationing (Transformation of Measurement) . . . . . . . 96
9.7 MensorGIS: Contour Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
9.8 MensorGIS: Thematic Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
9.9 MensorGIS: DHM Interpolation and OSM Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

10.1 Project Frida/Osnabrück (free Geo Data) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

8
Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Applications of Geoinformatics

Geoinformatics has many different fields of application, which are nowadays even known
by the general public. Pure expert systems are now the exception, but behind every user
interface of course there is still a core, which has to be administered by a professional
administrator.
Usually the fields of application of GIS Applications are split up as follows:

• Branch Information Systems, e.g. Providers of Base Data, Environmental Informa-

tion Systems, Energy- and Water Service Providers, Fleet Management

• Public Information Systems, e.g. Routing, Google Earth, Location Based Services,
Geodata Portals

1.2 Aim of this Paper

In this manuscript some theoretical background and interrelations of Geographic Infor-
mation Systems shall be assembled. Also the most important formulae of Mathemat-
ics, Surveying, Geodesy and Cartography concerning Geoinformatics will be presented in
short. Besides these provinces of course Informatics builds a very important part of GIS
Applications. In a final chapter all basic knowledge will be combined to a short overview
over Geoinformatics, where especially modelling, extensions, specializations and analysis
of Geoinformatics are shown.
In the last chapter functionality and source code of the Open Source GIS MensorGIS
are discussed regarding the basics explained before. The aim of this GIS Project is not its
operative use, but the exemplary implementation of algorithms. MensorGIS is available
for free under: https://sourceforge.net/projects/mensorgis/ .
This paper can only touch each single province with basic topics; if some things are missed,
technical literature should be taken to look them up (see Bibliography in Appendix A).
The Book should be read by students, also by lateral entrants, approaching advanced
lectures with the focus on Geoinformatics.

9
The next chapter gives an overview over the individual disciplines, which are needed when
conceiving, programming and using a GIS. A relevant aspect in these chapters is, what to
keep in mind when implementing the matters.
Important terms are printed in bold face, additional terms and references between the
chapters in italic characters. For better readability important terms are written in upper-
case letters.

10
Chapter 2

Overview over the Basic

Knowledge of Geoinformatics

When talking about GIS Applications, often knowledge of Mathematics, Geodesy and
Informatics is mentioned. But when thinking of the origin of the GIS Data, as well
some of the measurement techniques of Surveying before the age of GPS as well as the
Photogrammetric computation of Orthophotos and Digital Terrain Models have to be
mentioned. In addition some important methods of Cartography are also needed in GIS
Applications. The province of Surveying and Geodesy brings in the traditional knowledge,
Informatics makes available the basis for the utilization of new technologies in information
processing of spatial data.

2.1 Mathematics
Mathematics builds the basis for many Engineering Sciences, but also for the theoretical
and practical applications of Informatics. Regarding Geoinformatics, it influences begin-
ning with Surveying and Geodesy, next Cartography and Photogrammetry finally also
Informatics and Geoinformatics.
The basic geodetic applications mainly regard Trigonometry, Geometry and Matrix
Computation. Cartography and Photogrammetry need the same basic knowledge, ad-
ditionally also Interpolation Methods. In Informatics concerning programming, the
Representation of Numbers and the Boolean Logic play a role. A specific GIS
Analysis is based on the Graph Theory as part of mathematical Topology.

2.2 Surveying
Surveying covers all calculations, which can be executed by assumption of a plane Refer-
ence Surface. To do so a local plane Coordinate System is used or calculation is done using
Coordinates retrieved by a Projection. Elevation values are typically measured separately
from Planimetric Survey (exception is GPS).
The most practical Measurement Data come from Surveying, when concerning that
measurement by GPS nowadays is ”normal” Surveying practice.

11
2.3 Geodesy
Geodesy is based on the definition of a Reference Surface, which is curved in opposition
to Surveying, i.e. in former times a Sphere, in the young history an Ellipsoid or Geoid
to represent the Earth. Geodesy defines country- or world-wide Reference Systems.
Besides this, Geodesy deals with the measurement and definition of the Gravity Field of
the Earth (concerning GIS, here no further thinking).
A method, which is used as well in Surveying, Geodesy as well as in Photogrammetry, is
computation by Adjustment Methods (see also the second part of this book).

2.4 Cartography and Photogrammetry

By the methods of Cartography a systematical representation (Mapping) of measured
and calculated objects can be done. Two parts of Cartography are fundamental for Geoin-
formatics: On the one hand the mathematical calculation methods for projecting these
objects onto the plane (Map Projection), on the other hand the graphical processing and
arrangement of the objects in Geometry and Appearance (e.g. Generalization, Color,
Hatching, Thematic Representation).
Photogrammetry derives three-dimensional Coordinates from two-dimensional Image
Data. In this way also data can be produced, which can be used for Mapping and/or as
input to a GIS. Like Surveying, Photogrammetry therefore is a provider of Data for GIS
Applications, and Cartography can use these and also the data measured by terrestrial
Surveying.

