Integral ated Tra ining System signed in association with the club66pro.com question practice aid Module 11A Turbine Aeroplane, Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems for RASS Ea rt- ‘$6 Volume 4 (Mechanical Systems chapters) Exclusively from WWW. airtechbooks.comIntegrated Training System Designed in association with the ‘lub 6pr0.cn question pat Preface Thank you for purchasing the Total Training Support Integrated Training System. We are sure you will need no other reference material to pass your EASA Part-66 exam in this Module. These notes have been written by instructors of EASA Part-66 courses, specifically for practitioners of varying experience within the aircraft maintenance industry, and especially those who are self-studying to pass the EASA Part-66 exams. They are specifically designed to meet the EASA Part-66 syllabus and to answer the questions being asked by the UK CAA in their examinations. The EASA Part-66 syllabus for each sub-section is printed at the beginning of each of the chapters in these course notes and is used as the “Learning Objectives”. We suggest that you take each chapter in-tum, read the text of the chapter a couple of times, if only to familiarise yourself with the location of the information contained within. Then, using your club66pro.com membership, attempt the questions within the respective sub-section, and continually refer back to these notes to read-up on the underpinning knowledge required to. answer the respective question, and any similar question that you may encounter on your real Part-66 examination. Studying this way, with the help of the question practice and their explanations, you will be able to master the subject piece-by-piece, and become proficient in the subject matter, as well as proficient in answering the CAA style EASA part-66 multiple choice questions. We regularly have a review of our training notes, and in order to improve the quality of the notes, and of the service we provide with our Integrated Training System, we would appreciate your feedback, whether positive or negative. So, if you discover within these course notes, any errors or typos, or any subject which is not particularly well, or adequately explained, please tell us, using the ‘contact-us’ feedback page of the club66pro.com website. We will be sure to review your feedback and incorporate any changes necessary. We look forward to hearing from you. Finally, we appreciate that self-study students are usually also self-financing. We work very hard to cut the cost of our Integrated Training System to the bare minimum that we can provide, and in making your training resources as cost efficient as we can, using, for example, mono printing, but providing the diagrams which would be better provided in colour, on the club66pro.com website. In order to do this, we request that you respect our copyright policy, and refrain from copying, scanning or reprinting these course notes in any way, even for sharing with friends and colleagues. Our survival as a service provider depends on it, and copyright abuse only devalues the service and products available to yourself and your colleagues in the future, and makes them more expensive too. Module 11 Preface i TTS injograted Training System ‘© Copyright 2014Integrated Training System Dos son wth the question practoe ais Intentionally Blank ii Module 11 Preface TTS Integrated Training System © Copyright 2011Integrated Training System Designed in association with tho cubB6pr0.com question practice sid Module 11 Chapters 114. 11.2. 11.3. 11.4, 11.5. 11.6. 11.7. 11.8, 11.9, 11.10. 1144 11.12. 11.13. 11.14. 11.15. 11.16. 11.17. 11.18. Theory of Flight Airframe Structures - General Concepts Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes Air Conditioning and Pressurisation (ATA 21) Instruments/Avionic Systems Electrical Power (ATA 24) Equipment and Furishings (ATA 25) Fire Protection (ATA 26) Flight Controls (ATA 27) Fuel Systems (ATA 28) Hydraulic Power (ATA 29) Ice and Rain Protection (ATA 30) Landing Gear (ATA 32) Lights (ATA 33) Oxygen (ATA 35) Pneumatic/Vacuum (ATA 36) Water/Waste (ATA 38) On Board Maintenance Systems (ATA 45) The Total Training Support Integrated Training System Study Notes are divided into five convenient Volumes as follows: Volume 1 - Contains Chapters 1,2 and 3 (Aerodynamics and Airframe Structures) Volume 2 - Contains Chapters 5 and 18 (Avionic and Electrical Systems) Volume 3 - Contains Chapters 6 and 14 (Avionic and Electrical Systems) Volume 4 - Contains Chapters 4,7,8,9 and 10 (Mechanical Systems) Volume 5 - Contains Chapters 11, 12, 13, 15, 16 and 17 (Mechanical Systems continued) The Volumes are available for purchase in the following sets:- Volumes 1,2,3,4 & 5 complete set, or Volumes 1,4 & 5 sub-set; or Volumes 2 & 3 as sub-set. Module 11 Preface iit TTS integrated Training System ©Copyright 2011Integrated TI ining System eee iv om queston prac aid TTS integrated Training System © Copyright 2011 Intentionally Blank Module 11 PrefaceIntegrated Training System € European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) Aircraft Maintenance Licence Programme Module 11A Licence Category B1.1 Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems 11.4 Air Conditioning and Pressurisation (ATA 21) Module 11.4 Air Conditioning and Pressurisation (ATA 21) TTS InIntegrated Training System # Design tt Copyright Notice © Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e. photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of Total Training Support Ltd. Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2 and C Aircraft Maintenance Licence Basic knowledge for categories A, B1 and B2 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the category B2 basic knowledge levels. The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows: LEVEL 1 A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject, Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject. ‘The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and examples. The applicant should be able to use typical terms. LEVEL 2 A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject. An ability to apply that knowledge. Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject. The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical examples. The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the subject. The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, d-awings and schematics describing the subject The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures. LEVEL 3 A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject. ‘A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive manner. Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects. ‘The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals and specific examples. The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject. The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare skatches, simple drawings and schematics describing the subject. The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's instructions. The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply corrective action where appropriate. 42 Module 11.4 Air Conditioning and Pressurisation (ATA 21) he aor aneusrs TTS integrated Training System xmas rentIntegrated Training System i Table of Contents i Module 11.4 Air Conditioning and Pressurisation (ATA 21)_ 11.4.1 Air Supply EASA Regulations Air Supply Sources Conditioned Air Ground Sources (Low Pressure Supply) Ram Air Systems Compressor or Blower Systems_ Engine and APU Bleed Systems 1 Ground Service Connection 13 Soonaa a Flow Control System EEE Pack Valves (Transport Category Aircraft) es |} 11.4.2 Air Conditioning —___23 Human Needs in Flight 8g The Physics of Cabin Atmosphere Control tt Heating Systems 0g Air Conditioning Systems. a __33 Vapour Cycle Systems. eS Air Cycle Systems ee”) Distribution Systems — Temperature Control System 67 11.4.3 Pressurisation 73 Fundamentals Terms and Definitions Pressurization Control Systems i Pressurization System Monitoring Devices —“‘CS™CC(‘#” Outflow Valves _ He Analogue and Digital Pressurization Control Systems 81 i] Pressure Control Panel - 82 Flight Profile _ _ 85 System Interfaces _— _ 87 i Testing of Pressurisation Systems. 89 Maintenance 95 11.4.4 Safety and Warning Devices 97 I Handling Precautions__—_ — 97 Failures Resulting in High Cabin Altitude. - 98 Negative Cabin Differential Pressure Relief 99 i Positive Cabin Differential Pressure Relief 100 Blowout Panels 102 I Ditching - 103 Landing Field Elevation Selector 103 Emergency Ram Air Source - 103 I Indication and Waming of Pressurisation Systems 104 l eee Module 11.4 Air Conditioning and Pressurisation (ATA 21) 43 1 ‘nage 2 al ts chaprer TTS: Integrated Trai ining SystemIntegrated Training System nase We d Module 11.4 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement Certification Statement These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation 2042/2003 Annex II! (Part-66) Appendix |, and the associated Knowledge Levels as specified below: ect EASA 66 Objective Reference ‘Air Supply 41 | Sources of air-supply including bleed, APU and ground cart _ Air Conditioning _ 1142 3 Air conditioning systems _— | Air cycle and vapour cycle machines _ | Distribution systems | Flow, temperature and humidity control system | Pressurisation | _ 11.43 3 | Pressurisation systems __| Control and indication including control and safety valves | —_ Cabin pressure controllers | Safety and warming devices 1144 3 Protection and warming devices 4.4 Module 11.4 Air Conditioning and Pressurisation (ATA 21) TTS integrated Training Systema a») Integrated Training System Module 11.4 Air Conditioning and Pressurisation (ATA 21) 11.4.1 Air Supply EASA Regulations Certification Specification (CS) 25.831 specifies that each passenger and crew compartment must be supplied with fresh air not less than 0.28 m*/min (10 cubic feet per minute) per crew member, to enable crew members to perform their duties without undue discomfort or fatigue. The air must contain no more than 20,000 parts per million of carbon monoxide, and no more than 0.5% by volume of carbon dioxide during flight. The aeroplane cabin ozone concentration during flight must not exceed 0.25 parts per million by volume above FL 320, and 0.1 parts per million by volume (time-weighted average) during any 3-hour interval above FL270. In the event of a single system failure the ventilation to the cabin should not be less than 0.18 kg/min (0.4 Ib/min) and this must be maintained even in the event of the failure of one