signed in association with the aeeapatan question practice aid Module 11A Turbine Aeroplane, Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems for EASA Pa rt- ca Volume 2 (Avionics and Electrical Systems chapters) Exclusively from WWW.airtechbooks.comfi Integrated Training System Preface Thank you for purchasing the Total Training Support Integrated Training System. We are ‘sure you will need no other reference material to pass your EASA Part-66 exam in this Module. These notes have been written by instructors of EASA Part-66 courses, specifically for practitioners of varying experience within the aircraft maintenance industry, and especially those who are sel-studying to pass the EASA Part-66 exams. They are specifically designed to meet the EASA Part-66 syllabus and to answer the questions being asked by the UK CAA in their examinations. The EASA Part-6 syllabus for each sub-section is printed at the beginning of each of the chapters in these course notes and is used as the “Learning Objectives”. We suggest that you take each chapter in-turn, read the text of the chapter a couple of times, if only to familiarise yourself with the location of the information contained within. Then, using your club66pro.com membership, attempt the questions within the respective sub-section, and continually refer back to these notes to read-up on the underpinning knowledge required to answer the respective question, and any similar question that you may encounter on your real Part-66 examination. Studying this way, with the help of the question practice and their explanations, you will be able to master the subject piece-by-piece, and become proficient in the subject matter, as well as proficient in answering the CAA style EASA part-66 multiple choice questions. We regularly have a review of our training notes, and in order to improve the quality of the notes, and of the service we provide with our Integrated Training System, we would appreciate your feedback, whether positive or negative. So, if you discover within these course notes, any errors or typos, or any subject which is not particularly well, or adequately explained, please tell us, using the ‘contact-us’ feedback page of the club66pro.com website. We will be sure to review your feedback and incorporate any changes necessary. We look forward to hearing from you. Finally, we appreciate that self-study students are usually also self-financing. We work very hard to cut the cost of our Integrated Training System to the bare minimum that we can provide, and in making your training resources as cost efficient as we can, using, for example, mono printing, but providing the diagrams which would be better provided in colour, on the club66pro.com website. In order to do this, we request that you respect our copyright policy, and refrain from copying, scanning or reprinting these course notes in any way, even for sharing with friends and colleagues. Our survival as a service provider depends on it, and copyright abuse only devalues the service and products available to yourself and your colleagues in the future, and makes them more expensive too. TTS integrated Training System "© Canwnnnt 9041 Module 11 PrefaceIntegrated Training System Intentionally Blank ii Module 11 Preface TTS Integrated Training System © Copyright 2011) Integrated Training System Module 11 Chapters 11.1, Theory of Flight 11.2. Airframe Structures - General Concepts 11.3, Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 11.4. Air Conditioning and Pressurisation (ATA 21) 11.5. Instruments/Avionic Systems 11.6. Electrical Power (ATA 24) 11.7. Equipment and Furnishings (ATA 25) 11.8. Fire Protection (ATA 26) 11.9. Flight Controls (ATA 27) 11.10. Fuel Systems (ATA 28) 11.11. Hydraulic Power (ATA 29) 11.12. Ice and Rain Protection (ATA 30) 11.13, Landing Gear (ATA 32) 11.14, Lights (ATA 33) 11.15. Oxygen (ATA 35) 11.16. Pneumatic/Vacuum (ATA 36) 11.17. Water/Waste (ATA 38) 11.18, On Board Maintenance Systems (ATA 45) The Total Training Support Integrated Training System Study Notes are divided into five convenient Volumes as follows: Volume 1 - Contains Chapters 1,2 and 3 (Aerodynamics and Airframe Structures) Volume 2 - Contains Chapters 5 and 18 (Avionic and Electrical Systems) Volume 3 - Contains Chapters 6 and 14 (Avionic and Electrical Systems) Volume 4 - Contains Chapters 4,7,8,9 and 10 (Mechanical Systems) Volume 5 - Contains Chapters 11, 12, 13, 15, 16 and 17 (Mechanical Systems continued) The Volumes are available for purchase in the following sets:- Volumes 1,2,3.4 & 5 complete set, or Volumes 1,4 & 5 sub-set; or Volumes 2 & 3 as sub-set. Module 11 Preface " TTS Integrated Training System © Comurinht 2041iv TTS integra ©Copyright Led Training Systom 2011 Intentionally Blank Module 11 PrefaceIntegrated Training System Dosigaes ina st European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) Aircraft Maintenance Licence Programme Module 11A Licence Category B1.1 Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems 11.5 Instruments/Avionic Systems Module 11.5 Instruments/Avionic Systems 51Integrated Training System Copyright Notice © Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e. photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of Total Training Support Ltd. Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2 and C Aircraft Maintenance Licence Basic knowledge for categories A, 81 and B2 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the category B2 basic knowledge levels, The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows: LEVEL 1 A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject. Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject. ‘The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and examples The applicant should be able to use typical terms. LEVEL 2 A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject. ‘An ability to apply that knowledge. Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject. The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical examples. The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the subject, ‘The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the subject, ‘The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practice! manner using detailed procedures. LEVEL 3 A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject. ‘A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive manner. Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects. ‘The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals and specific examples. The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject. The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics describing the subject. The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's instructions. The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply corrective action where appropriate. 52 Module 11.5 Instruments/Avionic Systems se pte scones TTS Integrated Training System ‘ongage oftes earIntegrated Training System @ S Table of Contents Module 11.5 Instruments/Avionic Systems _ 8 11.5.1 Instrument Systems (ATA 31) 9 Aircraft Indicating Systems - General 9 Variable Resistance Systems _ a) Synchros ot Direct Torquer Systems. _ 13 Servo Systems. _ - - 14 Resolvers - — - 15 Linear Variable Differential Transducers (LVDTs) - 17 Rotary Variable Differential Transducers (RVDTs) 19 Servo Loops. _ at Pressure Measuring Instruments. 23 Absolute Pressure Instruments 23 Gauge Pressure Instruments 23 Differential Pressure Instruments. 25 Strain Gauges Piezo-Resistive Sensors Variable Frequency Signals. Temperature Measurement Non-Electrical Temperature Measurements 31 Temperature Dependant Resistors ___ 32 Quantity Indication System __ 39 DC Electrical Indicators 39 Digital Fuel Quantity indicating System 42 Stall Warning and Angle of Attack Systems 47 Stall Waming Systems 47 Angle of Attack Indicators 49 Pitot-Static Systems 51 Intemational Standard Atmosphere (ISA) 51 Light Aircraft System Large Aircraft System Air Data Sensors _ Air Data Module Altimeters Principle of Operation Drum-Type Altimeters 64 Pressure Altitude en -) Density Altitude ee --) The Sensitive Altimeter mS Types of Altitude Measurement «i Altimeter Indicators TO nsec cncncn Module 11.5 Instruments/Avionic Systems 5.3 aged eee TTS integrated Training SystemIntegrated Training System i : oth the Altimeter Errors Blockages and Leakages Servo Altimeters. Encoding Altimeters Altimeter Tests Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) Principle of Operation VSI Errors VSI Faults Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator (IVS!) __ 80 Airspeed Indicator (ASI) 81 Principle of Operation 81 Airspeeds : 85 True Airspeed (TAS) Indicators 85 ASI Errors — 86 ASI Faults _— 89 Temperatures Total Air Temperature Static Air Temperature Mach Speed Altitude versus |AS/Mach 94 Overspeed Warning 95 Mach Meter 97 Combination Airspeed Indicator 97 Mach meter Construction and Operation 100 Mach Meter Errors 101 Mach Meter Blockages and Leakages —101 Mach Meter Accuracy Air Data Computer General Examples of Airdata Systems Gyroscopic Instruments Rigidity Precession Types of Gyro Vertical Gyro Altitude Indicator Erection of the Vertical Gyros Remote Artificial Horizon Indicator. Directional Gyro Slaving of Directional Gyro Gyro Wander Rate Gyro Tum and Slip Indication Tum Coordinator Indicator Gyro Instrument Power Systems 5.4 Module 11.5 Instruments/Avionic Systems ee wiser dscesve's TIS Intograted Trang System Tran SecaoeIntegrated Training System Magnetic Compasses ____ Earth's Magnetic Field Aeroplane Magnetism Deviation and its Compensation Regulation (EASA) Limits Compass Swinging Deviation Compensation Devices ‘Summary of Deviation and Variation __ Direct Reading (Standby) Magnetic Compass Direct Reading Compass Errors Turning Errors Other Errors Flux Valve Slaved Gyro Compass Compass Systems___ Remote compensator 11.5.2 - Avionic Systems (ATA 22/23/34) Autoflight (ATA 22) Introduction Synchronisation__ Terms and Definitions System Layouts Layout Examples Autopilot _ - Flight Director : Servo Actuators Control Wheel Steering Operational Modes. Landing Pitch Trim, Yaw Damping Auto Throttle/Thrust___ ‘Automatic Landing Fault Isolation and Test Communications (ATA 23)____ Radio Communication - Gener VHF Communication HF Communication __ SELCAL Satellite Communication (SATCOM) Aircraft Communication Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS) _ Audio Integrating __ Interphone Passenger Address SC—S Cabin intercommunication Data System (CIDS) Coxkpit Voice Recorder (CVR) __ Panarorcucna s Module 11.5 Instruments/Avionic Systems 5.5 Sroage ste cute TTS intograted Training SystemIntegrated Training System Navigation Systems (ATA 34) Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT) Inertial Navigation System (INS) __ Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) _ VHF Navigation - Overview __ Instrument Landing System (ILS), _393 VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR) ant Marker Beacon. _ ___ 427 Distance Measurement Equipment (DME) 433 Global Position System (GPS) 447 Area Navigation (RNAV) 461 Navigation Radio Tuning 463 Flight Management System (FMS) Radio Altimeter Ground Proximity Waming System (GPWS) ATC Transponder Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS) Weather Radar Flight Data Recorder (FDR) Q 481 _489 ___497 ___509 521 535 = 5.6 Module 11.5 Instruments/Avionic Systems TTS integrated Training System Soomged tohIntegrated Traini Desione Intentionally Blank Module 11.5 Instruments/Avionic Systems 5.7 TTS integrated Training SystemIntegrated Training System co fs = Module 11.5 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement Certification Statement These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation 2042/2003 Annex III (Part-66) Appendix |, and the associated Knowledge Levels as specified below: vecti EASA 66 Level Objective Reference Bit | Instrument Systems (ATA 31) 11.5.1 2 Pitot-static: altimeter, air speed indicator, vertical speed indicator; Gyroscopic: artificial horizon, attitude director, direction indicator, horizontal situation indicator, turn and slip indicator, turn coordinator; Compasses: direct reading, remote reading; Angle of attack indication, stall waming systems; Other aircraft system indication. 'Avionic Systems Fundamentals of system lay-outs and operation of, [= “Autoflight (ATA 22): ‘Communications (ATA 23); Navigation Systems (ATA 34) 58 Module 11.5 Instruments/Avionic Systems TTS Integrated Training Systom several te samené 1 Integrated Training System Module 11.5 Instruments/Avionic Systems 11.5.1 Instrument Systems (ATA 31) Aircraft Indicating Systems — General Variable Resistance Systems A variable resistance signal is made by a device of which a certain parameter controls the resistance. The resistance varies between a high and a low value. These limits depend on the type and range of the resistor. Parameters which control the resistance are, for example, temperature, displacement or pressure. Non-Linear * nesistancel ® i f Briage circut f AD Converter output + af Be ud Figure 5.2: Resistance Temperature Sensor in a Circuit Module 11.5 Instruments/Avionic Systems 5.9 ‘TTS iniograted Training SystemIntegrated Training System Linear Potentiometer Angular Potentiometer Figure 5.3: Potentiometer —— aia 50g | +i) Potentiometer Figure 5.4: Resistor, Rheostat and Pctentiometer Figure 5.5: Rheostat and Potentiometer 5.10 Module 11.5 Instruments/Avionic Systems QCE y Integrated Training System o va (a Synchros A typical synchro has a rotor and three stator coils. The coils in the stator are at 120 degrees with respect to each other. This unit acts like 3 control transformers contained in one unit. Figure 5.6: Synchro Arrangement Synchros use 26 V AC or 115 V AC for excitation of the rotor. The excitation makes a magnetic field in the rotor coil. This magnetic field induces a voltage in the stator coils. The voltages in the stator coils are in-phase or 180 degrees out-of-phase with respect to each other. The voltage in the stator coils depend on the angle between the rotor coil and each stator coil. When we turn the rotor, the magnetic field in the stator also tums and the voltages in the stator coils change. Leama ca Module 11.5 Instruments/Avionic Systems 5.11 TTS integrated Training SystemIntegrated Training System poss 7 1 i x ' v ' ! ' 1 t , ' ' 1 1 Ry tL ~ J Synchro R; Y 2 z Symbol ay V4, t to XS - Synchro Principle As je+ ta Figure 5.7: Synchro diagram symbols and operation 5.12 Module 11.5 Instruments/Avionic Systems TTS Integrated Training System& ¢ Integrated Training System Direct Torquer Systems The output signal of a synchro is an AC signal which contains the angular information. The ‘synchro components which make these signals are synchro transmitters. These transmitters are of the old multi-coil type or of the latest solid-state type. The multi-coil type makes a mechanical input a synchro signal, the second from an electrical input. Ina synchro system, we connect the three output signals of a synchro transmitter to the three inputs of a synchro receiver. The field that is made by the rotor of the synchro transmitter is now repeated in the stator of the synchro receiver. Before the rotor of the receiver takes the position of the field in the stator we have to make a field in the rotor of the receiver. This field must be 180° out of phase with the field made by the synchro transmitter. The rotor of the synchro receiver now goes to the same position as the rotor of the synchro transmitter. Any time we change the position of the rotor of the synchro transmitter the rotor of the receiver follows this exactly. ‘TX = Torque