2.5 Informatics
Informatics nowadays provides Computational and Data Storage Tools. From line-wise
input into Computer Algebra Systems to creation of standalone programs with Graphic
User Interface (GUI) there are many possibilities of Informatics, to automatize calcula-
tions.
Standalone Programs usually offer additionally Import, Export and permanent Storage
of Data in a Database. This requires a thought-out Data Modelling. An essential
component of contemporary GIS Applications is the possibility of graphical Visualization
of data. Here Computer Graphics plays an important role. In the age of the Internet
Distributed Systems have a large circulation.

2.6 Geoinformatics
Geoinformatics combines many of the basics mentioned so long. The kind of Data
Storage and Data Modelling as well as the possibilities of Visualization and Analysis
make GIS Applications special. With regard to Informatics and also the other classical
provinces, there are many extensions and specializations. These topics will be mentioned
in the chapter on Geoinformatics.

12
Chapter 9

Practical Application in
MensorGIS

The open-source GIS ”MensorGIS” (from Latin mensor = land surveyor) represents many
of the described formulae, methods and models in one Application. Except of generation of
PDF-Documents and clipping of polygons it does not use any external Program Libraries.
This causes on the one hand, that not always all variants of a topic, like e.g. the total of
all Reference Systems of the Earth, are implemented, on the other hand the performance
is not always optimal. But the advantage is, that the basics and principles of a GIS remain
better recognizable than in commercial products.
In the following sections the basics of Geoinformatics available in MensorGIS shall be
summarized and a short insight into the system be given.

9.1 Application of Mathematics

Mathematical basics can be found nearly in all algorithms of the GIS.

9.1.1 Trigonometry
Trigonometric functions and formulae appear in the formulae of Cartography, Surveying
and Geodesy.

9.1.2 Statistics
As an extension of the Attribute Query simple Statistics Functions were implemented.

9.1.3 Matrix Computation

Matrix Computation is used in the module calculating Network Adjustment, which is
implemented in a separate .NET-Project and is included in the main program as DLL
(Dynamic Link Library).

83
9.1.4 Analytical Geometry
Analytical Geometry is applied internally in some methods, without a clear appearance.
A frequent usage is the determination of a Section of two Straight Lines.

9.1.5 Interpolation Methods

When interpolating Elevation Data, the Correlation Method is used for calculation of
Isopleths and Contour Lines.

9.1.6 Affine Mappings

Affine Mappings get used in Coordinate Transformations (e.g. Helmert Transformation).

9.1.7 Topology
The Graph Theory is needed for Routing and calculation of Spreading/Reachability.

9.2 Application of Surveying

Functionality of Surveying can be found in the menu Surveying.

9.2.1 Planimetric Point Determination

From the classic methods of Planimetric Point Determination the following were imple-
mented:

• Arc Section

• Forwards Section

• Backwards Section

The Polygonometric Point Determination shows the following methods:

• Traverse with One-sided Reference

• Traverse with Two-sided Reference

Polar Methods for Measurement and Stake-out:

• Measurement by Free Stationing

• Stake-out by Free Stationing

9.2.2 Transformations
Helmert and Affine Transformation are needed inter alia for Free Stationing (see above).

84
9.2.3 Marked-out Route
Two elements of Marked-out Routes, the Straight Line and the Arc (of Circle) were imple-
mented for the Development of Marked-out Routes; a Coordinate Transformation brings
these elements from the design into a geodetic Coordinate System.

9.2.4 Point Determination in Height

MensorGIS applies the 2D+1D concept regarding Height. Point Heights are treated as
Attribute Values of a distinct Attribute. Especially the Import of CSV-Data (Comma
Separated Values) allows an easy integration of Height Data.

9.3 Application of Geodesy

Functionality of Geodesy appears behind the settings of the Reference Systems, which
themselves are needed for Import and Export. Calculation of Adjustment is applied in the
menu Surveying - Network Adjustment.

9.3.1 Transformations
The Coordinate Transformations between

• Three-dimensional Coordinates and Geodetic Coordinates,

• Geodetic Coordinates and Projected Coordinates

appear using Import and Export of Datasets.

A Datum Transformation also may be needed when importing and exporting Datasets.

9.3.2 Geodetic Projections

The following Geodetic Projections are implemented:

• UTM Projection (world-wide),

• GK Projection (Germany, Austria and others),

• Swiss Grid Projection CH1903 (Switzerland),

• British National Grid of OSGB (Great Britain),

• State Plane Projections (USA)

OS is the abbreviation for Ordnance Survey, the British Administration for Surveying
and Mapping. The State Plane Projections are available for all States of the USA, using
different Projections (mostly transverse Mercator and Lambert conformal conic).

85
9.3.3 Models of Adjustment
The model of Adjustment by the L2-Norm, called Mediating Adjustment, is applied for
the following observation types:
- Stochastic Height, Stochastic Point, Reference Height, Reference Point,
- Height Difference, Horizontal Distance, Slope Distance,
- Zenith Distance, Horizontal Angle, Horizontal Direction, Grid Bearing.
The output of the numeric result is printed into a HTML-File, that of the graphic Network
Sketch into a SVG File.
Tip: In the second part of this book there is a detailed presentation of this program and
its theory!