system. Air Supply Sources The air conditioning systems can be supplied with bleed air by different sources. The air supply is often called ‘charge air. The possible sources are: Ram air Compressors or blowers The engines The APU The ground pneumatic sources ATA Chapter 36 (Pneumatic Systems) deals with bleed air systems and is dealt with further in Section 16 of these EASA Part-66 Study Notes. Seamsercnconces Module 11.4 Air Conditioning and Pressurisation (ATA 21) 45 Seager ne sear TTS Integrated Training SIntegrated Training System Designs : PNEUMATIC GROUND CONNECTORS: MOBILE PNEUMATIC STARTER UNIT [OOOT. HEATER PNEUMATIC GROUND NETWORK MOBILE AIR CONDITIONING UNIT AIR CONDITIONING GROUND NETWORK (HIGH PRESSURE) CONDITIONED AIR GROUND CONNECTOR \, > APU Jair conpmmioninc| ‘SYSTEM I (LOW PRESSURE) afer | AIRCRAFT CABIN Figure 4.1: Air Conditioning System and Aircraft Cabin Air Supply Sources 4.6 TTS Integrated Training System Module 11.4 Air Conditioning and Pressurisation (ATA 21)47 TTS Integrated Training System Figure 4.2: Pneumatic System (ATA 36) to Air Conditioning System (ATA 21) Module 11.4 Air Conditioning and Pressurisation (ATA 21)Integrated Training System op Conditioned Air Ground Sources (Low Pressure Supply) If no bleed air is available to operate the air conditioning packs on ground, the aircraft cabin can be supplied via a conditioned air/ground connector from a mobile air conditioning unit or from a fix installed air conditioning ground network, installed at some airports. For conditioned air ground connectors, standard bayonet-type connectors with a diameter of 8 inches are normally used, Air conditioning packs and external air conditioning sources should not supply an aeroplane simultaneously to prevent excessive cabin airflow and possible air conditioning duct damages. In general, external air conditioning sources are more economical and ecological and are preferred. 48 Module 11.4 Air Conditioning and Pressurisation (ATA 21) TTS Integrated Training System nwa neeIntegrated Training System Designed Ram Air Systems This method is used in some small unpressurised aircraft to supply air to either a combustion heater or an exhaust heat exchanger. Typical locations for a ram air intake are the nose of the aircraft or a dorsal fairing at the base of the vertical stabiliser. The air, after circulating through the cabin, is discharged back to atmosphere via a spill vent. \ oe el Figure 4.3: Typical Ram Air system (with combustion heater) Uganaercacaae Module 11.4 Air Conditioning and Pressurisation (ATA 21) TTS Integrated TeaininIntegrated Training System question p Compressor or Blower Systems This method is used in some smaller turbo-jets, turboprops and piston engined aircraft. The compressors ‘a or blowers are driven by the engine via the accessory drive, gear box or bleed air. Air is drawn in through a ram air intake located in the aircraft nose, engine nacelle fairing or wing leading edge. A filter unit may be provided to protect the blower rotors * J from ingested debris and to ensure a clean air supply. In order to reduce the level of noise emanating from the blower, silencers are incorporated in the main ducting, The compressor or blower produces excessive air at low Fear altitudes and high engine RPM. Therefore a spill valve and associated control system controls the air mass delivery to the air conditioning system, from the compressor or blower, by spilling overboard any unwanted air, More airis spilled overboard at low altitude and high engine speeds than at high altitude and low engine speeds. Figure 4.4: Ram air inlets in the nose of a DC8 Figure 4.5: Blower system (with displacement type blower) 4.40 Module 11.4 Air Conditioning and Pressurisation (ATA 21) TTS Integrated Training System(oy Integrated Training System inazzoaien wi th Engine and APU Bleed Systems Air bled from an engine or APU is of the highest pressure of all the systems used, but requires considerable cooling before it can be fed to the cabin for passenger use. See Figure 4.6. A typical pneumatic distribution system (twin engined aircraft) connects air supply sources from the APU, engines, and ground air source to user systems through the pneumatic manifold system and their appropriate control valves. The pneumatic manifold system extends from the engine at one wing to the crossover duct in the air conditioning bay to the other engine at the opposite wing. An electrically actuated isolation valve in the crossover duct separates the left and right side system. The APU bleed air duct is connected to the crossover duct on the left side of the isolation valve and the pneumatic ground service connection is connected to the crossover duct on the right side of the isolation valve. From the engine, bleed air source is ducted primarily from the Sth-stage port where it passes through the 5th-stage non-retum-valve before it is ducted together with the 9th-stage (high Pressure) duct. Air for nose cowl thermal anti-ice (TAl) is tapped off downstream of the 5th- stage non-retum-valve. Bleed air from the 9th-stage ports are ducted through the 9th-stage manifold and high stage valve before it is joined together with the Sth-stage duct. The air is then ducted through the Pressure Regulator and Shutoff Valve (PRSOV) to regulate the pressure and the