Unit-1 Basic Electronics

Basic Electronics ---------------------MECHANICAL ENGINEERING II YEAR----------------------------------------LIET
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UNIT-I
1.1 Introduction:
Based on the ability of conduction of electrons, all the
materials are classified as conductors, insulators and semiconductors. A
conductors is a very good carrier of electricity.
Ex: Silver, Copper, Aluminum etc.
An insulator is a very poor conductor.
Ex: Glass, Wood, Mica etc.
A semiconductor having conductivity which is between
conductor and an insulator.
Ex: Silicon and Germanium.
These semiconductors do not conduct current at low temperature but as
the temperature increases, these behave as good conductors.
1.2 Classification of Semiconductor:
Semiconductors are classified as (a) Intrinsic (pure) and (b)
Extrinsic (impure) types. The extrinsic semiconductors are of N-type
and P-type.
1.2.1Intrinsic Semiconductor:
A semiconductor in its purest form is called intrinsic
semiconductor. The impurity level is very small, of the order of one part
in 100 million parts of semiconductor.
Intrinsic Semiconductors behave as a perfect insulator at
absolute temperature. At room temperature, some of the valence
electrons absorb the thermal energy. So they break the covalent bond
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and enter into the conduction band. Such electrons become free to move
in the crystal one and are called conduction electrons. A missing
electron in the valence bond leaves a vacant space which is known as a
hole, as shown in fig 1.1
Holes
So free electrons and holes get generated in pairs. In an intrinsic

semiconductor, the concentration of free electrons and holes is equal.
These thermally generated electrons and holes move
randomly and cannot constitute any current. Under the influence of
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applied voltage, these carriers move in a particular direction, causing the

flow of current as shown in fig. 1.2 holes are positively charged
particles. So they move towards the negative terminal of the battery.
Electrons move towards the positive terminal of the battery. Though the
total current inside the semiconductor is due to free electrons and holes,
the current in the external wire is fully by electrons.
Extrinsic Semiconductor:
At room temperature, the conduction capability of an
intrinsic semiconductor is very little. Its conduction properties should be
increased, in order to use in electronic devices. This can be done by
adding some impurities to the intrinsic semiconductors. The added
impurity is very small of order of one atom per million atoms of pure
semiconductor. The process of adding pure impurity to a semiconductor
is known as doping. Such a semiconductor is called extrinsic
semiconductor.
Depending on the type of impurity added, the extrinsic
semiconductor can be divided into two types
a) N- type semiconductor and b) P- type semiconductor
N- Type extrinsic semiconductor:
When a small amount of pentavalent impurity is added to a pure

semiconductor, N type extrinsic semiconductor is formed. Some
examples of pentavalent impurity are arsenic, antimony or phosphorous.
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Silicon has 4 valence electrons and Arsenic has 5 valence

electrons. Each Arsenic atom uses 4 valence electrons and form 4
covalent bonds by taking of electron from 4 nearby silicon atoms. The
fifth electron of Arsenic is loosely bound to its parent atom and gets
become free. This electron is available as a carrier of current. The
amount of energy needed to detach this fifth valence electron from the
impurity atom is of the order of only 0.01eV for Ge and 0.05eV for Si.
This energy is very small and may be provided with thermal agitation at
room temperature. A small amount of arsenic impurity provides enough
atoms to supply millions of free electrons.
Each impurity atom donates one electron to the
semiconductor, it is called donor impurity. After donating one electron,
Arsenic atom becomes positively charged ion. It cannot take part in
conduction because it is fixed in the crystal lattice.
Concentration of electrons will be increased in conduction band

than the concentration of holes in the valence band. Donor impurity
atoms form a new energy level of the order of 0.01eV for Ge and 0.05eV
for Si below the conduction band.
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In N type semiconductor, electrons are the majority carriers

while holes are the minority carriers. But as a whole, N type
semiconductor is electrically neutral. Fermi level shifts towards the
conduction band due to increase of concentration of electrons in
conduction band.
P-type Semiconductor:
When a small amount of trivalent impurity such as gallium,
boron or indium, is added to a pure semiconductor a P-type
semiconductor is formed. The trivalent impurity has three valence
electrons.
Consider the formation of P-type material by adding boron to

Silicon. Boron atom form three complete covalent by using its three
valence electrons with three adjacent silicon atoms. Fourth covalent
bond is incomplete because there is a deficiency of one electron foe
boron. This vacancy is called a hole. Each boron atom gives one hole to
the silicon. The number of holes will depend on the amount of impurity
added to the silicon.
At room temperature, electron from the neighboring atom acquires
sufficient energy and fills the vacancy in the incomplete bond. But this
creates a vacancy in the adjacent bond from where the electron was
jumped, which is nothing but a hole.
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After accepting one electron, boron atom becomes a negatively

charged ion. Even a small amount of impurity is added, large number of
holes get created in the P-type material. In a P-type material, holes are
the majority carriers and electrons are the minority carriers. Acceptor
ions create one energy level above the valence band. The gap between
valence band and acceptor level is 0.01ev for Germanium and 0.05ev for
Silicon. Fermi level shift towards the valence band. It lies above the
acceptor energy level. At room temperature, the electrons from valence
band jump to acceptor energy level. Representation of P-type
semiconductor is shown in above fig. ni2
Mass Action Law:
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In a pure semiconductor, the number of electrons same as