9.4 Application of Cartography

The Cartographic basics are visible in the layout of the Graphics Plot Area and its possible
settings in the Toolbar and in the menu Cartography. By the menu Export - SVG the
current Project Dataset can be printed into a Vector Graphics file in different Cartographic
Projections. In the menu Elevation Data cartographic analysis of height information is
offered.

9.4.1 Creation of the Map Layout

Functionality to the principles of

• Geometric and Cartographic Properties,

• Thematic Mapping (Classification and Charts)

was applied.
For the Data Format OpenCartoDB, which was created for MensorGIS, the Map Layout
is generated automatically.
The Atlas Viewer in the Cartography menu shows a simple World Atlas visualization,
which also contains Attribute Data.

9.4.2 Cartographic Projections

Cartographic Projections can be exported in form of SVG Graphics. There the following
Projections are supported:

• Azimuthal - Orthographic

• Azimuthal - Lambert

• Azimuthal - Stereographic

• Azimuthal - Congruent in Distance of Center

• Cylindric - Quadr. Rectangular Projection

• Cylindric - Lambert

86
 • Cylindric - Mercator

• Cylindric - Apian

• Cylindric - Mercator-Sanson

• Conic - Ptolemaeus

• Conic - Albers

• Conic - Lambert

• Conic - Bonne

• Polyconic Lambert-Lagrange

• Orthogonal Coordinates

9.4.3 Processing of Elevation Data

For the Elevation Data these fundamental processing and visualization methods were
implemented:

• Elevation Isopleths

• Elevation Contour Lines

• Elevation Profiles

9.5 Application of Informatics

MensorGIS is developed with VB.NET and C#.NET. Computer Graphics already was
mentioned in the Cartography section. The storage of a Project Data Set in the menu
File - Save and its restoration by File - Open accesses the DOM of XML. When importing
resp. exporting a Shape File, a dBase-Database is read resp. written.

9.5.1 Computer Graphics

The Transformation to Screen Coordinates for visualization of Spatial Objects as well as
its inverse to display Attribute Data of a clicked Feature are basic methods. MensorGIS
mainly processes Vector Data and displays Isopleths and Orthophotos as Raster Data.

9.5.2 Programming
As Development Environment Visual Studio, as Programming Languages Visual Basic and
Visual C# (.NET) were chosen. The module for Adjustment Computation is referenced
as a DLL (Dynamic Link Library) in the main program.

87
9.5.3 Structures and Methods
The internal data storage has been changed from array to list structures when developing
further versions. Lists of Objects of a Feature Class were chosen for the memory-intensive
Structures. By these Lists and by means of the Methods offered by the Lists, performance
can be optimized.

9.5.4 Data Formats

The external storage of a Project Dataset in MensorGIS is implemented in form of XML
files, separated by Geometric Types, Texts, Attributes, Images, Diagrams, Data Schema
and general parameters like e.g. the Reference System.

9.5.5 Databases
When importing and exporting Shape Files, the use of a relational dBase-Database appears
when accessing Attributes.
Hint for the use: The applied Database Driver Foxpro is only supported under C# on
64-bit operation systems.

9.6 Application of Geoinformatics

MensorGIS is conceived as Desktop Vector-GIS with Topology Registration. Administra-
tion of the Feature Class Catalogue (Schema) and Attribute Queries can be found in the
menu Data, GIS Analysis implementing Graph Theory in the menu Topology.

9.6.1 Data Types

MensorGIS processes Vector Data and Attribute Data, as an exception it also displays
Orthophotos and Isopleths as Raster Data in the background.

9.6.2 Data Storage

The external storage of a Project Dataset is implemented in MensorGIS in form of XML
files.
The following other Data Formats can be imported / exported:

Import Export
DXF (basic Datatypes) DXF
Shape File (Point, Line, Area) Shape File
GML2 (Simple Features) GML2
GPX (Track, Route) GPX
KML (Point, LineString, Polygon) KML
CSV (Comma Separated Values) for Points SVG (basic Datatypes)

For MensorGIS the Data Format ”OpenCartoDB” was created to show cartographic Lay-
outs. This Data Format can also be imported and exported.

88
9.6.3 Data Modelling
MensorGIS can deal with the Simple Features Model of GML2, i.e. Point, Line and Area
Features, in addition it also can display Text Objects.
The Feature Class Catalogue (Schema) of GML2-Schemes can be imported.
Topology is considered in every Import and Digitizing process.
Reference Systems appear in Import and Export. In the implementation of the GML2
Format also some EPSG Keys were used.

9.6.4 Data Visualization

The Geometric visualization can be changed according to its Layout (e.g. Size, Color,
Linetype, Hatching, Icon, etc.).
Projections can be chosen when exporting into a SVG graphics.
For MensorGIS a hybrid thematic Visualization of CAD Layers and Feature Classes was
applied. An Overlay of different Datasets is possible.

9.6.5 Data Capture

As a sample a Digitizer for On-Screen-Digitizing from a Raster Data original was imple-
mented. By means of Transformation Vector Data can be digitized in a loadable Raster
Image. In addition simple geometric Primitives like Point, Line, Polyline, Polygon, Rect-
angle and Text can be digitized directly in the Main Window via mouse click and/or
typing in Coordinates.
Alternatively an Orthophoto can be georeferenced and resampled to fit to the Reference
System of the current Project Data Set.

