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Modulation matters – how to build all features great

and small

Additive manufacturing (AM) gives us the

freedom to build a vast range of part geometries,
consolidating multiple conventional parts into a
complex whole. Multi-functional AM parts often
combine the structural with the intricate, mixing
relatively bulky geometries with fine details.
Building such parts cost-effectively means that
our AM process must be both productive and
precise.

How we deliver laser energy can significantly

influence part costs and quality in Laser Powder-
Bed Fusion (LPBF). Our parameter choices affect not only how the metal powder melts, but when combined with the local part
geometry, they also determine how rapidly the melt pool cools and solidifies. Bulky features conduct heat away more effectively
than smaller features can, and so our energy input must be tailored to suit varied local conditions. Using the right parameters in
the right place is critical.

This article looks at how versatile laser modulation can help to match the mode of energy delivery to the needs of component
features of all sizes. We will consider both continuous and modulated energy delivery, their advantages and limitations. We will
see how it is often best to combine different techniques to produce AM components.

Productivity and precision

AM components come in all shapes and sizes, from the
strong and solid to the fine and feather-light. They may use
regions of bulk material to provide strength under load, or
they may feature thin walls or lattice structures to reduce
weight or increase performance.
Components that have been specifically designed for AM
are often multi-functional, fulfilling the roles of several
traditionally-produced parts. AM parts will often combine
structural elements with complex details that deliver
additional functionality, such as joining, fluid passages or
heat transfer. Many use textured interior or exterior surfaces
to enhance their performance.

© 2018-2020 Renishaw plc. All rights reserved. Page 1 of 7

Feature article: Modulation matters – how to build all features
great and small
Orthopaedic implants are exemplars of this approach.
Acetabular cups are now increasingly produced with solid
interior load-bearing surfaces covered with a lattice exterior
surface, whose role is to promote osseo-integration to
produce a strong bond between the artificial implant and the
patient’s living bone.
It is quite common, therefore, for additive manufactured
components to exhibit a wide range of section thickness,
from solid at one end of the spectrum, to a very low volume
fraction at the other. This ‘spider’ architectural bracket, shown
in section (below), is a good example.
Of course, we want both precision and productivity from our
build process as we produce these different regions of our
component. Solid regions should be produced quickly and
efficiently to minimise build time. The more intricate features,
however, often require a more subtle approach if we are to
achieve the precision, shape, surface quality and metallurgy
that are essential to their function.
© 2018-2020 Renishaw plc. All rights reserved.
Heat flow drives parameter choice
LPBF is a thermal process. We input intense heat to
melt each layer of powder and fuse it to the layers below.
Solidification occurs as heat energy leaves the melt pool,
with the majority flowing down through the solid metal below.
Heat dissipation is dominated by thermal conduction through
the part that is being built and into the build plate. At the start
of the build, there is good conduction down into the solid
build plate, but as the build proceeds, the local part geometry
becomes increasingly important. If there is a good thermal
pathway, then the substrate can be an effective heat sink,
drawing heat away from the top surface of the part, enabling
it to cool quickly between each layer. If the thermal pathway
is constricted by the local part geometry, then heat will build
up in the upper-most regions of the part as it is being built.
Another key factor is the time between laser passes. Thin
wall sections feature short hatch vectors, so the laser moves
back and forth across the same region frequently. This can
result in intense local heating. Longer hatches in bulkier
regions allow more cooling time before they are re-melted.
Short layer times, sometimes encountered at the end of
a build, can also result in a build-up of excess heat in the
component.
Part geometry affects the conduction of heat down into the substrate.
Thinner sections are less effective at conducting heat, whilst shorter
hatch lines result in more intense heating of detail features.
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Feature article: Modulation matters – how to build all features
great and small
Impact of substrate temperature on
melting behaviour
What are the consequences of this? In the Feature article ‘X
marks the spot’, we explore how process parameter choices
must respect the melting behaviour of the material. Each
alloy requires a different amount of energy to melt a given
layer thickness, and too much energy will lead to keyhole
porosity. This leaves an ‘operating window’ within which we
can achieve successful melting and solidification. We should
select an energy input that is somewhere in the middle of this
region.
If the top of our part and the surrounding powder are
pre-heated due to restricted dissipation of previous laser
energy, then we will need to input less energy to create the
required melting effect. Pre-heating reduces the power at
which keyhole porosity will occur for a given scanning speed,
narrowing our operating window. If we do not adjust our
parameters, then we are likely to over-heat the alloy and form
keyhole pores.
© 2018-2020 Renishaw plc. All rights reserved.
Impact of substrate temperature on
solidification
Another consequence of an elevated substrate temperature
is a reduced cooling rate, which affects the metallurgy.
Slower cooling produces a coarser ‘as built’ microstructure.
In Ti6Al4V, for instance, we see coarser alpha laths forming
at higher build temperatures and formation of the martensitic
phase reduces with more build plate heating. This helps
reduce residual stress, but also impacts on the strength and
ductility of the ‘as built’ component.
Faster solidification in Ti6Al4V produces a finer microstructure.
So, the way in which we input laser energy and the
way in which heat dissipates both affect the component
temperature, which in turn affects the melting and
solidification behaviour of the next layer that we build. When
the geometry changes, we need to adjust our energy input.
Clearly, using the same parameters in all circumstances is
not wise.
Using the same parameters in all circumstances is like
driving a car with the throttle wide open - fine when
the road is straight, but not so good when you reach
some turns.
So far, we have discussed how we may need to vary the
power and speed of our laser to cater for different local part
geometries, but not the finer detail of how that energy is
delivered. In addition to selecting appropriate power and
speed for each region of our part, we also need to consider
laser modulation.
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Feature article: Modulation matters – how to build all features
great and small