precooler heat exchanger to regulate the temperature before it is discharged into the strut duct. Bleed air source can also be supplied with use of the APU. The APU bleed air duct runs under the passenger floor from the APU along the left side of the aft cargo compartment, then inside the keel beam through the wheel well to the air conditioning bay where it joins the crossover duct on left side of the isolation valve. There are two duct pressure transmitters installed in the crossover duct to monitor duct pressure on either side of the isolation valve. The pneumatic manifold serves as the central reservoir for the supply of pressurized air for air conditioning, hydraulic system pressurization, water tank pressurization and turbofans through their applicable control valves from pressure taps in the pneumatic duct. The pressure regulator and shutoff valve (PRSOV) is a pneumatically actuated, spring loaded closed, butterfly type valve. The valve, in conjunction with a remotely mounted bleed air regulator, provides pneumatic signals to open, close, and regulate pressure for downstream bleed air. sana scene Module 11.4 Air Conditioning and Pressurisation (ATA 21) 41 Sroooe 2s rane TTS Integrated Training S)Integrated Training System op UCT pRessuRe DUCT PRESSURE TRANSRITTER. TRANSMITTER wee coer siete a aaa A am WANE VALVE . a > Thome arn eet ‘ioean VALVE ~ PRECOOLER CONTROL. a VALVE Sexson —~ mw PRECOOLER " starrer] | PRECOOLER comTROL VALVE 200°F oveRTeRP — / \ SHITOH way ore wren Ls Seton stiesmece YALE eee f ‘BRESSURIZATION BLEED ATR ‘ ust fhete Ove 16 SHTOFE Let ay VALVE to nose com tar ae \ sassue vas RELIEF tine rox au Figure 4.6: Engine Bleed Air system (B737) 4.12 Module 11.4 Air Conditioning and Pressursation (ATA 21) {TTS Integrated Training System onsen sanea Integrated Training ee Ground Service Connection ‘A pneumatic ground service connection is provided to allow pressurization of the pneumatic manifold by ground service carts. The connection is accessible through a hinged panel on the underside of the fuselage. The pressurized air supplied through this connection can also be used for engine start and other user systems. The connection also includes a non-retum-valve to prevent excessive pneumatic system leakage or reverse flow into the ground air source. Before air is supplied, the battery switch must be selected ON and the air conditioning pack valves selected OFF. AC power must be available for air conditioning use. The maximum pressure and temperature of the air supply provided to the ground service connection must not exceed 60 PSI and 450°F, respectively. Ground source should have pressure regulating equipment PNEUMATIC. GROUND SERVICE CONNECTOR ACCESS 00 ——~ urcH rw Figure 4.7: Air Conditioning System Ground Connection =o Module 11.4 Air Conditioning and Pressursation (ATA 21) 413 yen Seager TTS Integrated TraininIntegrated Training System op Dose in aevee " ‘com quest Flow Control System The flow control system regulates the total cabin air inflow by means of flow control valves. There are different types of flow control valves. But common for all is the fact, that they regulate a specific volumetric airflow independent of the pneumatic supply pressure and the actual cabin pressure, All valves have also an electrical shutoff function and a mechanical close locking device with a visual position indicator. The valves are pneumatically actuated and spring loaded closed without pressure. The open pressure will be discharged to ambient by thermostats in case of pack overheat, to close the valve. In case of electrical power loss the flow control valves will open with pneumatic pressure. Airflow measuring devices (venturi or electronic flow sensor) are mass flow-meters. Therefore it needs a reference signal for the air density (cabin pressure) to regulate a specific volumetric airflow. There are two main types of flow control valves: Flow control valves to regulate a constant airflow and valves to regulate a variable airflow. For fuel saving and passenger comfort, some flow control valves can regulate the flow according to a manually selected or computed flow demand. These valves use a torque motor or stepper motor to adjust the open pressure for the valve. The regulated airflow is inversely proportional to the torque motor current. The computed flow demand may depend on: The number of packs actually in use (if not all packs are in use the remaining packs should provide more airflow). The number of cabin recirculating fans actually in use (if cabin fans are in use, the pack flow should be reduced, to prevent excessive cabin airflow). The selected number of passengers or manual flow selection (with a higher number of passengers onboard, the pack flow should be increased to provide a minimum of fresh air for passenger comfort) The zone temperature cooling demand (if a high cooling demand exists, the pack flow should be increased to provide a faster cabin cool down). The take-off or landing mode (during take-off and landing, the pack flow will be reduced or shut-off to unload the engines) The type of pneumatic source for the air conditioning packs (during APU bleed air supply, the flow control valve is controlled fully open. The pack flow regulation in this case is performed by varying the supply pressure from the APU) 