9.6.6 GIS Analysis

For one thing Geometric Queries like
• Geometric Range Query,
• Point Buffer,
• Line Buffer
and for another Attribute Queries by a syntax similar to SQL was implemented:
• pure Attribute Query,
• Attribute Query with Statistical Functions,
As Topological Analysis
• Creation of a special Topology,
• Routing (with Street Classification),
• Spreading/Reachability
were applied.
The Analyses show their results graphically and export them also into HTML files.

89
9.6.7 GIS Architectures
MensorGIS is a pure Desktop Application, which accesses external, present data only in
one application: In the Weather Viewer in the Cartography menu the present weather
data of more than 100 world-wide airports are retrieved via the Internet.

9.6.8 Application of GIS

MensorGIS can visualize data from different sources in different scales. Its special charac-
teristic are Geodetic/Surveying and Cartographic functionalities.

9.7 Tutorials for MensorGIS

The MensorGIS Package includes small Test Datasets in different Data Formats as well
as some Tutorials, which on the one hand explain the use of MensorGIS and on the other
hand give background knowledge:
• GeneralTutorial.htm
Import of different Data Formats; setting View Parameters; using Data Schemes;
making use of the On-Screen-Digitizer.
• TopoTutorial.htm
Opening a MensorGIS Project; automatized Text generation; computing a Routing
and a Spreading in a topological Network.
• ProjectionsTutorial.htm
Setting Reference Systems (also Import, Export); Import and Export of Geo Datasets
with different Reference Systems.
• SurveyTutorial.htm
Opening a MensorGIS Project; automatized Text Generation; computing basic sur-
veying Sections and Traverses as well as a Marked-out Route.
• AdjustmentTutorial.htm
Loading and Input of data for a Surveying Network to be adjusted; practical Ad-
justment of 2D and 3D Networks.
• ContourLevelsTutorial.htm
Import of Geo Datasets containing Elevation Data; generation of Elevation Isopleths
and Elevation Profiles; resampling of a digital image by means of Fiducial Points.
• OpenCartoDBTutorial.htm
Import of a cartographic Dataset; automatized Text Generation; querying Attribute
Information; generation of a Thematic Map.
• CombinedTutorial.htm
Setting Reference Systems for Import of CSV Data; editing the Data Schema (Fea-
ture Classes, Attributes); Surveying Coordinate Transformation for Import of mea-
sured Data; generation of Elevation Contour Lines including cartographic Layout.

90
 Figure 9.1: MensorGIS: Atlas Viewer (Fitted View)

9.8 Program Modules of MensorGIS

MensorGIS is implemented as VB.NET-Project using Visual Studio 2008 and as C#.NET-
Project using Visual Studio 2010. In addition to the source code in 15 program modules
and 28/29 windows (Forms) also three .NET-based DLLs are referenced:

• DLLs for Network Adjustment; from internal C#-projects ”NetworkAdjustment” by

the author (consisting of 3 sub-projects).

• DLL for Generation of PDF-Documents; from external C#-project ”PDFsharp” by

MigraDoc Foundation (SourceForge project).

• DLL for an Overlay of Polygons; from external C#-project ”Clipper-Library” by

Angus Johnson (SourceForge project).

For access to the Attribute Data of the Shape Files the database driver for FoxProDB 9.0 is
needed (MSI-Setup VFPOLEDBSetup.msi). Because of the migration to 64-bit operation
systems since Windows 7, full functionality is only available in the C#-version.

91
 Figure 9.2: MensorGIS: Attribute Query by SQL syntax

9.8.1 Modules for Definition of Program Structures

Program Structures determine the basic Definitions in a program, that are:

• Object Classes (Class) and Structures (Structure),

• Enumerations (Enumeration),

• Global Parameters,

• Constants.

MensorGIS (VB.NET) has 6 definition Modules:

• ModuleBaseGeom: basic classes, structures, enumerations and global parameters for

Geometric Data (incl. Topology);

• ModuleBaseData: basic classes, structures, enumerations and global parameters for

Attribute Data;

• ModuleBaseTopo: basic structures, enumerations and global parameters for Ex-

tended Topology;

• ModuleBaseGeod : basic structures, enumerations and global parameters for Geodesy

and Surveying;

• ModuleBaseTime: basic structures for Date and Time;

• ModuleGlobal : global constants and parameters, global variables controlling the Pro-
gram Flow.

MensorGIScs (C#.NET) has 3 definition Classes:

92
 Figure 9.3: MensorGIS: Surveying Tutorial

• ClassGISkernel : basic classes, static constants and global parameters, primarily

for Geometry, Attribute Data, Topology, Import/Export, Graphical User Interface;
Starting Routine;

• ClassEnums: static enumerations for Geometry, Data, Topology and Geodesy;

• ClassInitStructs: initialization of basic structures of User Interface (GUI), Graphics,

Preferences etc.