Transmitter TR = Torque Receifer synchro Transmitter synchro Recelfer Figure 5.8: A complete Torque Synchro system seat acca Module 11.5 Instruments/Avionic Systems 5.13Integrated Training System py Servo Systems The rotor of a synchro receiver gives a limited torque for other systems. When this torque is not high enough we have to use a servo system. In a synchro-servo system the rotor of the synchro receiver gives a signal to a servo amplifier. In this system the rotor of the receiver is not connected to a supply source but it makes a signal from the stator-field in the receiver synchro. The output signal of the servo amplifier drives a motor. The motor drives, via a reduction gear, the rotor of the synchro receiver and a load. When the output signal of the rotor of the synchro receiver is not zero, the servo amplifier drives the motor. The motor adjusts the position of the rotor of the synchro receiver and the load until the output signal of this rotor is zero. This output signal is zero when the angle between the rotor and the stator field is 90 degrees. Synchro Transmitter Servo Amplifier Servomotor Figure 5.9: Servo System Figure 5.10: Synchro receiver and synchro transmitter 514 Module 11.5 Instruments/Avionic Systems TTS Integrated Training System raat eanIntegrated Training System Resolvers The resolver has two stator coils and a rotor coil. The two stator coils are at 90 degrees with respect to each other. A resolver produces a sine and cosine signal in the stators as the rotor is. turned. Sine Figure 5.11: Resolver Amplitude (0 = 0°) 1 Cosine’ \ Amplitude (0 = 180°) Figure 5.12: Sine and Cosine Signal depending of existing Angle Module 11.5 Instruments/Avionic Systems rage 2chine ome TIS Integeated Traian‘Channel A a =f Fitter }{Demoa}[aro ae Thrust Fitter }{Demod-{ AD }{CALC]* Angle Electronic Engine Control Figure 5.14: Resolvers 5.16 Module 11.5 Instruments/Avionic Systems TTS Integrated Training SystemIntegrated Training System Linear Variable Differential Transducers (LVDTs) A transformer induces an output voltage in the secondary coil. According to the direction of the windings, the phase angle is in phase (zero degrees.) or opposite phase (180°), The phase angle can be determined by observing the dots drawn on the diagram. Linear Variable Differential Transducers (LVDTs), also known as Linear Variable Differential Transformers (LVDTs) change linear position information into electrical signals. ‘An LVDT has one primary coil, a linear moveable iron core and two in serial connected secondary coils The mechanical input changes the position of the iron core. The position of the core changes the magnetic coupling between the primary and the secondary coils. When the input moves the core in one direction, one of the secondary coils receives more magnetic flux. This induces a higher voltage in the coil The other secondary coil receives less magnetic flux. This induces a lower voltage. The difference between voltages induced in the secondary stator coils is proportional to the mechanical position Refer to figure 5.16. When the position of the iron core is centred, the magnetic field induced by primary Coil is equally divided between the secondary coils. Therefore the output voltage is zero. When the iron core has moved upward, there is more coupling to the upper coil and less coupling to the lower coil. The output voltage increases and is in phase with the excitation. When the iron core has turned downward, there is more coupling to the lower coil and less coupling to the upper coil. The output voltage increases and is in opposite phase with the excitation. Figure 5.15: Various LVDTs ean acon Module 11.5 Instruments/Avionic Systems 5.17 anes dane TTS inegate Taning Systemrated Training System f Po THE Po Po ZEZEA = Zwechanical Input PRIMARY = ~ SECONDARY con 4 cons Electrical Output bee IRON - CORE ' . {i LvoT a Hy Pot Po Po Xy bP Figure 5.16: LVDT principle of operation 5.18 Module 11.5 Instruments/Avionic Systems TTS integrated Training Systemuf Integrated Training System nth th Rotary Variable Differential Transducers (RVDTs) RVDT ANGLE Stow 1 3 ° f | EXCITATION 2evac Figure 5.17: RVDT Rotary Variable Differential Transducers (RVDTs), also known as Rotary Variable Differential Transformers (RVDTs), change angular position information into electrical signals. ‘An RVDT has; a primary stator coil an iron rotor core, and two secondary stator coils. The mechanical input changes the position of the iron core. The position of the core changes the magnetic coupling between the primary and the secondary stator coils. When the input rotates, one of the secondary coils receives more magnetic flux. This induces a higher voltage in the coil, The other secondary coil receives less magnetic flux. This induces a lower voltage. The difference between voltages induced in the secondary stator coils is proportional to the rotated angle. This is an AC Ratio Signal. The difference between rotation directions is that the output-voltage between R and T is of opposite phase. The output measured between R and T is an AC-RATIO signal which represents the rotated angle of the RVDT. Use ander ace Module 11.5 Instruments/Avionic Systems 5.19 TTS Integrated Training SystemIntegrated