Fs watnincnvc procrammine Math in programming - the single word ‘math’ often ap- pears to be so powerful that it strikes a weak chord in many programmers. Itis surprising how many new programmers, ‘manual programmers in particular, are afraid of the often ‘numerous calculations associated with CNC programming, ‘This fear is really not substantiated. Let's look very briefly ‘what kind of mathematical knowledge is really neces- sary to handle typical programming calculations for man- ual program preparation First, the basic arithmetic funetions - addition, subtrac- tion, multiplication and division - are at the core of any mathematical activity. Going a bit further, the knowledge of common algebras¢ lunctions 1s deluntely uselul, mainly square roots and powers of a number. ‘Second, since CNC programming is based on the rela- tionship of points within a system of rectangular or polar ‘coordinates, a good knowledge of basic geometry is also imperative. The scope of this knowledge should cover un derstanding many principles of angles, the concept of de- ‘grees and their subsets, tapers, polygons, properties of an are and circle, the pi constant (7), and other associated top- ics, Knowledge of planes and axial orientations is impor tant in many cases 2s well Without a doubt, the most important part of geometry, fone that absolutely must be mastered, is the solution of right angle triangles, using trigonometric functions. Very seldom there will be a problem or calculation that will re- quire a solution using oblique triangles, although these problems may arise ‘The knowledae of trigonometry is essential ‘to any serious GNC programming, ‘Most difficulties in solving trigonometric problems are not as much in the ability to use a specific formula and solve the triangle - but inthe inability io see the triangle to be solved in the first place. Often, programming involves a drawing that is very complex in terms of geometrical defi- nitions of the part. Such a drawing will have 20 many cle ‘ments, that overlooking the obvious is possible, even likely Any specific knowledge of analytic and spacial geometry is not really required for a2 and 2-1/2 axis work, butitises- sential for a work in all three axes. particularly for complex surfaces, 3D tool path and multi surface machining or sur- face manipulation. However, this kind of programming is not done without a computer and CADICAM software Theie are several specific mathennatical subjects w learn and to know in depth. All of them have been selected only for their importance in CNC programming and are. ce~ scribed here in the necessary detail BASIC ELEMENTS + Arithmetic and Algebra The subject of arithmetic deals with handling numbers involving the four basic operations: Addition Subtraction Multiplication 2. Division Algebra isan extension of arithmetic and deals with han- dling numbers in terms of equations and formulas. Typical usage will involve: 2 Square roots 2 Powers of a number 2 Trigonometric functions ‘2. Solving formulas and equations 2 Variable data In algebra, typical work involves several known values and one or two unknown values. Using various formulas and equations, unknown values can be solved (calculated) to achieve the desired result Order of Calculations In the field of mathematics, there is a precisely defined ‘order in which the calculations are performed. Every elec- tronic calculator is based on these Centuries oid rules. In a combination of various algebraic operations, the order of calculations will follow these rules: 2 Multipications and divisions are always calculated first Adgiions and subwactions folow, order is nat important Any roots, powers to a number, and operations within perentheaca are always celeulated before multiplications and divisions “The following calculation will have the same result with ‘or without parentheses: 471472 348x2554 x2) a9 ‘The multiplication is always performed first, regardless of whether it is enclosed in parentheses or not. If addition must be done first, it must be enclosed within parentheses: (948) x25 11K2=22 hese Wo examples stiow that an innocently looking small omission may have