9.8.2 Modules and Forms for Implementation of GIS Functionality

MensorGIS concentrates the fundamental routines of GIS Functionality in 9 main Modules,
in addition specialized routines are also placed in the source code of 26 Forms (Windows).
MensorGIS has 9 main Modules:

• ModuleInitStructures: initialization of structures (Tools, Environment, Graphics,

Data, Preferences, GUI, etc.), contains about 30 subroutines and functions;

• ModuleMathFunctions: Mathematical functions (Min/Max, Vector, Trigonometry),

contains about 10 subroutines and functions;

93
 Figure 9.4: MensorGIS: Georeferencing incl. Resampling

• ModulePlotFunctions: Geometry functions (Graphics Output, Printing), contains

about 50 subroutines and functions;

• ModuleDataExchange: Data Exchange functions (Internal Format, Import, Export),

contains about 55 subroutines and functions;

• ModuleDataEdit: Data Edit functions (Change of Properties and Attributes), con-

tains about 25 subroutines and functions;

• ModuleDataAnalysis: Data Analysis functions (Basic Topology, Query), contains

about 25 subroutines and functions;

• ModuleTopoFunctions: Topology functions (Extended Topology, Routing, Buffer-

ing), contains about 20 subroutines and functions;

• ModuleGeodFunctions: Geodesy and Surveying functions (Transformations, Basic

Surveying), contains about 45 subroutines and functions;

94
 Figure 9.5: MensorGIS: Orthophoto with OSM and DHM Data

• ModuleGridFunctions: Elevation Grid functions (Elevation Isopleths, Elevation Con-

tour Lines and Profiles), contains about 25 subroutines and functions.

MensorGIScs (C#.NET) has 9 main Classes:

• ClassMath: Mathematical functions (Min/Max, Vector, Trigonometry), contains
about 10 subroutines and functions;

• ClassPlot: Geometry functions (Graphics Output, Printing), contains about 50 sub-

routines and functions;

• ClassExchange: Data Exchange functions (Internal Format, Import, Export), con-

tains about 50 subroutines and functions;

• ClassDataEdit: Data Edit functions (change of Properties, Attributes), contains

about 35 subroutines and functions;

• ClassDataAnalysis: Data Analysis functions (Basic Topology, Query, Overlay), con-

tains about 30 subroutines and functions;

• ClassTopology: Topology functions (Extended Topology, Routing, Buffering), con-

tains about 20 subroutines and functions;

95
 Figure 9.6: MensorGIS: Free Stationing (Transformation of Measurement)

• ClassSurveying: Geodesy and Surveying functions (Transformations, Basic Survey-

ing), contains about 45 subroutines and functions;

• ClassHeightData: Elevation Grid functions (Elevation Isopleths and Contour Lines),

contains about 15 subroutines and functions;

• ClassCartography: Cartography functions (Cartographic Viewers, OpenCartoDB),

contains about 20 subroutines and functions.

MensorGIS has 31/32 Windows:

• FormMensorGIS : Main Window with Menus, Tool Bar, Graphics Plot, Status Bar;

• FormSplash: Splash-Screen when loading the program;

• FormInformation: information window for Data Exchange (only C#-version);

• FormContextHelp: information window of the Context Help;

• FormFeatureInspector : Display of the internal Data Structures on Feature Level;

• FormPlotOrder : adjustment of the Plot Order of Feature Classes;

96
 Figure 9.7: MensorGIS: Contour Map

• FormLimiten/FormLimits: adjustment of the Map Extent, Zoom to Place Markers;

• FormRefSystem: adjustment of the Reference Systems;

• FormObjektart/FormObjectClass: Editor for creation of new Feature Classes with

Attributes;

• FormSchTreeView : Display/Editor for Feature Classes;

• FormAttribute/FormAttributes: Display/Editor for Attribute Values;

• FormAbfrage/FormQuery: execution of Queries (geometric/attributive/statistical);

• FormTopoAnalyse/FormTopoAnalysis: calculation of Topological Analysis;

• FormOverlay: calculation of Overlay;

• FormText: generator for Text Objects from Feature Classes;

• FormGetCSV : import of Comma Separated Value (CSV) Data;

• FormDigitizer : On-Screen-Digitizing for Data Capture;

• FormOrthoImage/FormResampling: Orthophoto Georeferencing and Resampling;

97
 Figure 9.8: MensorGIS: Thematic Map

• FormVKSchnitte/FormSurveySections: calculation of Intersection calculations (Sur-

veying);

• FormVKPolygone/FormSurveyTraverse: calculation of Traverses (Surveying);

• FormVKTransform/FormSurveyFreeStat: Transformations; Free Stationing: Mea-

surement and Stake-out (Surveying);

• FormVKRoute/FormSurveyMarkedRoute: development of Marked-out Routes (Sur-

veying);

• FormAusgleichung/FormNetAdjustment: calculation of Least Squares Network Ad-

justment (Surveying);

• FormContour/FormContourLevels: generation of Elevation Isopleths (Cartography);

• FormContourLines: generation of Elevation Contour Lines (Cartography);

• FormProfile/FormHeightProfile: generation of Elevation Profiles (Cartography);

• FormStyleEditor : change of Graphic Style Properties (Cartography);