44 Module 11.4 Air Conditioning and Pressurisation (ATA 21) ants aceusn TS Integrated Training System coma aeoy Integrated Training Syst Figure 4.8: Example for a flow control valve for constant flow regulation eandeounarae Module 11.4 Air Conditioning and Pressurisation (ATA 21) SNoopee cis cane ‘TTS integrated Trai tem ee ad 4.15Integrated Training System TORQUE CONTROL PRESSURE REGULATOR ‘THERMOSTAT CONNECTION connor /” _— CHAMBER A ORIFICE CHAMBER B PNEUMATIC PRESSURE L. POSITION INDICATOR CLOSE BUTTERFLY LOCKING SHAFT HEX DEVICE Figure 4.9: Example of a flow control valve for variable flow regulation 4.16 Module 11.4 Air Conditioning and Pressurisation (ATA 21) TTS integrated Training System spores ne atsenerIntegrated Training System rLow CONTROL _CASRUPRESSURE REFERENCE SIGNAL ae THERWosTar AR PRESSURIZED bela CONDITIONING CABIN IX oven PACK ZONE ourrLow ~ VALVE (soaae | Ess EXAMPLE FOR A FLOW CONTROL SYSTEM WITH A Ct ONSTANT FLOW REGULATION CAEN FLOW CONTROL VALVE 7 Sens | my 1 Flow i 1 AIR seneOR PNEUMATIC L ES _. suppty Py CONDITIONING —\E ovep ]_ Pack pressurize [ Gummiow THERROSTAT cai ue | ws taupe cunctn eee ; " Ei [| secctaron = p 'PAGK OR Alf CONDITIONING CONTROLLER EXAMPLE FOR A FLOW CONTROL SYSTEM WITH A VARIABLE FLOW REGULATION Figure 4.10: Flow Control Syster m Examples sane cere Module 11.4 Air Conditioning and Pressurisation (ATA 21) 447 Enbage eine cpa TTS Integrated Training SystemIntegrated Training System cw Seoecse tn tak * Pack Valves (Transport Category Aircraft) The Pack Valve is a system used for flow control on larger transport category aircraft). Air from the engine bleed manifold is delivered to the Pack Valves. (See Figure 4.11) Each pack valve is a flow control valve and its purpose is to meter the flow. This valve controls the mass flow so that a nearly constant volumetric flow (in cubic feet per minute) is supplied to the associated air conditioning pack. ar ate coo conn | | PAK Figure 4.11: Pack valve location, between the Engine bleed and the Air Conditioning Pack. The pack valve consists of butterfly valve, an upstream venturi, a pneumatic actuator, and pneumatic control elements. The assembly also includes solenoids that permit manual closing of the valve and selection of flow modes by activating an air conditioning pack switch in the flight deck. See Figure 4.13. When Solenoid C is electrically energized to the open position (or manually operated by pulling out on the manual control rod), the ball valve actuating rod is retracted and latched. Regulated air pressure forces the ball to unseat and air flows to the actuator and the high flow servo valve. As air pressure increases and overcomes the actuator spring force, the valve opens. The valve opening allows flow to the venturi sense port and downstream sense port. The resulting differential pressure transmitted to the servo valve opens or closes the servo valve to maintain the scheduled bleed airflow. If cabin pressure decreases, the servo valve bellows expands, changes the servo spring balance and restores the desired airflow rate. 418 Module 11.4 Air Conditioning and Pressurisation (ATA 21) ears aos {TTS integrated Training System oon iesIntegrated Training System es The high flow schedule from the APU is usually only possible when the aeroplane is on the ground. When the PACK switch is at HIGH and the APU BLEED switch is at the ON position, the APU/high flow solenoid A is energized. When the solenoid A opens, pressure is applied to the APU/high flow servo piston which tends to close the servo and increase the pressure to the valve actuator. This opens the valve and increases the airflow. AUTO FLOW SERVO ASSY VISUAL POSETION INDICATOR PRESSURE SOLENOID B wor rio f \ SERVO Assy f SOLENCID ¢ scusnato & Figure 4.12: Pack Valve Component Location Normal flow operation results from energizing solenoid B (PACK AUTO switch). Energizing solenoid B inactivates the APU/high flow servo and activates the auto flow servo. Airflow operation is controlled in the same manner for both servos. Placing the PACK switch in the OFF position energizes the closing coil of solenoid C, which cuts off air pressure to the actuator and servo valve. A pack valve closed limit switch provides a ground for the pack valve closed relay to drive mix valve full cold after the pack valve closes. The switch is actuated by the valve bellcrank. aes Module 11.4 Air Conditioning and Pressurisation (ATA 21) 4.19 age el me map ‘TTS Intogtated Training SystemIntegrated nan System chee I. ; 4 3 S Sy Avro FLOW | ‘SOLENOID B mamta REGLLATOR vent nol) weno ’ eae, sito saan Figure 4.13: Pack Valve schematic 4.20 Module 11.4 Air Conditioning and Pressurisation (ATA 21) TTS integrated Training System CABIN PRESSURE SENSE PORT 4 cneraay sorecz Integrated Training System Operation Venturi throat pressure is sensed by the venturi sensing port and is ducted to chamber B of the high flow servo assembly. Increasing airflow through the venturi body assembly results in decreasing pressure in chamber B. The downstream sensing port senses total pressure which is ducted to chambers C and D of the high flow servo assembly. Increasing airflow through the venturi results in an increasing total pressure. The servo valve is spring loaded closed. As airflow increases, chamber B pressure decreases and