significant consequences. GEOMETRY For all practical purposes, there are only three entities in the engineering drawing: 2 Points 2 Lines: 2 Circles and Arcs. Points have no parts and are represented by the XY coor- dinates in a 2D plane or by XYZ coordinates in 3D space. Points are also created by an intersection of two lines, two circles or ares, and a line and a circle or are. Point is also created by a line tangent to acicle, line tan gent to an are, a circle or an arc tangent to another circle or Lines are straight connections between two points creat- ing the shonest distance between the points Circles and Ares are curved elements that have at least a center and a radius. Other elements such as splines and surfaces are to0 com- plex for manual programming, although they are also based ‘on the same fundamental elements Figure 2-1 Basi elements ofa circle Chapter 52 + Circle Circle is mathematical curve, where every point on the jure has the same distance fivan a fixed point. ‘This fae point is called a center Several terms are directly related to acirel Figure 52-1; 2 CENTER - is a point from which a circle or an acc Is craw with a given radius, (2 RADIUS (rai in plural isa tine from the ‘centr to any point onthe circumference ofthe circle @DIAMETER-is tine through the center between tivo points onthe circumference ofthe circle. 2 CHORD iso straight line joining any two points on the ‘circumference of the circle ARCs any part ofthe circle between two points on the cicumerence of the circle. 1 PIRPHIMIEFRENCE «the Iangth af the icra (length ofthe line that bounds circle) TANGENT isa point where a ine, an arc or another circle touches the circumference ofthe circle but does not cross it. This point is known as the point of tangency. © SECANT- is a straight ne that passes through ‘circle and divides into two sections. Iwo area sections ofa circle have their own names. They ave called the sector and the segment of a circle, and are shown in Figure 52-2: Figure 52-2 ‘Segment and sector ofa circle 2 SECTOR -is an area within a crcl formed by two radi and the ate they intreept 2 SEGMENT is an area within a circle formed by the chord and its arc Neither the sector nor the segment of a circle play any significant role in CNC programming.MATH IN CNC PROGRAMMING @ Pl Constant is a Greek letter used in mathematics to represent the ratio of the: cirele circumference 19 the rirele diameter is symbol is 7, it is pronounced ‘pie’, and has the value of 3./41592654..., and regardless of how many decimal places will be used, it will always represent only an approx- imate value. For programming purposes, use the value retnmed hy a calculator or computer, usually with six t0 nine decimal places. In both eases, the intemal value isa lot ‘more accurate than the displayed value. In many cases, the rounded value of 3.14 1s sufficient for most results © Circumference of a Circle ‘The length of a circle - or its circumference - is seldom ceded for programming and is included here only to rich the general theory. It can be calculated from the fol- Jowing formula using the pi constant: 473 © Quadrants Quadrant -is the part of a circle formed by the system of w coardinates, described in Chapter 4, where the axes pass through the center of the circle. There are four ‘equal quadrants in a circle, identified by Roman numerals 1.1, I and 1, starting atthe upper iabi quadrant along the counterclockwise direction - Figure 52-3, Ca2xnxr langant POINTS (4) ae or y. C=nxD Figur 523 ‘Quacranta ofa ciceleand the mathematical definition af angular drecton Each quadrant ia exactly 90°, crossing at cirele quadrant = Gtolscreuierence | points. Therefore, a circle has the sum of all four angles ten equal to 360°. Angles are counted counterclockwise as Circle diameter Length of Arc ‘The length of an are is also a rare requirement and can be calculated from the following formula: 2xnxrKA 360 q Circle circumference Constant 3.141592654, Circle radius Are angle A= ‘There are two other very important calculations relating to acircle. They are used in programming very often and should be understood well. One is based on the chord