Training System i Designs ay Figure 5.18: RVDT operating principle Zero Position: The position of the iron core is zero. The magnetic field induced by primary coil L3 is equally divided between L1and L2. Therefore the voltage R-T is zero. Rotated clockwise: The iron core has turned clockwise. Now there is more coupling between L3 and L2, and less } coupling between L3 and L1. The voltage between T and S increases and the voltage between R and S decreases. Rotated counter clockwise: The iron core has tumed counter- clockwise. Now there is more coupling between L3 and L1 and less coupling between L3 and L2. The voltage between T and S decreases and the voltage between R and S increases 5.20 Module 11.5 Instruments/Avionic Systems cans asenue's TTS integrated Training System san ZenecaIntegrated Training System Servo Loops The DC servo motor loop is called a loop because of the closed nature of the system operation. The DC source is connected to the variable control potentiometer and to the follow-up potentiometer. A servo amplifier amplifies the ratio signal and drives a motor with it. The motor drives a feedback device and a load. The signal from the feedback device also goes to the servo amplifier. The load is in the correct position when the difference between the ratio and the feedback signal is zero. Servo Loop with DC Motor - Any time there is a difference between the two signals, the motor drives the load and feedback until both signals are equal. The polarity of the difference determines the direction of rotation. Servo Loop with AC Motor - When we must have even more torque, itis better to use an AC motor. A chopper circuit makes AC from the DC signal. To drive the AC motor with this signal we need an extra amplifier. The rest of this system works like the DC servo system. ‘SERVO AMPLIFIER FEEDBACK DEVICE Figure 5.19: Servo-loop with DC Motor ~~ st sree MOTOR DRIVER Feroack oevice Figure 5.20: Servo loop with AC Motor ear cage Module 11.5 Instruments/Avionic Systems 5.21 (sages ati rape ‘TTS integrated Training SystomIntegrated Training System Intentionally Blank Module 11.5 Instruments/Avionic Systems ining SystemIntegrated Training System Pressure Measuring Instruments Pressure is the amount of force acting on a given unit of area, and all pressure must be measured from some known reference. Absolute pressure is measured from zero pressure, or a vacuum. Gauge pressure is measured from the existing atmospheric pressure, and differential pressure is the difference between two pressures. Absolute Pressure Instruments This instrument uses a sealed, evacuated, concentrically corrugated metal capsule, known as an aneroid capsule, or diaphragm, as its pressure-sensitive mechanism. The concentric corrugations provide a degree of springiness that opposes the pressure of the air. As the air pressure increases, the thickness of the capsule decreases, and as the pressure decreases, the capsule expands. A rocking shaft, sector gear, and pinion multiply the change in dimension of the capsule and drive a pointer across a calibrated dial. [Atmospheric Pressure + t Figure 5.21: Aneroid capsule (diaphragm) Gauge Pressure Instruments Gauge pressure is measured from the existing barometric pressure and is actually the pressure that has been added to a fluid over and above atmospheric pressure. Bourdon Tube - A Bourdon tube is typically used to measure gauge pressure. This tube is a flattened thin-wall bronze tube formed into a curve. One end of the tube is sealed and attached through a linkage to a sector gear. The other end is connected to the instrument case through a fitting that allows the fluid to be measured to enter. Module 11.5 Instruments/Avionic Systems 5.23 TTS Integrated Training SystemIntegrated Training System oy When the pressure of the fluid inside the tube increases, it tries to change the cross-sectional shape of the tube from flat to round. As the cross section changes, the curved tube tends to straighten out. This in turn moves the sector gear, which rotates the pinion gear on which the pointer is mounted Bourdon tube instruments measure relatively high pressures like those in engine lubricating systems and hydraulic systems. Figure 5.22: Burdon Tube Bellows - Lower pressures such as instrument air pressure, de-icer air pressure, and suction are often measured with a bellows mechanism much like an aneroid capsule. The pressure to be measured is taken into the bellows. As the pressure increases, the bellows expands and its expansion rotates the rocking shaft and the sector gear. Movement of the sector gear rotates the pinion gear and the shaft on which the pointer is mounted. 