• FormIconManager : change of Point Icon Properties (Cartography);

• FormAtlasView : World Atlas Viewer (Cartography);

• FormAtlasCountry/FormCountryData: World Atlas Country Data (Cartography);

• FormThematicMap: Thematic Mapping (Cartography);

• FormCharts: generation of Chart Maps (Cartography);

98
 Figure 9.9: MensorGIS: DHM Interpolation and OSM Data

9.9 Project Format of MensorGIS

MensorGIS stores the actual data in form of XML files. The Project Files are normal
ASCII text files with the extension *.minfo, which point to the XML files existent in the
current Project.
The XML Files divide up into the following categories:

• <Prj-Name>cfg.xml: Configuration (Layer, Map Extent, Reference Systems)

• <Prj-Name>pnt.xml: Point Features

• <Prj-Name>lin.xml: Line Features

• <Prj-Name>are.xml: Area Features

• <Prj-Name>txt.xml: Text Objects

• <Prj-Name>cht.xml: Chart Objects

• <Prj-Name>img.xml: Image Data

• <Prj-Name>att.xml: Attribute Data

• <Prj-Name>sch.xml: Data Schema

Here only an excerpt of the program description was reflected. A detailed documenta-
tion can be found in the file ”MensorGIShelp.htm” resp. ”MensorGIScsHelp.htm” of the
downloadable ZIP files.

99
Index

.NET-System, 62, 91 Bench Mark, 113

7-Parameter Transformation, 40 Bilinear Interpolation, 59
Bilinear Projection, 61
Access (Database), 71 Bivariate Methods, 78
ActiveX, 68 Bonne Projection, 54
Adjacency, 19 Boolean Algebra, 77
Adjustment, 47 Buffer, 113
Affine Mapping, 18, 84 Bundle Block Adjustment, 47
Affine Projection, 61
Affine Transformation, 29 CAD System, 74, 113
Alphanumeric Data, 70, 113 Carrier Phase Measurement, 43
Analytical Geometry, 17, 69, 84 Cartographic Analysis, 48
Analytical Statistics, 15 Cartographic Projections, 50, 74, 86
Apian Projection, 55 Cassini-Soldner Projection, 52
Applet, 68 Cathetus, 14
Application Server, 68 Central Conic Projections, 54
Arc Length, Clothoid, 31 Central Projection, Cartography, 51
Arc Section, 22 Central Projection, general, 61
ArcGIS, 81 CGI, 68
Arcs, 31 City Model, 72
Area Hatches, 74 CityGML, 72
Area Signatures, 74 Classification Methods, 15
Arithmetic Mean, 14 Client, 67
Array, 62 Client-Server Principle, 67
artificial Conic Projection, 54 Client-Server Systems, 67, 79
artificial Cylindrical Projection, 51 Clothoid, 31
ASP, 68 Clothoid Parameter, 31
Attribute Data, 70 Code Phase Measurement, 43
Attribute Queries, 77 Color Components, 59
Attributes, 72, 113 Color Model, 59
AWT, 62 Coloring, 49
Azimuth, 36 Computer Graphics, 59, 87
Azimuthal Projection, congruent in distance Conditional Adjustment, 44
of center, 51 Conic Projection by Lambert, Equal-area,
Azimuthal Projections, 50 54
Conic Projections, 54
Backwards Section, 24 Constants, 110
Baselines, 43 Constructive Geometry, 74

116
Contour Lines, 57 Development Environment, 62
Control Points, 47 DGPS, 43
Conventional Projections, 55 Differential Levelling, 32
Coordinate System, 113 Digital Elevation Model, 48
Coordinate Transformations, 27, 37, 113 Digital Image Processing, 59
CORBA, 68 Digital Landscape Model, 48
Correlation, 15 Digital Terrain Model, 48
Correlation Method, 18 Digitizer, 75
Cursor Concept, 66 Dijkstra’s Algorithm, 19
Curvature, 31 Dimensioning, 63
Cylindrical Projection by Lambert, 52, 53 Distortion in Angle, 56
Cylindrical Projections, 51 Distortion in Area, 56
Distortion in Distance, 56
Data Capture, 75, 89 Distributed Applications, 67
Data Encapsulation, 66 DML, 65
Data Formats, 63, 70, 88, 113 Document Object Model, 64
Data Modelling, 12, 72, 89, 114 DOM, 64, 114
Data Preprocessing, 81 Douglas-Poiker Algorithm, 81
Data Processing, 63, 88 DQL, 66
Data Quality, 76 DTD, 64
Data Schema, 72, 114 DTM, 48
Data Storage, 12, 70, 88 DXF, 70, 114
Data Structures, 62, 88
Data Types, 69, 88 Earth Ellipsoid, 35
Data Visualization, 73, 89 Easting, 21
Database Connection, 66 Edge, 19
Database Drivers, 66 Edge Set, 19
Database Management, 67 Edge Values, 19
Database Query, 66 Elements of Marked-out Routes, 31
Database Schema, 65 Elevation Data, 57, 80, 87
Database Server, 68 Elevation Numbers, 57
Database Table, 118 Elevation Profiles, 57
Database, Web Technologies, 68 Elimination Method, 16
Databases, 12, 64, 88, 113 Ellipsoid Parameters, 36
Dataset, 65, 114 Entity, 65, 114
Datum Transformation, 37, 40 Environmental Information Systems, 80
Datum Transformation by Molodenskij, 40 EPS, 64
Datum, geodetic, 35, 114 EPSG, 73, 114
Datum-Shift Parameters, 41 Equal-area Azimuthal Projection, 51
DBF, 71 Equation of a Plane, 17
DBMS, 64, 67 Equation of a Straight Line, 17
DCL, 65 Equations of Condition, 44
DDL, 65 Equations of Error, 45
Degree of Freedom, 43 Equations of Observation, 45
DEM, 48, 114 ER-Model, 65
Descriptive Statistics, 14 Export, 70, 114