of a circle, the other on the tangency of a circle. As both caleu- lations require the knowledge of trigonometry, they will be described later in the chapter. positive, starting from zero degrees (0) Individual quadrant points (also known as the cardinal points) are often compared to a hand direction on the face of an analogue clock or as a direction of a compass pointe. OF Js arbitrarily located at the equivalent position of 3 o'clock or East direction, 90° at 12 o'clock or North direc tion, 180° at 9 o'clock or West direction, and 270° at 6 o'clock or South direction - Figure 54 90° = North B van A a 180° = West | | -} 0° = East } c D 270" = South Figura 52-4 ‘Angles and quedkents «O° is East rection or 9 oelock rection ion the face ofa standard analogue clock474 POLYGONS Polygon is a common geometiic element defined by a number of straight line segments that are joined at the end points. These line segments are the sides ar edges of the polygon - Figure 52-5. Figure 52-5 Sim of magn npg ‘The sum of all angles in a polygon can be calculated from the following formula: S-(N 2) 180 ex where S$ = Sum ofthe angles N= Number of sidea in the polygon For example, a five sided polygon shown in the illustra- __Chapter 62 Figure 526 ‘eguier polygon Jnseribed and circumscribed circles and a single angle For example, a six sided polygon (commonly known as the hexagon) has a single angle of 120° Ae (6-2) x 190/56 A= 120° A regular polygons quite often defined by the number of its sides and its center, located within an inscribed or cir= cumscribed circle, Figure 52-6 above illustrates the con- cept of inscribed and circumscribed polygon, as it applies to a hexagon. Although regular polygons may have virtually unlimited number of sides, sone polygons are sv eosmmnun that diey have a special descriptive mathematical name: tion has the total sum of angles: Number of sides Common name 8 = (5 - 2) x 180 es B.! : aa 3 Triangle ‘There are several different polygons used in geometry, but only one special kind is of interest to CNC program- a Sais aati] ming. This polygon is called a regular potygan, all others are irregular polygons. Regular polygon isa polygon where > enagon all sides are of equal length, called equilateral sides, and where all angles are also equal, called equilateral angles - 6 Hexagon Figure 52-6. A single angle in a regular polygon can be calculated i Hoot from this formula: ; Caeme patie) 2180 9 Nonagon N 10 Decagon em where uw ‘bodecagan ‘A. = Single angle in degrees NN = Numbor of sides in the polygon ‘gonMATHIN CNC PROGRAMMING /sin22.5° x cos22.5° /tan22.5° x tan22.5° =Cxsin22.5° F cl =F /cos22.5° =S c Figure 82-7 Tha mast enmman regular paiygnns «square, haxagnn and ortagan In Figure 52-7 are three most common regular polygons ~ a square, a hexagon and an octagon, Calculations Of the distance between opposite corners C, the distance between flats F and the length of each side S are given, Note that a hexagon may have two different orientations (two horizon- tal sides or two vertical sides), which have no effect on the calculations. Hexagon orientation can be compared in Fig ure 52-6 with the hexagon orientation in Figure 52-7. TAPERS All taper calculations are virtually confined to the lathe ‘machining exclusively. Infrequently, tapers also appear in nilling applications. All tapers in this section relate to the lathe applications (s0 called circular tapers), but can be modified t0 milling. ‘The main purpose of taners is to pro vide a match between assembled parts. By definition, [A taper is a uniformly created conical ‘surface on @ pin or ina hol. Many tapers are industry standards and are used for small tool holders (shanks), such as a Morse taper ora Brown and Sharpe per, In addition, dere standard tapered pins, ma- chine spindle tapers, tool holder tapers, etc. In most cases, the taper is normally defined by the large end diameter, its length and a special note describing the taper. ats ‘The desctiption varies between English and the metric standards, For example, AMER NATL STD TAPER NO. 2 {American National Standard Taper number 2) isa specific taper description. Another