5.24 Module 11.5 Instruments/Avionic Systems ss acer coer TTS integrated Training System cas QIntegrated Training System Figure 5.23: Bellow mechanism and instrument Differential Pressure Instruments A differential pressure is simply the difference between two pressures. A differential bellows like that in the figure 5.24 is a popular instrument mechanism that can be used to measure absolute, differential, or gauge pressure. When used to measure differential pressure, as it is when used as a fuel pressure gauge, one bellows senses the air pressure at the carburettor inlet, and the other bellows senses the fuel Pressure at the carburettor fuel inlet. A differential bellows can be used to measure gauge Pressure by leaving one of the bellows open to the atmosphere and the other connected to the pressure to be measured. Module 11.5 Instruments/Avionic SystemsIntegrated Training System Figure 5.24: Differential bellows with indication mechanism 5.26 Module 11.5 Instruments/Avionic Systems TTS integrated Tearing System a &Integrated Training System g Strain Gauges These electric passive devices are used to detect forces. The resistance of strain-gauges varies with the force applied to it. The metallic wire consists of a chrome-nickel alloy. The length and the diameter of the conductor changes as a function of the force. Expanding force increases, shortening force decreases the resistance. These sensors are used for different applications. Structure monitoring, force sensors, pressure transducers and weight measuring. Inside pressure sensors, the pressure affects is changed into force. Force ee Electric Resistance Substrate Measuring Conductor Figure 5.25: Strain Gauge Pressure Figure 5.26: Pressure indication using strain gauge bridge nate ante Module 11.5 Instruments/Avionic Systems 5.27Integrated Training System Piezo-Resistive Sensors P- or N- conducting elements are diffused into a pure silicon substrate. This so called piezo- resistive effect changes the resistance with a much higher sensitivity than what a metallic strain gauge does. Semiconductor based sensors are in many different forms. The substrate of the pressure sensor shown in figure 5.27 has a dimension of 3.5 x 3.5 mm. Inside there is a bridge with 4 elements. Pressure \ Figure 5.27: Piezo Resistive Element 5.28 Module 11.5 Instruments/Avionic Systems ee TIS integrated Training System Stent Sata ti i i i i | I I | I I Integrated Training System Variable Frequency Signals A variable frequency signal has a frequency which is controlled by a certain parameter. A device with a variable output frequency makes such a signal. The frequency varies, under control of the parameter, between a high and a low frequency. These limit frequencies are different from device to device and depend on the design of the device A control voltage, a variable capacitor, and a variable resistor are, for example, parameters that control the frequency. Frequency counters, microprocessor system and special moving coil meters are all devices that work with variable frequency signals. Linear Frequency t + = Non-Linear Parameter Figure 5.28: Linear Parameter Output after Conversion Figure 5.29 shows a very sensitive and accurate pressure transducer used inside airdata computers. The oscillator coil assembly oscillates the diaphragm. Its resonant frequency increases with the applied pressure against the vacuum reference inside the transducer. Limandovascoaue Module 11.5 Instruments/Avionic Systems, 5.29 TTS integrated Training 8Integrated Training System The output frequency, proportional to the pressure, is easily changed inside the computer, into a digital signal. The temperature sensing resistor compensates for influences of the ambient temperature. im i i = Mag v 7 4 {~ Pressure Figure 5.29: Vibrating Diaphragm Transducer Diaphragm Assembly Oscillator Hf Coil Assembly ™~ Vacuum Reference femperature ‘Sensing Resistor Input Tube Pressure Pressure Vibration Diaphragm Transducer pRopnt | FREQ? Temperature PROPNL.| Digital | —+|Compensated| Converter] Sensor Temperature [—» Pressure Signal Figure 5.30: Pressure to Digital Conversion 5.30 Module 11.5 Instruments/Avionic Systems TTS Integrated Training System hsp chs cap(ay Integrated Training System Temperature Measurement Temperature is one of the most important measurements in aircraft operation. Operational temperatures range from well below freezing for outside air, fuel, oil, airconditioning and pneumatic air, to around 1000 for exhaust gas temperatures. Non-Electrical Temperature Measurements Most solids, liquids, and gases change dimensions proportional to their temperature changes. These dimensional changes may be used to move pointers across a dial to indicate changes in temperature. Bimetallic Strip - Most small general aviation aircraft have an outside air temperature gauge protruding through the windshield. This simple thermometer is made of strips of two metals having different coefficients of expansion welded together, side by side, and twisted into a helix, or spiral. When this bimetallic strip is heated, one strip expands more than the other and the spiral tries to straighten out. A pointer is attached to the metal strip in such a way that, as the temperature changes, the pointer moves across a dial to indicate the temperature. Figure 5.31: Bimetallic Outside Air Temperature (OAT) Indication Gas Expansion- Temperature is determined by measuring the pressure of the vapours above a highly volatile liquid. The vapour pressure varies directly as the temperature of the liquid The Bourdon tube consists of a hollow brass or bronze elliptical-shaped tube formed into a semi-circle. One end of the tube is open and connected to the fluid to be measured. The opposite end of the tube is sealed. As pressure is applied, the elliptical tube changes shape and tends to