Continuous and modulated laser The previous example above shows the modulated laser
energy delivery as overlapping circles. This is what we get
energy delivery
when the time interval between exposures is sufficient to
Two main techniques are used to melt powder – continuous enable the laser spot to move between points and settle
and modulated laser energy delivery - both of which are in its new position. As the time interval between pulses is
supported by Renishaw’s RenAM range of industrial AM reduced, there is insufficient time for this to happen and so
systems. Continuous laser energy delivery, as the name the exposures elongate, eventually becoming a continuous
suggests, involves irradiating the powder using a continuous exposure when the time interval is eliminated altogether.
laser beam, which is moved back and forth across the
surface of the powder bed to melt and then solidify the metal.
The scan lines overlap, so that each successive pass of the
laser partially re-melts the previous scan line and the layer
below, creating a solid mass of welded material.

Modulated laser energy delivery operates in a slightly

different way. Here the laser is turned on and off, creating
a series of exposures, with a short gap between each one.
Each exposure partially overlaps with the previous one.
These can be formed into similar scan lines that efficiently
move across the powder bed to solidify the bulk of the
Impact of time interval between pulses on sequential modulated laser
component.
energy delivery

Melt track shape

So far, we have
looked at things
from above, but it
Continuous laser energy delivery (left) involves a series of overlapping is important also
scan lines, each formed with the laser operating continuously. to consider the
Modulated laser energy delivery achieves the same effect using a
series of sequential exposures (right). depth and profile
of our melt pool in
the vertical plane.
In his article ‘Viso
profundum et latius’, Renishaw’s Martin McMahon, Additive
Manufacturing Lead Technical Consultant, explains how
parameter choices affect the aspect ratio of our melt pool.

Melt pools can be broad and shallow, or narrow and deep,

depending on the choices of power and speed that we make.
Our choice of laser energy delivery also has an impact here.

Comparison of laser power delivery with time during a short hatch line
in continuous and modulated laser energy delivery modes.

© 2018-2020 Renishaw plc. All rights reserved. Page 4 of 7

Feature article: Modulation matters – how to build all features
great and small
In continuous laser energy delivery, the laser spot moves
along the scan vector, dragging a long melt pool behind it. As
it does so, the laser energy conducts both downwards and
sideways. This produces an even melt track that is relatively
wide and shallow, making continuous laser energy delivery
suitable for relatively high powers and speeds. It is the most
productive energy delivery mode since the laser is switched
on throughout each scan vector, making it ideal for rapid
filling of bulk regions.
Melt track produced by continuous laser energy delivery. The laser
energy creates a broad, shallow melt track that progressively solidifies
as the laser energy moves on. Heat flows from the molten metal into
the substrate and neighbouring powder and a solidification front follows
behind the laser spot as the melt track cools.
© 2018-2020 Renishaw plc. All rights reserved.
By contrast, modulated laser energy delivery, delivers energy
in pulses with gaps in between when the laser is turned off.
The length of these pulses and the time interval between
them can all be varied. These short bursts of energy each
create a small melt pool, which starts to cool and solidify as
soon as the pulse is complete. After a time interval, the next
pulse is delivered close to the previous one, creating a new
melt pool and partially re-heating the previous melting region.
This contraction of the melt pool between exposures tends to
produce a melt track with a deeper aspect ratio than we see
with continuous melting - i.e. the melt track is narrower for a
given penetration depth:
The aspect ratio is also affected by the time interval between
pulses. Where the gap between pulses is long, then each
individual exposure forms a static local melt pool. As the time
interval reduces, then these melt pools increasingly merge
to form a wider melt track, becoming more and more like a
continuous melting track as the interval tends to zero.
Modulated laser energy delivery
generates small melt pools which
cool between exposures and are
subsequently re-heated by the next
pulse.
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Feature article: Modulation matters – how to build all features
great and small