common description in English units isa taper per foor. Metric system is much simpler. us- ing only a ratio, Ratio is used in English drawings as well In both measuring systems, there is one common rule: Taper on diameter i the diference di itoflength + Taper Definition Most drawings define a taper in two common ways: 2 One diameter and length with taper description or note 2 Diameter at both ends and the length with taper description or note Ia single dianeter iy defined, itis often de tanger one, ‘The description ofthe taper isa note with an arrow point- ing to the taper. In English measurements, the note may identify a standard taper or a taper per foot CTPF). In met tic, the taper is always a ratio. Figures 52.8 and $2.9 show the differences between the two units, which is ony within the taper identification y TPF I / 1 D d 1 po L. L | Fagwe 528 Gicularteper- Engish desertion 42x 1 J 1 D d ee: ' I. L a Foe 229 Crear ‘aper- Metre doseren476 In the Figure $28, showing English units method, dhe letters have the following meaning, Es" Dimensions Diameter atthe large end in inches d= Diameter at the small end in inches L_ = Length ftaperin inches TPE = Tape perfontinirbes X = Ratio value 1 : X (not shown) In the Figure 52-9, showing metric units method, the let- ters have the following meaning: ex Dimensions... D_ = Diameter atthe large end in miimeters 4 = Diameter atthe small end in milimeters Length of tape in milimeters Ratio value 1: X All formulas in this section use these designations. Taper Por Foot ‘Taper per foot is defined as ‘Taper per foot is the difference in diameter in inches over one foot of length. For caainple, a taper defined as 3.000 inches pet foot, ab- breviated as 3.0 TPF or3 TPF in the drawing, sa taper that will change the conical diameter by 3 inches for every | foot of length, * Taper Ratio Metric definition of a taper is similar: Taper is defined as the rato of difference between the large diameter andthe small diameter cover the given length ofthe cone. ‘The metric specification of a taper 1s the ratio D-d & XL Chapter 52 ‘ Taper Calculations - English Units Missing drawing dimensions in Figure 52-8 may be cal- culated from the given data Ifthe taper ratio is not speci= fied (the normal case), but we want to know what the ratio is, the following formula will help. To calculate the taper ratio amount X, when D, d and L are known: L “0G ‘To calculate the small diameter d, with D, L and TPF: Lx TPF 2 d=D- ‘To caleulate the large diameter D, with d, Land TPF Le TPF 12 +d To calculate the length L, if D, d, and TPF are known: L=(D- a) x52 © Taper Calculations - Metric Units Missing drawing dimensions in Figure 52-9 may be cal- culated from the given data. In metric system, the taper ra- tuo isnormally known, other dimensions can be calculated. To calculate the small diameter d, with D, L and X: dened x ‘To calculate the large diameter D, with d, L and X: Dad+t x ‘The ratio 1 : X means that over the length of X mim, the diameter ofthe cone will change (either as an increase or as, a decrease) by 1 mm. For example, a taper specified as 1: $ will increase 1 mm ‘on diameter, every $ mm of length. or milling, the taper is defined asthe difference in width ‘over a given length (per side). ‘To calculate the length L, if D, d, and X are known: L=(D-d) «x To calculate the ratio X (if unknown), with d, D and L: L 4, D-dMATH IN CNC PROGRAMMING CALCULATIONS OF TRIANGLES ‘The most common geometrical entity in programming is ‘triangle. All triangles are polygons, but not al triangles are regular polygons. All triangles have three sides, al- though not alway’ of the same length. There isa number of different triangles in geometry, but only a handful are used in everyday CNC programming '@ Types of Angles and Triangles ‘The main groups of triangles can be grouped together by their angles - Figure 52-10. BI A<90° a B< 90° K e C= 90 a A B A<90° B< 90" AK 3 c<90° b en A< 90° B> 90° a ¢ Figure 52:10 Tipe PP greta (a Acne mange fe) votse range Some mre detriled definitions may be ws ©. FIGHT angle means thatthe given angle is equal to 80° 2 ACUTE angle means thatthe given angle is greater than O° and smaller than 90° OBTUSE angle means mat me given angle Is neater than 20° and smaller than 180° A tight triangle is also called a right angle triangle. Iedefines a triangle that has one right angle (90 © An acute triangle alee called an acuto angle triangle Itdefines a triangle that has three acute anges. 