number of holes. This is due to the thermal energy for which equal
number of free electron-hole pairs is generated.
If the pure semiconductor is doped with donor impurities,
the number of electrons in the conduction band increases and number of
holes in the valence band decreases. Reduction in holes is due to the
recombination, and enhancement in electron is due to doping.
Similarly acceptor impurities are added, the number of
electrons in conduction band decreases and number of holes in valence
band increases.
Under thermal equilibrium, for any semiconductor, the
product of number of electron and number of holes is constant and is
independent of amount of doping.
This relation is known as mass action law.
:. n.p=n2i
Where n=number of free electrons per unit volume
p=number of holes per unit volume
ni =Intrinsic concentration
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Charge density ρ
d 2 v −ρ
=
d x2 E
dv
E=-
distance dx
ρ
=∫ dx
E
Potential barrier for

holes v = -∫ ∈ dx
Potential barrier for electrons
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A PN junction is formed by adding acceptor impurities to the left side

and donor impurities to the right side of a semiconductor.
P region has more number of holes, very less number of
electrons and more number of immobile negative ions. N region has
more number of electrons, very less number of holes and more number
of immobile positive ions. Each region is electrically neutral because
each of them carries equal positive and negative charges.
There exists a concentration gradient across the junction.
Hence some of the holes diffuse across the boundary from p side to n
side. Similarly some of the electrons diffuse from n side to p side
material. This is called diffusion.
In the displacement of changes due to recombination of
electrons and holes, an electric field appears across the junction.
Equilibrium is established when the field becomes large enough to
restrain the process of diffusion. The general shape of the charge
distribution is shown in fig b. This shape depends on the nature of diode
doping.
The free electrons crossing the junction create negative ions
on p side. Similarly holes create positive ions on n side. As negative ions
are created on p side it acquires a positive potential. Similarly positive
ions are created on side and acquire a positive potential as shown in fig
d.
Both these positive and negative potentials prevent migration
of any more charges across the junction. Thus initial distribution of
charge carriers creates a barrier potential at the junction. Hence the
region around the junction is depleted of mobile carriers it is called as
depletion region or space charge region or transition region.
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The thickness of this region is of the order of wavelength of

visible light i.e. 0.5µm. For further diffusion of carriers across the
junction, some potential energy is required. This potential is called
barrier potential or Contact potential or Diffusion potential denoted as
Vo. The value of V 0varies with doping levels and temperatures.
Generally V 0=0.3v for Ge at room temperature
=0.7v for Si
PN junction as a diode:-
The electrical characteristic of a PN junction is that it
constitutes a diode which allows easy flow in one direction and restricts
in other direction.
Forward Bias-:
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When a battery is connected to a PN junction diode that the positive

terminal of the battery is connected P section and negative terminal is
connected to N section, then the junction is said to be forward biased.
When the PN junction is forward biased, holes and repelled
from the battery positive terminal and electrons are repelled by the
negative terminal. Both holes and electrons move towards junction.
Because of this acquired energy, some of holes and free electrons
penetrate the depletion region. This reduces the potential barrier. As a
result of this more majority carriers diffuse across the junction. These
carriers recombine and cause movement of charge carriers in the space
charge region.
The junction offers very low resistance for forward bias. The
current continues as long as the battery is in the circuit. If the battery
voltage is increased, the barrier potential is further reduced and more
majority carriers cross the junction and results in more current.
Note that current in the external circuit is only due to
electrons where as in the semiconductor it is due to both electrons and
holes.
Reverse Bias:-
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If battery positive terminal is connected to N section and negative

terminal is connected to P section, then it is said to be reverse biased.
The holes in the P region are attracted towards the battery
negative terminal and electrons in the N region are attracted towards
positive terminal. These majority carriers are drawn away from the
junction. This action widens the depletion region and increases the
barrier potential compared to unbiased diode.
Due to this increased barrier potential, the majority carriers
cannot diffuse across the junction. However this barrier potential is
helpful to the minority carriers in crossing the junction.
The rate of generation of minority carriers depends upon the
temperature. If the temperature is fixed, the rate of generation is also
fixed. Therefore the current due to flow of minority carriers remains the
same, whether the battery voltage is low or high. For this reason, this
current is called reverse saturation current. This current is very small and
is of order nA for Si diodes and µA for Ge diodes.
Current Components in a PN junction Diode:
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When a forward bias is applied to a diode, holes are injected into N

side from P side and electrons are injected into P side from N side. The
number of these injected carriers decreases exponentially with the
distance from the junction due to recombination.
There are two minority currents
1) Due to electrons in the P region denoted as I np
2) Due to holes in the N region denoted as I pn
But both these currents vary with distance, they are
represented as I np (x) and I pn (x)
Electrons crossing from N to P will constitute current in the
same direction as holes crossing from P to N.
Hence total current at the junction is the total conventional
current I flowing through the circuit.
I= I pn (0) + I np (0)
Where x=0
(0) decreases on N side as we move away from the
I pn
junction. Similarly I np (0) decreases on P side as we move away from the

junction.
Since current is same throughout a series circuit, I is independent of x
and is indicated as a horizontal line in the fig.
Due to electric field, there exists another current component
I pp i n P side. This drift current is due to majority carriers i.e. holes in P
side. As the holes approach the junction, some of holes combine with
electrons, so I pp decreases near the junction. Remaining I pp enters the N
side and become I pn.
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:. In a forward biased PN diode, the current enters the P side

as a hole current and leaves N side as electron current of same
amplitude.
The current in PN diode is bipolar. Since it is due to both
electrons and holes.
V-I characteristics of a diode:
Io
When a forward bias is applied to a PN junction diode. The forward

current .If is almost zero up to a forward voltage less than V 0i.e. the
region OA. This is because the potential barrier prevents the electrons
from N side and holes from P side crossing the junction and move
towards N section and electrons towards P section, So that the potential
barrier is completely disappeared. Then large current flows through the
diode.
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VI characteristics can be explained by using diode current equation.