Detail features Overhanging features

A narrow melt track is useful when we are producing detailed Where detail
features. Lattice structures, for instance, often require thin features are
struts, which must be produced with a single melt track. overhanging
Modulated laser energy delivery is ideal for this task, unmelted
enabling the production of struts that are little thicker than the powder, we want
laser spot diameter. Varying the power and exposure enables to avoid excess
us to control the melt pool width and depth, and thus the penetration of
detail that we can produce. laser energy that
would lead to
loss of definition.
Here we want a melt track that is wide and shallow so that
we minimise attachment of excess material on the downskin
surface. It is common to use lower energy for downskin
scans, with short modulated laser energy exposures being
an effective way to limit energy penetration. See the article
‘Viso profundum et latius’ for more details.

An array of lattice struts produced with different combinations of

modulated laser parameters. Higher powers and longer exposures
produce thicker features. Struts as small as 120 μm in diameter are
producible with an 80 μm laser spot.

© 2018-2020 Renishaw plc. All rights reserved. Page 6 of 7

Feature article: Modulation matters – how to build all features
great and small
Residual stress
Residual stress is a natural consequence of the rapid
solidification and cooling in the LPBF process.
As each melt track
cools, it contracts
and sets up shear
forces between the
layers. These stresses
accumulate during the
build and can lead to
part distortion or even
cracking.
Both continuous and modulated laser energy delivery modes
result in a build-up of residual stress. However continuous
laser energy delivery, especially when high powers and
speeds are deployed, tends to produce higher stresses in
the built component, as shown by the comparative cantilever
testing shown below.
Comparison of deflection of cantilever artefacts built in Inconel 718.
The thin supports for each cantilever are severed, leaving the beam
attached to the base-plate at one end only, revealing the residual stress
accumulated during the build. Both parameter sets use the same layer
thickness and energy input per layer, but the continuous laser energy
delivery parameters use higher laser power and scanning speed,
resulting in a faster build rate. The trade-off for this increased speed is
an 8% increase in residual stress. Note that this trade-off for different
materials will vary.
For large, bulky parts, an increase in residual stress is
unlikely to cause problems, but this may be critical for more
detailed features.
© 2018-2020 Renishaw plc. All rights reserved.
Summary
We have seen how different parameter choices and laser
energy delivery modes each have their place in producing
multi-functional AM components. Modulated laser energy
delivery matters when we need to combine productivity
with precision. Continuous laser energy delivery is great for
speed, whilst modulated laser energy delivery is often the
best choice for details. Micro-structure and residual stress
are also affected. A flexible process toolkit is vital when
building all features great and small.
Renishaw’s RenAM
range of industrial AM
machines supports all
of these processing
techniques, enabling
both continuous and
modulated energy
delivery in the same
build. In multi-laser
machines, these
techniques can even be
deployed at the same time.
Parameters are open, so that users can choose the laser
energy delivery strategy that best meets their needs and
take advantage of innovative processing techniques as they
emerge.
Next steps
Visit www.renishaw.com/amguide for more educational
resources and to access downloadable versions of feature
articles and white papers by Renishaw authors.
About the author
Marc Saunders, Director of AM Applications
Marc Saunders has over 25 years’ experience in high
tech manufacturing. In previous positions at Renishaw, he
played a key role in developing the company award-winning
RAMTIC automated machining platform, and has also
delivered turnkey metrology solutions to customers in the
aerospace sector.
Marc manages Renishaw’s global network of Additive
Manufacturing Solutions Centres, enabling customers who
are considering deploying AM as a production process
to gain hands-on experience with the technology before
committing to a new facility.
www.renishaw.com/additive
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