2 An obtuse trianale is also called an obtuse ancletrianale. [defines a triangle that has one obtuse andl. In addition, there is also an oblique angle, which is not a new type of an angle, just a new definition: "1 ORLIOUE angle ran he sither an acuta ar an abivea angle, ‘which means it cannot be 90° or 180° All riangles share a single feature - the sum of all angles ina given triangle is always equal to 180° - Figure 52-11. 477 A+B+C= 180° Figure 52-11 Sim of all angles in a tangle always 180 degrees ‘The oblique triangle - and its clase cousin the isosceles Uiangle - are typos of triangles seldom ever nevded in pro- gramming. However unlikely it is always possible, These triangles can be solved only if a least three dimensions are known, and one of them must always be a side: 2 One side and two angles must be known Two sides and the angle opposite one of them Two sides ond the included angle 2 Three sides Isosceles triangle has two sides of equal length, Each side + of leg ~ is joined by a line called the base. The two angles, at the base are always equal - Figure 32-12. IF a=b THEN A=B Figure 52-12 Isosceles triangle A triangle that has all sides of equal length is called an ‘equilateral triangle. An equilateral triangle is also always an eguiangular rangle, because all internal angles are the same - each angle is 60° ~ Figure 52-13, a= Figure 92-13 Equiloterat triangle478 © Right Triangles A right triangle -or a right angle triangle -is triangle that has one angle equal to 90° (a triangle with two or more right angles is impossible). As there are 180° in any triangle (Sum of all angles), that means the sum of the two remain- 1ng angles must also be YU. Ihere 1s a number of mathe- ‘matical relationships that form the base of all calculations. Here is alook at those that are important in CNC program- ming. Learn these relationships well enough to be able to apply them to daly situations, Keep in mind that 99.9% of all triangles to be solved are right triangles, ‘The side of a right triangle that is opposite the right angle is called the ftypotenuse and is also the longest side of the triangle. The other two sides are called legs. The illustration in Figure 52-14 shows aright triangle, where C angle is the right angle (90°) and the side c is the hypotenuse. The sides ‘opposite to angles have a low case identification corre- sponding to the angles described in capital letters, A=90°-B B=90°-A C=90° Figure 52-14 ‘ight angle triangle and the reatonshi of angles: A citele drawn inside of a right triangle that is tangent to all three sides a, b, c - Figure 52-15 has a diameter D cal- cculated from this formula: Figure 52-15, Cirle inscribed ina vat triangle D=a+b-c Chapter 52 ‘An inseribed angle in a semicircle is always 90°, as shown in Figure 52-16. Line AB is the circle diameter. A D = DIAMETER igure 62.18 Inscribed angle in a semi-circle In Figure 52-17 isa line from point A to the center of cir- cele B.A line from point A to the tangency of the circle will ‘create cither a point C or point D. The angle ais created be- tween lines AC and AD, where the line AB isa bisector of tho angle a, ereating two equal angles. The two angles a! and a2 as well as triangles ABC and ABD are identical 8 7 D al =a2 a=ai+a2 | ABC=ABD Figure 62-17 ‘Bisector creates two equal anges © Similar Triangles ‘Triangles are considered similar if they have their corre- sponding angles equal and their corresponding sides pro- portional. Two wiangles are simi if. 2 Two angles of one triangle are the same as two angles ofthe othr triangle Am angle of one triangle isthe same ‘2c the angle ofthe othor viangle and the including sides are proportional 2 Both tianoles are similar to another triangle The corresponting sides ofthe two triangles are proportional In CNC programming, mathematical relationship