−V
i.e. I = I 0 (e ή V −1) T
Where I 0=reverse saturation current.

V T =Volt equivalent of temperature
KT
= q
T
= 11,600
At room temperature
T =300°K
V T =26mv
When the applied voltage V is positive and several times Vt then above
equation becomes.
v
I =I 0 eηv T Here η=1 for Ge
= 2 for Si
Hence current increases exponentially with ‘V’
The forward voltage below which the current is very small and
beyond this the current increases very rapidly is called cut in voltage or
offset voltage or threshold voltage. It is denoted asV r . Its value is 0.3v
for Ge and 0.7v for Si.
When a reverse bias is applied, there is no current flowing through
the diode. But a small reverse saturation current I 0flows due to minority
carriers. For large applied reverse bias, breakdowns occur and reverse
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current increases rapidly. The reverse voltage at which the junction

break down occurs is known as breakdown voltageV BD.
For reverse biased diode,
−V
|v| is several timesV T , and then e ή V is very small compared to
T
unity. Then the diode equation becomes I≈- I 0

The reverse current is thus constant and independent of the applied
reverse bias. Its value depends mainly upon the junction temperature. I 0
Value will be in the order of µA for Ge and nA for Si diodes.
Break Downs in Diodes:-
The sharp increasing current under break down conditions is
due to the following two mechanisms.
1) Avalanche Break down
2) Zener Break down
1) Avalanche Break Down:
When a small reverse bias is applied to a PN diode, less
number of thermally generated carriers cross the junction and results
small current. But the reverse bias increases, the field across the junction
also increases.
Thermally generated carriers while travelling through the junctions
acquire a large amount of kinetic energy. Then velocity of these carriers
increase and they collide with the immobile ions. This result new
electron-hole pairs generation. Then these carriers acquire sufficient
energy and collide with other immobile ions. The electron-hole pairs are
generated further. This process is cumulative in nature and results in
generation of a valance (multiplication) of charge carriers within a short
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time. This results in large amount of current at the same value of reverse
voltage. This carriers generation mechanism is called Avalanche
breakdown.
2) Zener Break Down:
This break down takes place in very thin junction i.e. when
both sides of junction are very heavily doped. So the depletion layer is
narrow when a small reverse bias voltage is applied, a very strong
electric field about 107v/m is set up across the depletion layer. This field
is sufficient to break or rapture the covalent bonds. Then large number
of electrons and holes produced which constitute the current in reverse
bias condition. This current is the reverse saturation current or zener
current. Zener current is independent of the applied voltage and depends
only on the external resistance.
When a diode breaks down, both zener and avalanche effects
are present. At reverse voltage less than 6v, Zener break down
predominates while at about 8v, avalanche break down predominates.
Zener diode Characteristics:
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Zener diode is a reverse biased heavily doped silicon or

germanium PN junction diode. It is operated in the break down region.
Due to higher temperature and current capability, silicon is preferred in
comparison to Germanium. The V-I characteristics is shown in fig.
When a Zener diode is forward biased, its characteristics are just same as
ordinary diode. When the reverse voltage applied to a Zener diode is
increased, a value is reached at which the current through the diode
increases (in region AB), the voltage across the Zener diode serves as a
reference voltage. Zener diode can be widely used as voltage regulator.
RECTIFIERS
Linear Mode Power Supply:-
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Basic Building Block of Linear mode power supply:-
a.)
b.) c.)
d.) e.)
f.)
∴ Here, the transformer supplies ac voltage at the required

level. This bidirectional voltage is connected into a unidirectional
pulsating dc using a rectifier. The unwanted ripple contents of this
pulsating dc are removed by a filter to get pure dc voltage. The
output of the filter is fed to a regulator which gives a steady dc
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output independent of load variations and input supply

fluctuations.
(a)Principle of linear mode power supply:-
Requirements of Linear mode power supply:-

(1.) The most important consideration is designing a power
supply is that dc voltage at the output. It should be able to
give minimum operable dc voltage at the rated current.
(2.) It should be able to furnish the maximum current nodded for
the unit, monitoring the voltage consistent.
(3.) The ac ripple should be low.
(4.) The power supply should be protected in the event of short-
circuit on the load side.
(5.) Over voltage (spikes and surges) protection must be
incorporated.
(6.) The response of power supply to temperature changes should
be minimum.
Rectifier:- A rectifier is a device, which converts a.c voltage to pulsating

d.c voltage using one or more PN junction diodes.
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Types of Rectifiers:- Based on the diodes using for construction.

(1.) Half-Wave Rectifier
(2.) Full-Wave Rectifier
(3.) Bridge Rectifier.
(1.) Half-Wave Rectifier:-
In Half-Wave Rectifier, rectifying element conducts only
during positive Half-Cycle of input a.c supply the negative Half-Cycle
of a.c supply are eliminated from the output.
D1
E∅C
The rectifier circuit consists of resistive load, rectifying

element, i.e. P-N junction diode, and the source of a.c voltage, all
connected in series. The input voltage to the half-wave rectifier circuit is
a sinusoidal a.c voltage, having a frequency which is supply frequency
of 50Hz.
N 2 E Sm
=
N 1 EPm
Esm=Peak value of the a.c. Secondary voltage.

