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. .
Practical Pou.ltrv IGUSUlg
Peace Corps ATFD Manual No. M--l1
by: Kenneth M. French
Published by:
Peace Corps
Information Collection and Exchange
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Washington, DC 20525 dUSA
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Washington, DC 20525 USA

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APPROPRIATE
TECHNOLOGIES
FORDEVELOPMENT

Praclical
Raising

INFORMATION COLLECTION & EXCHANGE

MANUAL M-l 1
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Peace Corps
 Practical

Written by:

Kenneth M. French
Edited by:

Larry Ritter
Illustrated by:

Marilyn Kaufman

This publication was produced

for Peace Corps by TransCzntury
Corporation, Washington, D.C.

Peace Corps
Information Collection & Exchange
Appropriate Technologies for Development
Manual Number11
April 1981
PRACTICAL, POULTRY RAISItiG
February, 1981

Prepared for the Peace Corps by

TransCentury Corporation
under Contract No. 79-043-1029

Available through
Peace Corps Information Collection
& Exchange
806 Connecticut Avenue, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20525
About this Manual This manual explores many different
aspects of raising and marketing
This manual is designed to pro- poultry based upon these sources and
vide development workers with the the author's and reviewers' exper-
information and tools needed either iences. Because ideas about poultry
to begin or to improve poultry pro- production vary greatly in different
duction. For those who are inexper- countries, IT IS HIGHLY RECOMMENDED
ienced in poultry production, this WHEREVERPOSSIBLE THAT A REVIEW OF
manual can identify and provide the THIS MANUAL BY A RESPONSIBLE OFFICER
basic information needed to raise WITHIN THE APPROPRIATE GOVERNMENT
and market poultry successfully. MINISTRY BE PERFORMEDBEFORE THE
More experienced poultry workers SUGGESTIONS MADE IN THE MANUAL ARE
may find the manual sections on IMPLEMENTED. There are special
cultural considerations, nutrition, climatic considerations, feed ingre-
extension and additional resources dient problems, disease considera-
useful for adapting their knowledge tions and so on which can make sec-
and skills to the conditions of a tions of this manual inappropriate
new environment. No matter what in certain areas of the world. If
your previous level of poultry ex- there are questions about the appro-
perience, you can help expand poul- priateness of recommendations made
try production by helping farmers in the manual, the experience of local
observe, question and find the gaps authorities should have priority
between actual and potential pro- until research can be done to show
duction, by suggesting improvements the value of the new methods. It
and by helping farmers evaluate should be noted also that sources
the results. consulted for this manual do not
Numerous sources were consulted always agree. On one issue, four
in the preparation of this manual in highly experienced sources each gave
order to make it useful for raising different recommendations for the
poultry under varying conditions. same conditions. To make this manual
i
most useful, methods and tools de-
scribed are based either on a maj-
ority opinion or upon the exper-
ience of the author.
Because this manual gives gen-
eral instructions on poultry produc-
tion, some recommendations and sug-
gestions will not be relevant to
every development worker's situation.
Poultry workers will need to adapt
methods and tools to their own spec-
ific needs. We would appreciate,
therefore, your comments, corrections
and suggestions for future editions
of this manual. What information
was the most useful? What was not
covered that would be useful in re-
vised editions? How did you use
this manual? What was irrelevant
or not useful? Please make comments
and let us know how this manual
helped you in poultry production.

ii
 About the Author

Kenneth M. French has over fif- jects in Malaysia, supervising fifty

teen years of experience in agricul- Volunteers in fifteen areas. Pro-
ture and rural development both in jects under his direction included
the United States and abroad. As a agriculture extension in crops and
Peace Corps Volunteer in India, he dairy management, rural credit, soil
'_
conducted a scientific breeding pro- fertility research and conservation,
gram for poultry over a three-year forestry management and iiarketing
period. Based on this experience systems. Mr. French's writing exper-
and his own farming background, ience includes poli=y papers for the
Mr. French served as a technical and Malaysian Ministry of Agriculture on
cross-cultural trainer for Peace agriculture extension, cooperative
Corps Volunteers in India in poul- development and agriculture mar-
try breeding and rural development keting. Mr. French has formal train-
projects. As the Associate Director ing in agriculture from the Univer-
of Peace Corps/Malaysia, Mr. French sity of New Hampshire, where he
was responsible for all Peace Corps majored in poultry science.
rural agricultural development pro-

iii
Acknowledgments

As with any manual, many people Corps perspective. Many thanks go

have contributed to the development to TransCentury's Paul Chakroff,
The project manager under whose direction
author is grateful especially to this manual was prepared, and to
Walter S. Staples, Russ Staples and Pamela Ball for assistance in coor-
P.K. Nambiar, who reviewed the manual dination. Thanks are due also to
for technical accuracy and provided Marilyn S. Chakroff who edited,
encouragement along the way. Peace organized and coordinated the final
Corps' Whett Reed oversaw technical production of this manual and to
aspects of the manual from the Peace Linda Gusman for typing and layout.