of tri- angles are used quite afien, for example, when machining tapers or similar angular items. A taper specified in the drawing must frequently be extended at one or both ends, to allow for the necessary tool clearances.MATH IN CNC PROGRAMMING 479 Figure 52-48 Similar tangles - ‘The illustration in Figure 52-18 shows the relationship between two similar triangles. The same illustration also shows several important dimensions: a where Original length ii Front clearance in the X axis ‘ack clearance inthe X axis Front clearance in the Y axis Back clearance in the ¥ axis Figure 52-19 shows the same two triangles in a simpli- fied way. In the upper part of the illustration, the values X and Y are sums of the extensions (clearances) from the pre- vious example: fe w— + Fue $29 ‘Similar triangles - 2. ye WeH L With known values entered, the U side can be calculated. Ifthe U is isolated on the left and the known values on the right of the equation, the calculation is simp] = (2.250 x 0.500) / 1.750 U = 0.6428571 ‘® Sine - Cosine - Tangent Figure 52-20 shows the most important relationships of i series sides and angles of aright triangle yen+w @ ‘The bottom part of the figure shows the relationship of or B| S tha opposite silos Hand U to toe adjacent cidee Land W. we? A ‘The formula of the relationship is: me 2 HL side (b) C= 90° UW = sin= 2 cosA= 2 tana= 2 If three of the values are known rather than two, the un- aowumbecabectoumetuitganniametee: | scgx = | cone ® | iene 2 ample, the values H, L and W are known, and the value U & = a hhas to be calculated. Hig 0.500, Lis 1.750-and W is 2.250. Faure so-z0 ‘To calculate the side U, the above formula is reversed: ‘Trigonometr functions - sine, cosine, and tangent480 ‘This relationship has its own terminology and is defined as. ratio of sides, using the sine, cosine and tangent func- tions of the given angle. Other available functions, namely ‘cotangent, secant and cosecant are normally not used in ‘CNC programming, of an angle - abbreviated as sin isa ratio of side opposite the angle to hypotenuse ofthe triangle Cosine of an ange - abbreviated as cos - is ratio of side adjacent tothe angle to hypotenuse ofthe triangle Tangent of an angle - abbreviated as tan -is a ratio of side ‘opposite the acute angle tothe side adjacent © Inverse Trigonometric Functions From the definitions, the value of sine, cosine and tangent is expressed as a ratio of two sides. The angle that depends ‘on this value isthe result of an inverse trigonometric fune- tion. Aninverse function is sometimes symbolized with the word are, preceding the normal function. For example resin of as angle A is the ungle wise value is the ratio of the side « to the hypotemuse ¢ Most pocket calculators indicate the inverse function as sin, cos and tan raised to the power of minus 1 as the sec- ondary key function. Just enter the ratio of the function: v sink = a/e Then... = arcsin(a / ¢) Or Ae sin'(a /c) v cosa = b/c Thos. = aveooe (b / 0) Or. A= cos"(b / c) y tamk= a/b Then. A = arctan(a / b) Or Astana /b) ‘While diese is unily a single ecsult for cach tigonomctvic function, there could be several results for the inverse fume- tion, For example, absolute value of 0.707106781 is the sine of 45°, as well as the sine of 135° + Degrees and Decimal Degrees Another type of calculation used in programming is con- version ofangles, relates wa drawing usin minutes ainl seconds to describe the precision of angular degrees re- quired. There are two methods of dimensioning angles in a drawing. The older and method is the angle designation in DMS or D-M-S, which means degrees-minutes-seconds ‘The modem methods ax associated with CAD drawings and use DD or D-D, which means decimal degrees. Dec mal degrees are needed for calculations of coordinate points, so DMS must always be converted to DD. Chapter 52 ‘The following formula converts degrees-minutes-sec- onds designation to decimal degrees: Mos DD=D+75 +5509 war wher. 00 = Decimal degrees 1D = Dagross M = Minutes S$ = Seconds ‘Therefore, 64948127". joquvaent to: 64 + (48 / 60) + (27 / 3600) = 64.8075° ‘The abbreviations DMS/D-M-S and DD/D-D