Epm=Peak value of the primary a.c voltage.
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es =Esm sinwt
w=2 πf where f=supply frequency
Operation of the circuit:-
 During the positive half cycle of secondary a.c voltage
terminal (A) becomes positive with respect to (B). The
diode is forward biased. And the current flows in the
circuit in the clock-wise direction.
The current will flow for almost full positive half-
cycle. This current is also flowing through load resistance
RL. Hence denoted as iL, the load current.
 During negative half cycle, when terminal (A) is negative
with respect to terminal (B) diode becomes reverse biased.
Hence no current flows in the circuit.
a) Diode forward b) Diode Reverse
←D→ ←D→ ←ON→ ←OFF→
ON OFF
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Secondary
input voltage e S π 2π 3π 4π
Load
Current (i L ¿
Load
Voltage (e L ¿
Voltage
across diode
← E Sm=PIV →
Average DC Load Current:-

Mathematically, Current wave form can be described as
iL =Im sinwtfor 0≤wt≤ π
iL=0 for π ≤wt≤2 π
Where Im=Peak value of load current.
2π 2π
1 1
Idc= 2 π ∫ i L d (wt )= ∫ I sin ( wt ) d (wt )
2π 0 m
0
No current flowing during negative half cycle of a.c input

voltage i.e. between wt= π to 2 π , so
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π
1
IDC= 2 π ∫ I m sin ( wt ) d (wt )
0
I Im
= 2 mπ [−coswt ]π0 => - 2π
[cos ( π ¿-cos (0)]
I Im Im
=> - 2 mπ [−1−1]= - 2π
[-2] = π
I
Idc= πm =average value
Apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law we can write

ESm
Im= R + R
f S+ RL
Where Rs=Resistance of secondary winding of transformer

RL=Load resistance
Rf =Forward resistance of diode
Average DC Load Voltage (EDC):-
It is the product of average D.C load current and load
resistance RL.
EDC=IDC.RL
I E Sm
EDC= πm ∗R L=> π [R ¿ ¿ f + RS + R L ]¿
The winding resistance Rs and forward diode resistance Rf one

practically very small compound to RL.
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E Sm
EDC= π
[ Rf + R s
RL
+1
]
Rf + Rs
But as Rf and Rs are small compared to RL, so RL
is
negligibly small compared to 1, so
ESm
EDC≈ π
RMS value of Load current:-

R.M.S means squaring, finding num and the finding square
root. Hence R.M.S value of load current can be.
√ √
π 2 π
1 1
Irms= ∫ ( I sinwt ) d (wt )
2π 0 m
= ∫ I 2 sin 2 wt d(wt )
2π 0 m
√ [ 1−cos ( 2 wt ) ]
√ { }
π π
1 1 wt sin ⁡(2 wt )
=Im ∫
2π 0 2
d (wt )=Im
2π 2
−
4 0
√ √
1
=Im 1 π
2π 2{ }
−0 => Im* 2π
∗π I m
2
=2
I
Irms= 2m
D.C power output (PDC):

PDC=EDC.IDC=IDC2RL
[ ]
2 2
Im Im
D.C power output=IDC RL= 2
π
R L= 2 R L
π
2
Im
PDC= 2
RL
π
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ESm
Where Im= R + R
f S+ RL
E2Sm∗R L
PDC= 2
( Rf + R S + R L ) π 2
A.C power Input (PAC):-

The power input taken from the secondary of transformer is
the power supplied to three resistances namely RL, Rf, Rs.
P AC =I 2RMS [ R L+ R f + R s ]
I
IRMS= 2m
I 2m
PAC=> [R + R + RS]
4 L f
Rectifier Efficiency (ή):-

:. Rectifier efficiency is defined as the ratio of d.c power
output to a.c input power.
D . C output power P DC
A .C input power = P AC
ή=
I 2m
RL
P DC π2
Efficiency (ή) => =
P AC I 2m
4
[ R f + RS + R L ]
( )
4 0.406
RL
=>
(
= 1+ Rf + R S
)
2
π
Rf + RS+ RL RL
If (Rf+RS)<<RS as mentioned earlier.

Then we get maximum efficiency of half-wave rectifier circuit as
%ήmax=0.406*100=40.6%
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Ripple Factor:-
Mathematically Ripple Factor is defined as the RMS value of
the a.c component in the output to the average d.c component present in
the output.
R . M . S value of a. c component of output
Ripple Factor (γ) = Average of d . c component of output
Iac=> R.M.S value of ac component present in the output.

Idc=>d.c component present in the output.
IRMS=> R.M.S value of total output current.
IRMS=√ I 2ac + I 2dc
:. Iac=√ I 2rm −I 2dc
I ac
:. Ripple Factor= I dc
γ=
√I 2
rm −I 2dc
I dc
γ=
√( I rms 2
I dc )
−1
√[ ]
2
( ) −1= π −1=¿ √1.4674 ¿

Im
√
2
2
γ= 4
(π)
I m
γ=1.211
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This indicates that the ripple factor contents in the

output are 1.211 times the A.C component i.e. 1.211% of D.C
component.
 Ripple Factor of half-wave is very high, which indicates that the
half-wave circuit is for converter of a.c to d.c.
Peak Inverse Voltage PIV:-
The peak Inverse Voltage is the peak voltage across the
diode in the Reverse direction i.e. when the diode is reverse biased.
In the half wave rectifier, the load current is ideally
zero. When the diode is reverse biased. Hence the maximum value of the
voltage that can be exist across the diode is nothing but Esm.
Esm
I=0
PIV of diode=Esm=Maximum value of secondary voltage.