chamber C pressure increases until, at a calibrated airflow through the venturi, the differential pressure of chambers B and C overcome the spring force and open the servo valve. Opening the servo valve bleeds air pressure from chamber A, and spring force moves the butterfly towards the closed position, decreasing airflow. As airflow decreases, chamber B pressure rises and chamber C pressure drops. The resultant decrease in differential pressure allows spring force to move the servo valve toward the closed position. Closing the servo valve results in an increase in chamber A pressure which increases airflow, This cycle continues until the airflow stabilizes at the desired rate. The APU flow schedule is obtained only when the air supply is from the APU, the pack switch is placed to HIGH and the aeroplane is on the ground. This energizes solenoid A de-energizes solenoid B. When solenoid A is energized to allow inlet pressure to ACT on the APU/HIGH flow servo, its spring balance is changed resulting in the APU air flow rate. When energized, solenoid A opens and allows air to enter Chamber E. The piston is moved increasing the spring force tendency to close the servo valve increasing the pressure in chamber A. The result is an increase in air flow with the other functions of the servo continuing to operate. If the pack is positioned to HIGH but the APU BLEED switch is positioned to OFF, solenoid A and B will not be energized. The airflow maintained will be lower than that with APU operation. Low flow operation results from energizing solenoid B. Placing the PACK switch to AUTO energizes solenoid B, inactivates the APU/HIGH flow servo and activates the auto flow servo, Air flow operation is controlled in the same manner for both servos. The Pack switch in the OFF position energizes the closing coil of solenoid C. This eliminates the Pressure to the actuator and the servos. A pack valve closed limit switch provides signals to the temperature control and turbo fan valves. Usa seaae Module 11.4 Air Conditioning and Pressurisation (ATA 21)Training System Intentionally Blank Module 11.4 Air Conditioning and Pressurisation (ATA 21)cw Integrated Training System si oct vi 11.4.2 Air Conditioning Human Needs in Flight Flight has become such a standard means of transportation; it is easy to forget the importance of the atmosphere control systems that make high-altitude flight possible. Unaided, people cannot survive at the high altitudes where most airliners fly. The air temperature is below -45°C and the atmospheric pressure is so low that the human body cannot get enough oxygen from the air to survive. Without heating and pressurizing the air in an aircraft cabin, it would be impossible to fly at the high altitudes where turbine engines run most efficiently and where most bad weather can be avoided. A complete cabin atmosphere control system (also known as cabin environmental control system), regulates the pressure, the temperature, the humidity and the air movement to make the aircraft cabin comfortable. Pressure The human body requires oxygen. One way to provide this oxygen when flying at a high altitude is to increase the pressure of the air inside the aircraft cabin. When the air pressure inside the cabin is near to that on the earth’s surface, enough oxygen will pass through the lungs and enter into the blood stream to allow the brain and body to function normally. Temperature In the hot summertime, we feel comfortable when our bodies (which usually have a temperature of about 36°C) can pass off heat to the air around us. For this reason, the air in the aircraft cabin should be maintained in the comfort range between 21 and 27C. In the wintertime, when the temperature of the outside air is much lower than that of our bodies, we lose heat from our bodies to the air so rapidly that we are uncomfortable. To allow our bodies to maintain their heat, air conditioning systems are installed to keep the temperature of the air inside the cabin within the comfort range. Humidity !tis not only the heat, but also the humidity that makes summertime uncomfortable. Humidity is the amount of water vapour in the air, and it affects our comfort. The human body has a natural air conditioning system that works best when the humidity is low. When our body is hot, water, or sweat, comes out of the pores of our skin, and air blowing over our bodies evaporates it. The (latent) heat that changes this water from a liquid into a vapour comes from our skin, and losing this heat makes us feel cooler But, when the humidity is high, the air already has a lot of water vapour in it and the sweat does Not evaporate as readily. With less evaporation, less heat is removed, and we feel uncomfortable. sara acne Module 11.4 Air Conditioning and Pressurisation (ATA 21) 4.23 Seong? os he TTS Integrated Training SystemIntegrated Training System t s An effective cabin atmosphere control system maintains the humidity in the air at a level that allows our bodies to lose excessive heat, while at the same tme containing enough moisture that our throats do not become dry. Air Movement We usually feel comfortable when cool air blows over our face and head, as long as it blows at a rate fast enough to take away the unwanted heat but not hard enough to make us consciously aware of it. A