are com- monly used on seientific ealenlatars. Much less nsefil con- version is to change decimal degrees to DMS. It is not needed in CNC programming, except perhaps to perform double check, o verify that the original converted result is correct. The calculation of DD to DMS is nothing more than isolating the fractional part of the number in three steps. For example, in order to convert 29.545021° to de- _grees-minutes-seconds format, three steps are necessary. ‘The fits steps to isolate the whole degrees amount from the decimal degrees: 29.545021 - 0.545021 = 29° ‘The seconds step is to take the decimal portion and multi ply it by sixty, to get the minutes: 0.545021 x 60 = 31.701126 = 32! ‘The third and final step is to take the decimal portion of the last result. and multiply it by sixty to get seconds: 0.701126 x 60 = 42" ‘The final DMS value of the example will be 29°32!42 with 4 slight sounding eror ‘© Pythagorean Theorem ‘The well known work of the ancient Greek mathemati- cian Pythagoras (6th century B.C.) known today as the Py- thagorean Theorem, is taught and emphasized fairly eaily in a high school mathematics classes. This mathematical theory relates tn the solution of right triangles and stares: In any right tiangle, the 's equal tothe sum of squ re ofthe hypotenuse 35 ofthe other tivo sidesMATH IN CNC PROGRAMMING Pythagorean Theorem is used in programming to find the length of any side ina right triangle, if two other sides are mown Figure 52-21 shows the calenlation af side ao side 6 or the hypotenuse cin aright triangle. a+ bso Figure 52.21 Pythagorean Theorem 481 © Example . ifthe length of rypotenuse cis 3 units and the side b i8 7.75 units, the side-a ean he calelated - the e ‘squared is 9.0, b squared is 7.5625, so the side a is: a= V(3 x3 + 2.75 x 2.75) a= V(9 - 7.5625) = V1.4375 a= 21989579 ‘The symbol ¥ represent the square roat. Solving Right Triangles ‘The solutions of right triangles using the Pythagorean ‘Theorem or any other method are equally important. These common methods use the sin, cas and fan trigonometric functions. AS always, start with the known data. In trigo- nometry, any triangle can be solved, providing one of the two data sources is known: Two eidoe of aright rangle 2 One side and one angle of right triangle ‘The 90° angle is always given and never used in calcula- tions. Figure 52-22 covers all right triangle solutions. If ‘more than a single solution is available, use both methods to double check the result. bie Trigonometry Relationships SOH Sine = sina = cosB cosA = sinB Opposite Fiypntannsa alb tanA = cotB CAH Adjacent bla Cosine = Hypotenuse cotA = tanB ase cing heey ened TOA Opposite Aaj es al sina Tangent = epeste x sinB c= a/ cosB 5 3 a x tanB c= b/ sinB b=a/tand © = D1 COSA a b ad A=90°- 8 B=90°-A Broken His Pop Bottle 2 c=Vato Tan ae h b Cos = + a edge c= 90 Figure 52:22 TTigonomeri fanctions - formulas for solving right angle triangles482 ADVANCED CALCULATIONS _Chapter 52 CONCLUSION The last two charts show formulas for calculations of the chord C or the tangent T of a circle. Trigonometric formu- Jae can be used ae well, but the formulas can make the same calculations faster. With only one exception, there are two, solutions, dependent on the available data. The formulas ‘can also calculate the radius R, angle A and the deviation d. Calculations relative to the chord of a circle are shown in. Figure 52-23. Calculations relative to the tangent of a cir- cle are shown in Figure 52-24. In this chapter, only the most important and commonly used mathematical subjects have been presented. Many ‘more solutions and shortcuts are used by programmers and operators every day, showing their ingenuity in solving math problems. Author will appreciate any formula, short- cut or a solution to any programming problem, and will be considered for the next edition ofthis handbook. eA a? 7] R d (1-cosa)xR R- = a R-d aC ¢ A cos x2 sin IxR*2 Finn 228 CHORD ofa cel celelations ocho, atu re aevition + ae — Ro tana x d aT 1 R To tnax2xR | 2xl2xRxdia? = A tant zrex2 | eng! BR x? Fgura 8224 TANGENT ofa ciclo calculations of tangent radus, angle and deviations