PIV=> E DC . π ¿ I DC =0
This is called PIV rating of the diode.
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Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF):-

The Factor which indicates how much is the utility of
the transformer in the circuit is called T.U.F.
Def: - T.U.F is defined as the ratio of d.c power delivered to
the load to the a.c power rating of the transformer.
A.C power rating of transformer =ERMS.IRMS
ESm I m
=> .
√2 2
E .I
=> 2Sm√2 m
D.C power delivered to the load=Idc2RL
( )
2
Im
= π
RL
T.U.F=
D .C power delivered ¿ t h e load ¿
A . C power rating of t h e transformer
(( ) )
2
Im
RL
π
T.U.F=
ESm I m
2 √2
Where Esm=ImRL by neglecting Rf and Rs.

2
Im
∗R L .2 √ 2
:. T.U.F => π
2
=¿
2 √ 2 =0.287
2
I RL
m π2
NOTE: The value of T.U.F is low, which shows that in half-wave

circuit, the transformer is not fully utilized.
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Voltage Regulation:-
The voltage regulation is the factor, which tells us about the
change in the d.c output voltage as load change from no load to full load
condition.
( V dc ) N −( V dc ) F
Voltage Regulation: L
( V dc ) F
L
If ( V dc ) N =D.C voltage on no load.

L
( V dc ) F =D.C voltage on full load.

L
ESm
( V dc ) N =
L
π
I E Sm
( V dc ) F =Idc.RL= m ∗R L= ∗R L
L
π π [ R f + RS + R L ]
E Sm E Sm RL
− .
π π [ R f + RS + R L ]
%Regulation=> E Sm RL
∗100
.
π R f + RS + R L
RL
1−
Rf + RS+ RL Rf + RS
=> RL = RL
∗100
Rf + R S + R L
:. Neglecting the winding resistance

Rf
%R= RL
∗100
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Note: Less the value of voltage regulation, better is the

performance of rectifier circuit.
Im
RMS value 2
Form Factor:- Form Factor=> Average Value =I
m
π
π
=> 2 =>1.57
Im
Peak Value
Peak Factor:- R . M . S value => m =2
I
2
Disadvantages of Half-wave Rectifier Circuit:-

(1.) The Ripple factor of half wave rectifier circuit is 1.21, which is
quite high. The output contains lot of varying components.
(2.) The maximum theoretical rectifier efficiency is found to be 40.6%,
the practical value will be less than this. This indicates that half
wave rectifier circuit is quite in efficient.
(3.) The circuit has low transformer utilization factor showing the
transformer is not fully utilized.
Note: Because of all these disadvantages, half-wave rectifier circuit is
normally not used as a power rectifier.
Full Wave Rectifier:-
The full wave rectifier conducts during both positive and
negative half cycles of input a.c supply.
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In order to rectify both the half cycles of a.c input, two diodes are used
in this circuit.
Operation:-
During the positive half of time of the input signal, a node of
the diode D1 becomes positive and at the same times the node of diode
D2 does not conduct, the load current flows through D1 and the voltage
drop across RL will be equal to the input voltage.
 During the negative half cycle of the input, the node of diode D 1
becomes negative and the node of D2 becomes positive. Hence, D1
does not conduct and D2 conducts. The load current flows through
D2 and the voltage drop across RL will be equal to the input
voltage.
← Reverse biased
Current flow during positive half cycle Current flow during negative half cycle
32
----------------------------------------------V HARSHAVARDHAN -------------------------------------------------------------
Output wave forms: -
E Sm Secondary voltage
D 1 on D 2 on D 1 on D 1 off
D2 off D1 off D 2 off D2 on
Id 1
Im
Id 2
iL
Im
eL
Em
Maximum Load current:-

Rf=Forward Resistance of diode
RS=Winding resistance of each half of secondary
RL=Load resistance
33
----------------------------------------------V HARSHAVARDHAN -------------------------------------------------------------
eS=Instantaneous a.c voltage across each half of secondary

eS=ESmsinwt
ESm
Im= Rf + RS+ RL
Im=Maximum value of load current iL

Average D.C load current (IDC):-
Imsinwt -Imsinwt
↓ ↓
π 2π
Consider one cycle of load current i L from 0 to 2 π to obtain the

average value which is d.c value of load current.
iL=Imsinwt 0≤wt≤ π
iL=-imsinwt; π ≤wt≤2 π
2π
1
Iav=Idc= 2 π ∫ i L d (wt )
0
[∫ ]
π 2π
1
¿ I m sinwt d ( wt ) +∫ −I m sinwt d (wt )
2π 0 π
[∫ ]
π 2π
I
= 2 mπ sinwt d ( wt )−∫ sinwt d ( wt )
0 π
I
= 2 mπ [ (−coswt )0π −(−coswt )2π π ]
I
= 2 mπ [-cos π +cos0+cos2 π -cos π ]
I
= 2 mπ [-(-1)+1+1-(-1)]
34
----------------------------------------------V HARSHAVARDHAN -------------------------------------------------------------
4 Im 2Im
2π
=> π
2Im
:.Idc= π
Average DC Load Voltage (EDC):-

2Im
EDC=IDC*RL= π
∗R L
Substituting the value of Im

2 ESm R L
EDC= π [ R + R + R ]
f S L
2 E Sm
=π
[ 1+
Rf + R S
RL ]
Rf + RS
But as Rf and RS<<RL hence RL
<<1
2 E Sm
:. EDC= π
RMS load current (IRMS):-
√
π
1
IRMS= ∫ i2 d(wt )
2π 0 L
√
π
2
IRMS= ∫
2
2π 0
[ I m sinwt ] d ( wt )
√ [ ]
π
1 1−cos 2 wt
=I m ∫
π 0 2
d (wt )
√ [ ( )]
π
1 ( ) π sin 2 wt
=I m 2π
wt 0 −
2 0
35
----------------------------------------------V HARSHAVARDHAN -------------------------------------------------------------
√ 1 Im
=I m ( π ) =>
2π √2
I
:. I RMS=¿ √m2
DC power output:-
P DC= I 2dc R L
= ( )2Im 2
π
∗RL
4 2
P DC= I ∗RL
2 m
π
Substituting the value of Im we get