117
Feature, 70, 72, 114 GIS, fields of application, 80, 90
Feature Class, 72, 74, 115 GLONASS, 42
Feature Class Catalogue, 72 GML, 70, 73, 115
Fiducial Point, 115 GML2, 72
Fields, 65 GML3, 72
Flattening, 36 Gnomonic Projection, 51
Foreign Key, 65 GNSS, 42
Formula Symbols, 111 Gon, 21
Forwards Section, 23 Google Earth, 81
GPS, 33, 35, 40, 42
Galileo, 42 GPX, 70
Gaussian Elimination, 16 Grad, 21
Gauß-Krüger Coordinates (Germany), 41 Graph Theory, 19, 115
GDI+, 62 Graphic Primitives, 72, 74, 116
General Spatial Data, 75, 80, 115 Grey Value, 59
Generalization, 12, 49, 81 Grid Bearing, 21
Geo Web Services, 79 Ground Information Systems, 80
Geo-Databases, 71
Geocoding, 73, 115 Hammer Projection, 53
Geodata, 80, 115 Hatching, 49
Geodetic Angles, 21 Height Determination, 32
Geodetic Coordinate System, 21 Height Determination by Levelling, 32
Geodetic Coordinates, 35 Height System, 33
Geodetic Problems, 36 Helmert Transformation, 27
Geodetic Projections, 41, 85 Hill Shading, 57
Geodetic Reference System, 35 Homogenization, 76
Geoid, 33 Hypotenuse, 14
Geoinformatics, 69
Icons, 74
GeoMedia, 81
IDE, 62
Geometric Height Determination, 32
Image Data, 59
Geometric Queries, 77 Image Data Formats, 64
Geometric Range Query, 78 Import, 70, 116
Geometric Type, 72 Incidence, 19
Geometric Visualization, 73 Index, Database, 65
Georeference, 47, 71, 75, 76, 115 Indicatrix, Tissot’s, 56
Georeferencing, 71, 73, 75 Inheritance, 66
Geostatistics, 78 Interfaces, 70, 116
geoTIFF, 71 Interoperability, 116
GIF, 64 Interoperable Formats, 70
GIS Analysis, 12, 77, 89, 115 Interpolation Methods, 17, 84
GIS Applications, 115 Interpolation Methods for Grey Values, 59
GIS Architectures, 79, 90 Interval, 57
GIS Data, 80 Isopleths, 57
GIS Functionality, 92
GIS Products, 81 JDBC, 66
GIS Software, 81 JPG, 64

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JSP, 68 Mollweide Projection, 53
JVM, 62 Multivariate Methods, 78

Key, Database, 65 National Grid, 85

KML, 70 National Grid, Austria, 41
National Grid, Germany, 41
L1-Norm, 46 National Grid, Switzerland, 52
L2-Norm, 45 Network Analysis, 79, 116
Laserscanning, 48 Network Information Systems, 80
Layer, 74, 116 Next Neighbourhood, 59
Layout, 74 Node, 19
LBS, 80 Node-Edge Model, 72
Least Squares Method, 28 normal Azimuthal Projection, 50
Leg, 14 normal Cylindrical Projection, 51
Levelling, 32 Normal Height, 33
Line Buffer, 78 Normal-orthometric Height, 33
Line Type, 74 Northing, 21
Linear Equation System, 16, 17
Linear Interpolation, Line, 17 Object-oriented Databases, 66
Linear Interpolation, Triangle, 18 Object-relational Databases, 66
Linking, 63 oblique Azimuthal Projection, 50
List, 63 oblique Cylindrical Projection, 51
List, chained, 63 ODBC, 66
Location Based Service, 80 OGC, 79
Logical Operators, 77 Oracle, 71
Orthographic Projection, 50
Map Layout, 49, 86 Orthometric Height, 33
Map Projection, 12, 50 Orthophoto, 48, 69
MapInfo, 81 OSM, 81
Marked-out Route, 31, 85 Over-determined Equation System, 43
Matrix, 15 Overlay, 75, 116
Matrix Algebra, 15
Matrix Computation, 15, 83 Parallax, 47
Matrix Elements, 15 Parallel Projection, 61
Matrix Inverse, 16 Perspective Projection, 74
Matrix Transpose, 15 Photogrammetry, 47, 48
MDB, 71 PHP, 68
Median, 14 Pixel, 59
Mediating Adjustment, 45 Plane Projection, 61
MensorGIS, 83, 94 Planiglobes, 56
MensorGIS Modules, 91 Planimetric Point Determination, 22, 84
MensorGIS Tutorials, 90 Planispheres, 56
Mercator Projection, 52 PlugIn, 68
Meridional Zones, 41 PNG, 64
Metadata, 73, 116 POI, 80
Middleware, 68 Point Buffer, 78
Models of Adjustment, 43, 86 Point Determination in Height, 85