properly designed and operating cabin atmosphere control system moves air at the right flow rate, temperature and moisture content over and around our bodies. This allows the flight crew and the passengers to be most comfortable The Physics of Cabin Atmosphere Control To best understand the way a cabin atmosphere control system works, we should review some of the concepts of basic physics. Heat All matter is made up of extremely tiny particles called molecules. These molecules are too small to see, even with a high-powered microscope. And the molecules in all substances are held together by strong forces of attraction to each other. All molecules contain heat energy, which causes them to move about in all directions. If a material contains only a small amount of heat energy, its molecules move about relatively slowly; but if heat is added, the molecules move faster. If it were possible to remove alll the heat energy from a material, its molecules would stop moving altogether. Heat energy can transfer from one object to another, and the transfer is always from an object with a high level of energy to one with a lower level of energy - from a hotter object to a cooler one. When an object loses or gains heat energy, the molecules change their speed of movement enough that the object can actually change its physical state if a solid material such as a block of ice, a block of frozen water, sits in a pan, the molecules that make up the water are all moving about, but they do not have a great deal of energy. They all stay pretty much together so the ice holds its form and keep its size and shape. If the ice sits in a warm room, its molecules absorb some heat energy from the air, and their movement speeds up. As they speed up, they change their positions, and the block of ice changes form (it melts and turns into liquid water). If the pan of water is put on a stove and heated, the molecules speed up even more. They move so fast that they leave the surface of the water and become steam, or water vapour. 4.24 Module 11.4 Air Conditioning and Pressurisation (ATA 21) TTS tntegeated Training SystemIntegrated Training System C a . Ice, water and steam are all H,O. They have the same chemical composition, but they are in different physical states, or conditions. The only difference is the amount of heat energy the HO has absorbed Units of Heat There are two standard units of heat measurement, the calorie in the metric system and the British thermal unit, or Btu, in the English system. One calorie is the amount of heat energy needed to raise the temperature of one gram of pure water 1T. One Btu is the amount of heat energy needed to raise the temperature of one pound of water 1F. Types of Heat If pan of water with a temperature of 26 is pla ced on a stove and heated, the water will remain a liquid, but its temperature will increase. This is an example of sensible heat, heat added to a material that causes its temperature to change, but does not change its physical state. Keep the pan of water on the stove, and its temperature will continue to rise, but only until the water begins to boil. As soon as it begins to boil, or change from a liquid into a vapour, its temperature stops rising. It takes 970 Btu of heat energy to change one pound of water from a liquid into a vapour. This is called the latent heat of vaporization. When the water changes from a liquid into a vapour, this heat energy remains in it. When the water vapour cools enough to revert into a liquid, this same 970 Btu of heat energy is given up. The heat retumed when the water vapour changes into a liquid is called the latent heat of condensation. Specific heat is the number of Btu of heat energy needed to change the temperature of one Pound of a substance by 1. One Btu of heat energy will raise the temperature of one pound of water by 1, so water has a specific heat of 1.0. Refrigerant R-12 has a much lower specific heat. One Btu of heat energy will raise the temperature of 4.6 pounds of R-12 1F. Its specific heat is 0.217. Figure 4.14: Sensible Heat Heat added to a liquid that causes it to change its temperature, but does not change its physical state is called sensible heat. % Module 11.4 Air Conditioning and Pressurisation (ATA 21) 4.25 TTS integrated Training SysternIntegrated Training System Desgnet ' 4 Figure 4.15: Latent Heat Heat absorbed by a liquid as it changes to a gas without changing its temperature is called latent heat. % Movement or Transfer of Heat Heat, like any other kind of energy, always moves from a high level of energy to a lower level. There are three ways this energy can move: 1. by conduction 2. by convection 3. by radiation If we touch a hot stove, we get burned. There is a big difference between the amount of heat energy in the stove and the heat energy in our skin. And, since our skin is in direct contact with the hot stove, this heat energy flows directly into our skin and bums it. The heat from the stove is transferred to our skin by conduction. Convection is a method in which heat is transferred by vertical currents in a liquid or gas. All of the water in a pan sitting on a hot stove will eventually become uniformly hot. But only the water on the bottom of the pan in direct contact with the hot metal is heated by conduction. As this water gets hot, its molecules move faster, the water becomes less dense, and it rises. As it rises, it forces the cooler water above it to go down to the bottom. This process continues until all of the water in the pan is heated. The third way heat can be moved is by radiation. This is the method of heat transfer by electromagnetic waves. Heat energy causes electromagnetic waves, much like radio waves, to radiate, or spread out, in all directions from an object. These waves can travel through space from one object to another without any contact between the objects, and can travel through a vacuum. The tremendous amount of heat energy released by the sun reaches the earth by the process of radiation. 