2
4 ( ESm )
:. P DC= ∗R L
π [ R f + RS + R L ]
2
DC power input (PAC):-

P AC = I 2RMS [ R f + R S + R L ]
( )[
2
Im
= R f + RS + R L ]
√2
I 2m [ Rf + RS + R L ]
P AC =
2
:. Substituting the value of Im we get

2
( E Sm )
∗1
P AC = [ R + R + R ] 2
f S L
2
[ Rf + R S + R L ]
36
----------------------------------------------V HARSHAVARDHAN -------------------------------------------------------------
2
ESm
:. P AC = 2 R + R + R
[ f S L]
Rectifier Efficiency:-
4 2
Im RL
PDC output π2
ή= P input = I 2 [ R + R + R ]
AC m f S L
2
8 RL
ή= π 2 [ R + R + R ]
f S L
But Rf+RS<<RL, neglecting it from the denominator.

8 RL
ή= 2
π RL
8
=π2
8
:.% Lmax = π 2 ∗100 =81.2%
Ripple Factor:-
Ripple Factor=
√( I DC )
I rms 2
−1
Im 2 Im
I rms =
√2
and I DC =
π
37
----------------------------------------------V HARSHAVARDHAN -------------------------------------------------------------
√[ ]
2
( )
Im
√
2
γ= √2 π
−1= 8
−1
2 Im
π
:. Ripple factor = γ = 0.48

:. This indicates that the ripple contents in the output
are 48% of the d.c. which it much less than that for the half wave circuit.
Peak Inverse Voltage(PIV):-
PIV of diode=2ESm
= π EDC
:. When the diode drop is considered
PIV=2ESm-0.7
Transformer Utilization Factor (T.U.F):-

Secondary T.U.F=
D .C power ¿ t h e load ¿
A .C power rating of secondary
2
I R
=> E DC. I L
RMS RMS
( ) 2 Im 2
π
RL
= E Sm
∗I m
√2
√2
 Neglecting forward resistance Rf of diode

ESm=ImRL
38
----------------------------------------------V HARSHAVARDHAN -------------------------------------------------------------
4 2
2
∗I m R L
π 8
Secondary T.U.F= I 2 R = π 2 =0.812
m L
2
T.U.F for primary winding= 2*T.U.F of half wave circuit

=2*0.287=0.574
The average T.U.F for full wave circuit will be
T . U . F of primary +T .U . F of secondary
 2
0.574+0.812
(T.U.F)avg=> 2
=0.693
:. Avg T.U.F for Full-Wave Rectifier=0.693
Voltage Regulation:-
( V dc ) N −( V dc ) F
%R= ( V ) L L
dc F L
Rf
%R= R ∗100
L
The regulation characteristics are drooping, as dismissed.

Earlier, in case of half-wave rectifier as output voltage decreases as load
increased from no load to full-load.
RMS value of t h e output voltage
Form Factor:- Avg value of t h e output voltage
39
----------------------------------------------V HARSHAVARDHAN -------------------------------------------------------------
Vm
=> 2√V
2
m
π
π
= 2√ 2
=1.11
Peak value of t h e output voltage
Peak Factor:- rms value of t h e output voltage
Im
= √2
=> I m
√2
Comparison of Half-Wave and Full-Wave circuit:-

 The d.c load current in case of full wave circuit is twice to the half-
wave circuit.
The d.c load voltage is twice that in half-wave circuit.
 The efficiency of rectification in full-wave is twice that of half-
wave connection.
 The ripple factor is less for full wave.
40
----------------------------------------------V HARSHAVARDHAN -------------------------------------------------------------
Comparison of rectifier circuits:-

Parameter Half-Wave Full-Wave Bridge
S.No
1. No. Of diodes 1 2 4
2. Average DC Im 2Im 2Im
π π π
Current ( I DC )
3. Average DC ESm 2 E Sm 2 E Sm
π π π
Voltage ( E DC ¿
4. RMS Current( Im Im Im
I RMS ¿ 2 √2 √2
41
----------------------------------------------V HARSHAVARDHAN -------------------------------------------------------------
5. Maximum 40.6% 81.2% 81.2%

Efficiency(ή)
6. Ripple Factor(γ) 1.21 0.482 0.482
7. PIV rating of E Sm 2 E Sm E Sm
diode
8. Maximum Load ESm ESm E Sm
Rf + RS+ RL Rf + RS+ RL 2 R f + R S+ R L
Current
Inductor Filter:-
When the output of the rectifier passes through an inductor, it
blocks the ac component and allows only the dc component to reach
the load.
v0
Full-wave rectifier output

ac component
Inductor Filter v dc
42
----------------------------------------------V HARSHAVARDHAN -------------------------------------------------------------
It shows that the ripple factor will decrease when L is increased

and RL is decreased. Clearly inductor filter is more effective only when
the load current is high. The large value of inductor reduce the ripple
and at the same time, the output dc voltage will be lowered as the
inductor has a higher dc resistance.
To analyze this filter for a full wave Fourier series.
2Vm 4Vm
V 0=
π
- π
¿
2V m
The dc component is π
Assuming the 3rd and higher terms contribute little output.