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Point-in-Polygon Test, 73 Residuals, 44–46
Points of Interest, 80 Response, 67
Polar Coordinate System, 116 Revision of Data, 76
Polar Measurement, 27 RGB Model, 59
Polar Methods, 26 Right-angled Triangle, 14
Polar Stake-out, 27 RMI, 68
Polyconic Projection by Lambert/Lagrange, Rotation, 27, 29
55 Rotation Parameters, 40
Polyconic Projections, 55 Routing, 19, 79, 117
Polygonometric Point Determination, 24 RPC, 68
Polyhedral Graticules, 56
PostGIS, 72 Sanson-Flamsteed Projection, 53
PostgresSQL, 72 Satellite-based Height Determination, 33
PRJ, 73 SAX, 64, 117
Program Structures, 91 Scalar, 15
Programming, 62, 87 Scale Factor, 40, 60
Programming Environments, 61 Scaling, 27, 29
Programming Languages, 62 Scanner, 75
Projections, 74, 116 Screen Coordinates, 60
Projective Projection, 61 Screen Coordinates, Transformation, 60
Properties of Distortion, 56 Sections, 17
Proprietary Formats, 70 Semantics, 70, 117
Pseudoranges, 43 Semi-major Axis, 36
Pythagorean Theorem, 22 Semi-minor Axis, 36
Server, 67
Quadtree, 67 Server-API, 68
Quality Management, 76 Service, 67
Shape File, 71, 117
Radians, 13 SHP, 70
Raster Data, 69, 116 Similarity Transformation, 18, 27
Raster Data Formats, 71 Simple Feature Model, 72
Rasterization, 76 Simplex Algorithm, 46
Realtime-Kinematic, 43 Slope, 57
Rectangular Projection, Cartography, 52 Slope Distance, 32
Rectification, 48 Smallworld, 81
Reduction, 35 SOAP, 68
Reference Systems, 12, 73, 110, 117 Spatial Data, 117
Referential Integrity, 67 Spatial Data Infrastructure, 80
Regional Information Systems, 80 Spatial Data Server, 79
Regression, 15 Spatial Object, 70, 117
Relation, 65, 75 Spatial Projections, 61
Relational Databases, 65 Spatial Reference, 117
Relief, topographical, 57 SpatiaLite, 72
Remote Sensing, 48 Specialized Information Systems, 80
Request, 67 Spheroid, 33
Resampling, 59 SQL, 65, 66, 117

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SQL Queries, 77 true Cylindrical Projection, 51
SQL:2011, 67 Tuple, 65
SSI, 68
Stab-Werner Projection, 54 UDDI, 68
Standard Deviation, 14 UML, 62
Standardization, 70 Univariate Methods, 78
Statistical Analysis, 78 Universal Transverse Mercator, 42
Statistical Data, 80 Utility Services GIS, 79
Statistics, 14, 83 UTM Coordinates, 42
Stereographic Projection, 50 UTM Projection, 118
Stochastic Model, 43
Variance, 14
Structured Query Language, 66
Vector, 15
SVG, 117
Vector Data, 69, 118
Swing, 62
Vector Data Formats, 70
Tags, 63 Vectorization, 76
Terrain: Aspect, 57 Visibility Analysis, 78
Terrain: Slope, 57 Visualization, 12, 73
Thematic Map, 49 Visualizations of the whole Earth, 56
VRML, 61
Thematic Spatial Data, 75, 80, 118
Thematic Visualization, 74 WCTS, 79
Three-dimensional Analyses, 78 Web Coordinate Transformation Service, 79
Three-dimensional Models, 48 Web Feature Service, 79
Tide Gauge, 33 Web Map Service, 79
TIF, 64 Web Mapping, 79
TIN, 48, 118 Web Service, 68
Tissot’s Indicatrix, 56 Weighted Graph, 19
Topography, 118 WFS, 79
Topological Analysis, 79 WGS84, 35, 43
Topological Operators, 78 WMS, 79
Topology, 19, 72, 84, 118 World Coordinates, 60
Transaction, 67 WSDL, 68
Transformations, 27, 84, 85, 118
Transformations, B,L,h - E,N,h, 38 X3D, 61
Transformations, x,y,z - B,L,h, 37 XML, 63, 118
Translation, 27, 29 XML Schema Description, 72
Translation Parameters, 40 XSD, 64, 72
transversal Azimuthal Projection, 50
transversal Cylindrical Projection, 51 Zenith Distance, 32
Traverse, 25, 26
Tree Structure, 63
Triangulated Irregular Network, 48
Trigonometric Functions, 13
Trigonometric Network, 35
Trigonometry, 13, 83
true Conic Projection, 54

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