4.26 Module 11.4 Air Conditioning and Pressurisation (ATA 21) hw ander senses TTS integrated Training System Seepage a eapeIntegrated Training System Figure 4.16: Heat Transfer by Conduction | Heat travels along the bar by conduction. The heat moves in the bar from a point of high heat energy to a point of lower heat energy. Figure 4.17: Heat Transfer by Convection Convection transfers heat through a fluid by vertical currents. Warm liquid is less dense than cooler liquid, and rises. This forces the cooler liquid down so it can be heated. Figure 4.18: Heat Transfer by Radiation Heat from the sun reaches the earth by radiation. Heat can transfer by radiation even through a vacuum. Module 11.4 Air Conditioning and Pressurisation (ATA 21) 427 ‘TS Integrated Training System4.28 TTS Integrated Training System Intentionally Blank Module 11.4 Air Conditioning and Pressurisation (ATA 21) A AIntegrated Training System i the Heating Systems Engine Exhaust Heat Exchanger (Heat Muff) ‘Smaller (non-pressurised) aircraft use a simple exhaust heat exchanger to heat ambient air before it is ducted into the cabin/cockpit. Control is via a simple cable operated flapper valve. Careful and regular inspection of the exhaust system is necessary, and carbon monoxide detectors in the cabin/cockpit is necessary, as any small crack in the exhaust can allow exhaust gases and carbon monoxide to pass into the cabin air. Ambient Air In Exhaust Pipe { Connection to Cylinders To Cabin Exhaust Gases Ambient Warm Air To Cabin Manifold Exhaust Air Ducted Overboard Figure 4.19: In-line engine exhaust system with air heater Module 11.4 Air Conditioning and Pressurisation (ATA 21) 4.29 TTS Integrated Training SystemIntegrated Training System é he Combustion Heater Twin engined and a few single engined aircraft heat the cabin area with a combustion heater. In most general aviation aircraft, up to 50,000 Btu is produced by this heating method. Unlike most single-engined aircraft that use a heat muff around the engine exhaust, combustion heaters are similar to a house furnace. A combustion heater is an airtight burner chamber with a stainless steel jacket. Fuel from the aircraft fuel system is ignited and bumed to provide heat. Ventilation air is forced over the airtight burn chamber picking up heat, which is then dispersed into the cabin area. Figure 4.20: Combustion Heater When the heater control switch is tumed on, airflow, ignition, and fuel are supplied to the heater. Airflow and ignition are constant within the burner chamber while the heater control switch is on. When heat is required, the temperature control is advanced, activating the thermostat. The thermostat (which senses ventilation air temperature) turns on the fuel solenoid allowing fuel to spray into the burner chamber. Fuel mixes with air inside the chamber and is ignited by the spark plug, producing heat. The by-product, carbon monoxide, leaves the aircraft through the heater exhaust pipe. Air flowing over the outside of the burner chamber and inside the jacket of the heater absorbs the heat and carries it through ducts into the cabin. As the thermostat reaches its preset temperature, it tums off the fuel solenoid and stops fuel flowing into the burner chamber. When ventilation air cools to the point that the thermostat again turns the fuel solenoid on, the burner starts again. 430 Module 11.4 Air Conditioning and Pressurisation (ATA 21) eunse ssosuers TTS integrated Training System oxen etoy Integrated Training System This method of heat is very safe. An overheat switch is provided on all combustion heaters, which is wired into the heater's electrical system to shut off the fuel in the case of malfunction. In the unlikely event that the heater fuel solenoid, located at the heater, remains open or the control switches fail, the remote fuel solenoid and/or fuel pump is shut off by the mechanical overheat switch, stopping all fuel flow to the system. Unlike heat muff style cabin heaters used on most single engine aircraft, combustion heaters do not have carbon monoxide poisoning as a major concem. Combustion heaters have low Pressure in the combustion tube, which is vented through its exhaust into the air stream. The ventilation air on the outside of the combustion chamber is of higher pressure than inside and ram air or pressurization increases the higher pressure on the outside of the combustion tube. In the event a leak would develop in the combustion chamber, the higher-pressure air outside the chamber would travel into the chamber and out the exhaust. ae Module 11.4 Air Conditioning and Pressurisation (ATA 21) 431