2V m 4Vm
So output voltage V 0= π
- π
cos2wt
The diode, choke and transformer resistance can be neglected since

they are very small as compared with RL.
Vm
:. DC component of current I m= R
L
The importance of series combinations of L and RL at 2w is

Z=√ R2L + ( 2 wL )2 =√ R2L +4 w2 L2
:. Then the a.c component
Vm
I m=
√R +4 w
2
L
2
L
2
:. The resulting current i is given by
43
----------------------------------------------V HARSHAVARDHAN -------------------------------------------------------------
2V m 4 V m cos ⁡(2 wt−ø )

i= πR - .
3 π √ R2L + 4 w 2 L2
L
Where ø= tan
−1
( )
2 wL
RL
:. The ripple factor, ratio of rms value of the ripple to the dc value
of the wave.
4Vm
1
3 π √ 2 √ R2L +4 w2 L2
√
2
Ѓ= 2V m
= 3 √2 * 1+
4w L
2 2
R2L
π RL
2 2
4w L
If 2
RL
>>1, then a simplified expression is
R
Ѓ = 3 √2LwL
In a case load resistance is infinite, i.e. output is as open circuit then

ripple factor is
2
Ѓ= 3√2 =0.471
:. It is slightly less than the value of 0.482

 It is clear that inductor filter should be used only where RL is
consistently small.
Capacitor Filter:-
44
----------------------------------------------V HARSHAVARDHAN -------------------------------------------------------------
vm
The property of a capacitor is that, it allow a.c component and

blocks the d.c component. The operation of capacitor filter is to short the
ripple to ground but leave the d.c to appear at the output when it is
connected across a pulsating d.c voltage.
 For Positive half-Cycle, the capacitor charges up to peak value V m.
And will try to maintain this value as the full-wave input drops to
zero. The capacitor will discharge through RL slowly until the
secondary voltage again increases.
The ripple voltage wave fn can be assumed as
triangular.
The charge it has acquired=V V P−P∗C 1
= I dc∗T 2
:. VV 1 P−P ∗C = I dc∗T 2
If value of capacitor is large, the value of load resister is very
large then T2 is equal to half of periodic time of wave form.
T 1 I dc
= 2 = 2 f then V V P −P= 2 f
1
c
45
----------------------------------------------V HARSHAVARDHAN -------------------------------------------------------------
:. The ripple wave form will be triangular, So the rms value of

ripple given by.
VV P −P
VV rms =¿ 1
2 √3
1
:. The above equation, we have

I dc
VV 1 rms = 4 √3 f
c
I dc V dc
= 4 √3 f RL
, Since I dc= R
c L
VV rms 1
Ѓ= V dc
1
=
4 √3 f c R L
1
Ѓ= 4 √3 f RL
c
The ripple may be decreased by increasing C or R L (or both)

with a resulting increase in d.c output voltage.
Filter Circuits:-
The output of a rectifier contains d.c component as well as
a.c component filters are used to minimize the desirable a.c, i.e ripple
leaving only d.c component to appear at the output.
L-section Filter or LC Filter:-
46
----------------------------------------------V HARSHAVARDHAN -------------------------------------------------------------
1
XC=
2 wC
RB RL
R= R B∨¿ R L= R
B+RL
e ¿ =ESm ¿
e¿ can be approximated as
e ¿≈ E Sm [ 2 4
−
π 3π
cos 2 wt
]
The d.c current in the circuit will be
2
E
π Sm
I DC =
RX+ R
R=RB||RL
2 E Sm
Edc across the load=Idc R= π R X + R *R
2 E Sm Edc (¿)
Edc(out)= π 1+ R X = 1+ X
R
R R
Normally, RX is much less than R1 i.e. RX<<R.

2
Edc ≈ π ESm ≈ Edc
:. The second harmonic voltage across the load.

1 1
E2m=I2m*[ 2 wc ∨¿ K ¿≈ I2m* 2 wc
1
Since, 2 wc << R
4
1 E 1
E2m=I2m* 2 wc = π Sm * 2 wc
3
2 wL
47
----------------------------------------------V HARSHAVARDHAN -------------------------------------------------------------
4 E Sm E Sm
E2m= 3 π 2
4 w LC
= 3 π w 2 LC
E E Sm
E2rms= √22m = 3
√2 π w2 LC
E2 rms
Ripple factor= E
DC
1
E Sm 2 E Sm
=> 3 √ 2 π w LC
2 * π R
1+ X
R
1 RX
=> 6 w LC √ 2
2
(1+ )
R
1
Ripple Factor≈ 6 √2 w 2 LC
CLC Filter or π−Filter :−¿

:. This is a capacitor input filter followed by a L-
section filter. This ripple rejection capability of π filter is very good.
48
----------------------------------------------V HARSHAVARDHAN -------------------------------------------------------------
∴The output voltage is given by

Vr
Edc=ESm- 2
−¿IdcRX
Vr=Peak to peak ripple voltage

RX=d.c resistance of choke.
Zener-Diode as a Regulator:-
In a regulator using zener diode, the zener
diode is operated in the break down condition where the voltage across
zener is nearly constant, inspite of changes in the zener current. So it can
be used to regulate the voltage with varying input voltage or varying
load conditions.
Regulation with a varying input voltage:-
49
----------------------------------------------V HARSHAVARDHAN -------------------------------------------------------------
 This figure shows how a zener diode can be used to regulate a