straighten the semi-circular curve. The bourdon tube needs to be attached to a mechanical linkage and pointer to create a useful instrument A thin-wall, hollow metal bulb is connected to the Bourdon tube by a capillary tube, that has a very small inside diameter. The bulb is filled with a volatile liquid such as methyl chloride which maeroasoons Module 11.5 Instruments/Avionic Systems 5.31 TTS intogratad Training 5}Integrated Training System Integrated | ig Sy: (ap has a high vapour pressure, and the entire bulb, capillary, and Bourdon tube are sealed as a unit. The bulb is placed where the temperature is to be measured and, as its temperature changes, the pressure of the vapours above the liquid changes. This pressure change is sensed by the Bourdon tube, which moves a pointer across a dial that is calibrated in degrees Fahrenheit or Celsius. Bourdon ‘Temperature Probe Tube > Pointer Staft Capilary Tube Increasing Temperature Figure 5.32: Remote Temperature Indication with Bourdon Tube Temperature Dependant Resistors NTC (Negative Temperature Coefficient) resistor. lis resistance decreases at increasing temperatures. So it is called: High temperature conductor. PTC (Positive Temperature Coefficient) resistor. Its resistance increases with increasing temperature. So it is called: Low temperature conductor: 5.32 Module 11.5 Instruments/Avionic Systems TTS integrated Training System cfai Integrated Training System 10H 10 a 04 Resistance R —> : me ; a Meg FECES %o 20 “0 7 0 Tooe 120 0 a0 0 00 100 «120 «140=«180 180°C 200 Temperature 9 —> at Figure 5.33: Resistance versus Temperature The temperature sensing bulb consists of a coil of fine nickel-chrome wire encased and sealed in a thin stainless steel tube. This bulb is immersed in the fluid whose temperature is being measured. The resistance of the nickel-chrome wire varies directly with its temperature. At the low end temperature, the bulb resistance is approximately 20 ohms, at its high end; its resistance is about 200 ohms. Figure 5.34: Resistance Temperature Bulb Module 11.5 Instruments/Avionic Systems, 5.33Integrated Training System ¢ Ratiometer Circuits - The instrument uses two coils mounted on the indicator needle. When the temperature is low and the bulb resistance is low, more current flows through the coil 1 and the bulb than flows through coil 2 and resistor Rj. The resulting magnetic field pulls the needle toward the low side of the dial. When the temperature is high and more current flows through coil 2 and R; than coil 1 and the bulb, the needle deflects toward the high side of the dial. Colt con2 j Permanent (+7— Magnet Ry toBulb + — to Ground = 28 through Ry voc Bulb Figure 5.35: Ratiometer with Moving Coil Instrument Bridge Circuits - (Wheatstone) Bridge circuits are a special type of complex circuit often used in electrical measuring and controlling devices. Figure 5.36 shows a typical bridge circuit used to measure temperature. Resistor Re is a temperature probe. Its resistance changes as its temperature changes. When the bridge is electrically powered, electrons find two paths through which they can flow. They can flow through resistors R; and Rz or they can flow through resistors Rg and Ry. If the four resistors have values such that the ratio of the resistance R; to Re is the same as the ratio of Rs to Ry, then the voltage at point C will be the same as the voltage at point D. Because there is no voltage drop (no voltage difference) across the indicator, no current will flow through it. In this condition, the bridge is said to be balanced. Resistor Re is variable, and as it changes from the value that balanced the bridge, a voltage drop will be developed across the indicator that causes current to flow through it. As the resistance of Re goes up, current flows from C to D. If the value of Ry goes down below the balance value, current flows from D to C, 5.34 Module 11.5 Instruments/Avionic Systems {TTS Integrated Training System ‘ora eth oerIntegrated Training System Bulb Rz Figure 5.36: Wheatstone Bridge Circuit Thermocouples - Higher temperatures, like those found in the exhaust gases of both reciprocating and turbine engines are measured with thermocouples. A thermocouple is a loop made of two different kinds of wire welded together at one end to form a hot or measuring junction. For example, chrome! and alumel wires. The coil of a current- Measuring instrument is connected between the wires at the other end to form a cold, or reference junction The hot junction is held against the cylinder head in the spark plug gasket and a voltage is produced in the thermocouple whose amount is determined by the difference in temperature between the hot and cold junctions. This voltage difference causes a current to flow that is Proportional to the temperature of the cylinder head, Hot, or measuring Current measuri junction uring indicator Chromel lead Alume! lead Cold, or reference Junction Figure 5.37: Thermo Couple Principle Module 11.5 Instruments/Avionic Systems 5.35 ‘TTS Integrated Training SystemIntegrated Training System Indicator Spark Plug Gasket RO Connectors Hot Junction Figure 5.38: Cylinder Head Temperature (Spark plug gasket) Figure 5.39: Thermo Couple (Bayonet Type for Cylinder Head) Thermocouples for Jet Engines - The exhaust gas temperature EGT system for a turbine engine is similar to that for a reciprocating engine except that several thermocouples are used. These are arranged around the exhaust so they can sample the temperature in several locations. For accurate temperature indication, the reference junction temperature must be held constant. {tis not practical to do this in an aircraft instrument, so the indicator needle is mounted on a bimetallic hairspring in such a way that it moves back as the cockpit temperature increases. This compensates for reference junction temperature changes. 