varying input voltage, commonly known as Line regulation.
As the input voltage varies, IZ also varies accordingly
but the zener diode maintains constant voltage across the output
terminals over the certain range. There limitations on the input
variations are set by the minimum and maximum current values
with which the zener can operate.
For example, if I Z min=5mt, I Z max=50mt, VZ=6.8V
And the current limiting resistance R is the 1KΩ then
For minimum current,
Voltage across R=VR=5mA*1KΩ=5V
Since VR=VIN-VZ then
Vin=VR+VZ=5V+6.8V=11.8V
For maximum current,
Voltage across R=VR=50mA*1KΩ=50V
:. Vin=50V+6.8V=56.8V
This shows that zener diode used in this
circuit can regulate an input voltage from 11.8V to 56.8V and
maintains an approximate 6.8V output.
Regulation with a Varying Load:-
50
----------------------------------------------V HARSHAVARDHAN -------------------------------------------------------------
---> It shows a Zener regulator with a variable load resistance. This is

also refined as load-regulation.
--->The Zener diode maintains a constant voltage across RL as long as
the Zener current is greater than I Z minn and less than I Z max. When the load
current varies, the zener diode current adjusts itself so that its terminal
voltage remains constant.
For example, if I Z min=5mt, I Z maxx=50mt, Vz=10md, Vin=20V
then at no load RL=∞ and IL=0.
:. To limit maximum current to 50mt( I Z maxx)
V ¿−V Z 20V −10 V
R(min)= I Zmax
= 50 mA =200Ω
As you know I Z min=5mA, the maximum load current is 45mA

(50-5). This shows that the zener diode in this circuit can maintain
output voltage constant for load current from 0mA to 45mA.
Vin min= Minimum value of input voltage.
Vin max= Maximum value of input voltage.
IL max= Maximum value of load current.
IL min= Minimum value of load current.
IZ max= Maximum value of zener current.
IZ min= Minimum value of zener current.
VD=VZ=output voltage.
51
----------------------------------------------V HARSHAVARDHAN -------------------------------------------------------------
Design of Zener Regulator with varying load and varying input

conditions:-
Let us see the design of zener regulator with varying
load as well as varying input conditions.
The limiting values series resistance R for a given zener
can be obtained as.
V ¿ min −V z V ¿ min−V 0
Rmax= I = I Lmax + I Zmin -------->(1)
Lmax + I Zmin
V ¿ max−V z V ¿ max−V 0
Rmin= =
I Lmin + I Z max I Lmin + I Z max
------>(2)
For any value of R between Rmax and Rmin, the circuit

works successfully as a regulator.
If load current or input voltage is constant value and not
varying then it’s both maximum and minimum values must be treated
As its constant value in the above equations. To obtain Rmax and Rmin.
The IL min is generally treated as zero.
----> To satisfy the equations (1) and (2) , proper zener diode
having Iz min and Iz max values which can satisfy the required load
conditions, must be used in the circuit.
52

Unit-1 Basic Electronics

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Unit-1 Basic Electronics

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Basic Electronics ---------------------MECHANICAL ENGINEERING II YEAR----------------------------------------LIET

----------------------------------------------V HARSHAVARDHAN -------------------------------------------------------------

So free electrons and holes get generated in pairs. In an intrinsic

applied voltage, these carriers move in a particular direction, causing the

When a small amount of pentavalent impurity is added to a pure

Silicon has 4 valence electrons and Arsenic has 5 valence

Concentration of electrons will be increased in conduction band

In N type semiconductor, electrons are the majority carriers

Consider the formation of P-type material by adding boron to

After accepting one electron, boron atom becomes a negatively

In a pure semiconductor, the number of electrons same as

Potential barrier for

Potential barrier for electrons

A PN junction is formed by adding acceptor impurities to the left side

The thickness of this region is of the order of wavelength of

When a battery is connected to a PN junction diode that the positive

If battery positive terminal is connected to N section and negative

When a forward bias is applied to a diode, holes are injected into N

junction. Similarly I np (0) decreases on P side as we move away from the

:. In a forward biased PN diode, the current enters the P side

When a forward bias is applied to a PN junction diode. The forward

VI characteristics can be explained by using diode current equation.

Where I 0=reverse saturation current.

current increases rapidly. The reverse voltage at which the junction

unity. Then the diode equation becomes I≈- I 0

Zener diode is a reverse biased heavily doped silicon or

Basic Building Block of Linear mode power supply:-

∴ Here, the transformer supplies ac voltage at the required

output independent of load variations and input supply

Requirements of Linear mode power supply:-

Rectifier:- A rectifier is a device, which converts a.c voltage to pulsating

Types of Rectifiers:- Based on the diodes using for construction.

The rectifier circuit consists of resistive load, rectifying

Esm=Peak value of the a.c. Secondary voltage.

a) Diode forward b) Diode Reverse

←D→ ←D→ ←ON→ ←OFF→

Average DC Load Current:-

No current flowing during negative half cycle of a.c input

Apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law we can write

Where Rs=Resistance of secondary winding of transformer

The winding resistance Rs and forward diode resistance Rf one

RMS value of Load current:-

D.C power output (PDC):

A.C power Input (PAC):-

Rectifier Efficiency (ή):-

If (Rf+RS)<<RS as mentioned earlier.

Iac=> R.M.S value of ac component present in the output.

( ) −1= π −1=¿ √1.4674 ¿

This indicates that the ripple factor contents in the

PIV of diode=Esm=Maximum value of secondary voltage.

This is called PIV rating of the diode.

Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF):-

D.C power delivered to the load=Idc2RL

Where Esm=ImRL by neglecting Rf and Rs.

NOTE: The value of T.U.F is low, which shows that in half-wave

If ( V dc ) N =D.C voltage on no load.

( V dc ) F =D.C voltage on full load.

:. Neglecting the winding resistance

Note: Less the value of voltage regulation, better is the

Disadvantages of Half-wave Rectifier Circuit:-

Output wave forms: -

Maximum Load current:-

eS=Instantaneous a.c voltage across each half of secondary

Im=Maximum value of load current iL