5.36 Module 11.5 Instruments/Avionic Systems ee TTS Integrated Training System Sebabe ohne chasteFy Left Engine | EGT | Thermocouple | Liating 53s far Integrated Training System copper Copper b become 4 Pylon Calibrating Disconnect Resistor a 8 Left Engine io: Exhaust Gas bog Temperature 1 : Dp oon Figure 5.40: EGT Indication (Copper Constantan) Small indicators operate without any additional electrical power except for the illumination. For more complex indicators, electrical power supply is used for the amplifiers and motors inside the indicator. Chromel (alloy of chromium and nickel) Alumel (alloy of aluminium and nickel) RTE 4 — Alumol () i ore i comet (y= 4 ree) | ve (ED be cme wine Left Engine EGT ‘Thermocouple Figure 5.41: EGT Indication (Chromel Alumel) eat dca Module 11.5 Instruments/Avionic Systems Exhaust Temperature Indicator 5.37 TTS Integrated Training SystemIntegrated Training System abst Intentionally Blank 5.38 Module 11.5 Instruments/Avionic Systemsrari Integrated Training System Quantity Indication System DC Electrical Indicators A. common quantity indicating system for fuel and oil operates on direct current. These systems consist of a variable resistor as a tank unit or transmitter and a current measuring instrument as the indicator. The tank unit consists of either a wire wound resistor or a segment of composition resistance material and a wiper arm driven by a float moves across this resistance material to change the resistance as a function of the fuel level in the tank. The ratio meter-type minimizes the error that would be caused by variations in system voltage. Current flows through both coils and both the fixed resistor and the tank unit (®) LL, _ Tank Resistor @ = e+ DC Power Figure 5.42: Variable Resistor and Permanent Magnet Rotor Indicator - Magnet Figure 5.43: Mechanical Float Type Gauge This oil quantity transmitter is a variable reed switch type resistor. The reed switch operates by a magnet in a float. The current to the indicator is depending of the activated resistors in the probe. Useanary aeayei Module 11.5 Instruments/Avionic Systems ‘age tc me caperIntegrated Training System ol Quantity Indicator! eS) a le Lights. Oil Quantity ‘Transmitter Oittank Float Oil Quantity Transmitter Figure 5.44: Probe with magnetic Float and Reed Switches Capacitance type fuel quantity measuring systems measure the mass of the fuel, rather than just its level in the tank. This is an electronic system that measures the capacitance of the probe, or probes, which serve as the tank sender units. A capacitor, can store electrical charges, and it consists of two conductors called plates separated by some form of dielectric or insulator. The capacity of a capacitor depends upon three variables: the area of the plates, the separation between the plates, which is the thickness of the dielectric, and the dielectric constant of the material between the plates. The probes in a capacitance fuel quantity indicating system are made of two concentric metal tubes which serve as the plates of the capacitor. The area of the plates is fixed, as well as the separation between them, so the only variable we have is the material which separates them. These probes are installed so they cross the tank from top to bottom, and when the tank is empty, the plates are separated by air which has a dielectric constant of one. When the tank is full, the dielectric is fuel which has a constant of approximately two. In any condition between full and empty, part of the dielectric is air and part is fuel, and so the capacity of the probe varies according to the level of fuel in the tank. ‘One of the big advantages of this system is that the probes can be tailored for tanks of all sizes and shapes, and all probes in the aircraft can be connected so the system integrates their output to show the total amount of fuel on board. 5.40 Module 11.5 Instruments/Avionic Systems vase scan ‘TTS Integrated Training System ‘on oage 2 ols chester =f ) Integrated Training System The dielectric constant of the fuel is approximately two, but it varies according to its temperature and so a compensator is built into the bottom of one of the tank units. It is electrically in parallel with the probes and cancels the changes in dielectric constant as the temperature of the fuel changes. AC Current AC Current Maximum High Frequency Low Large Frequency Capacity Small Capacity A B Figure 5.45: Capacitor's current depends upon Frequency and Capacitance Figure 5.46: Capacitor’s current depends upon Liquid Level Sroage 2 os une ‘TTS Integrated Training System Module 11.5 instruments/Avionic Systems 5.41