iV
 Table of Contents

Page

>I About this Manual i

"
!' About the Author iii
:? Acknowledgments iv
i:,s
:tI, 1. Poultry Production -- An Overv iew s
;,>
'.
&~ 2. What Do You Have to Work With? 9
)'
3. Getting to Know the Chicken 21
,^
4. Working with Country Chickens 31
5. Poultry Husbandry 41
6. Housing and Equipment 81
7. Keeping Chickens Healthy 115
8. Feed and Nutrition 131
9. Poultry Marketing and Finances 153
10. Poultry Extension 169
Appendices
A. Housing Designs 175
B. Other Poultry 185
Ducks 185
Geese 186
Guinea Fowl 188
Turkeys 189
Pigeons 190

V
 Page
Appendices-continued
C. Farmer Specific Assessment Criteria 193
D. Feed Formulation Chart 197
E. Feed Requirements 203
F. Bibliography and Resources 207
Glossary 211
Index 213

vi
1. Poultry Production-
An Overview

What is Poultry?

The word poultry applies to all varieties.

domestic fowl raised for their eggs, Until recently almost all
their meat, or both. Poultry includes chickens were raised in small flocks
chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese, and left to look after themselves.
guinea fowl, pheasants, quail and In many areas of the world chickens
pigeons. Chickens by far are the still are raised a few at a time
most popular poultry raised today, for occasional eggs or to serve at
and this manual will concentrate on a feast. There are people today who
them. A brief section on other fowl grow chickens only for cock-fighting
is given in Appendix B (p. 185). or religious ritual. Some types of
The first chickens (probably chickens with beautiful plummage are
the species Gallus gallus) were lured raised just for show.
or captured from the rain forests In the past 40 years, the grow-
of Southwest Asia over 3,000 years ing need for protein to feed the world's
ago. Since that time, chickens rapidly expanding population has
have been kept for meat and eggs by caused farmers and scientists to pay
nearly every human group throughout more attention to chickens as food
the world. Over the years, the orig- sources, and to increase the effi-
inal chicken has been bred by selec- ciency with which they are raised.
tion and circumstance into many Genetic research has developed many

1
different breeds and varieties rapidly and reach marketable size
adapted to different climates, farming after two to three months. They are
methods and purposes. sold well before they reach egg-
laying age. Whether a meat chicken
is called a fryer or a roaster de-
Types of Chickens pends on its size and age. Meat
chickens usually are called broilers.
Even though there are many dif- Capons (castrated males) grow large,
ferent breeds and varieties of chick- fat and tender as they get older.
ens used in farming, they all can be Dual-Purpose Chickens -- These birds
divided into three types: are raised for both eggs and meat.
Layers -- Bred primarily for egg Females of the new, improved breeds
production, these birds usually weigh are kept to lay eggs while the males
about 1-2 kilograms (kg) (2.2 to 4.4 are separated and sold for meat as
pounds). They are lighter than soon as they reach about 15 weeks of
chickens bred to produce meat. Be- age. Also, dual-purpose hens are
cause they are smaller, they need sold for meat at the end of the laying
less feed to maintain their body time. The country chickens roaming
weight while laying as many or more free in most villages of the world
eggs than the big birds. The layers are a kind of dual-purpose bird. Gen-
also are eaten, usually after they erally, it is more profitable to
have been producing eggs for a year specialize in either layers or meat
to a year and a half. Farmers often birds, for these improved breeds of
do not keep the males of these breeds chickens can reach very high levels
because it takes too much feed to of production. Some layers now pro-
bring them to a marketable weight, duce at an average rate of 90% for
Birds th&t lay brown eggs usually a whole year. Meat chickens weighing
are a little larger than those that 2 kg or more are ready for market in
lay white eggs. seven to ten weeks. However, unlike
Meat Chickens -- These b%rds grow country fowl which, through many

2
centuries, has developed resistance flock.
to many diseases and learned to take Medium-Size Flocks -- one or two
care of itself, these new breeds hundred birds or more -- can increase
need the active care of the farmer significantly the local supply of
to protect them from disease and high-quality protel2, minerals and
predators if they are to survive vitamins. This is especially impor-
and produce well. tant for young children and for X
pregnant and nursing mothers. These
flocks also can:
Why Raise Pouhy? 0 increase family income;
l increase local employment;
Small Poultry Flocks -- anything from 0 use food processing by-products
a hen and a few chicks running that normally are wasted;

free up to a group of 50 or so that l use relatively little land

(chickens can be kept by urban
receive some special care -- can as well as rural people);
provide a family with important l increase the supply of manure
protein in its diet and perhaps for fertilizer and methane
gas production; and
some income through the sale of ex-
a provide possible benefits
tra eggs and birds to neighbors. when combined with other pro-
Feeding the birds food scraps and tein increase programs (for
example, chicken manure can
crop by-products is a good way to use be used to fertilize fish ponds).
vegetable matter that the family
doesn't eat. But, if country chick-
ens are used, they will not produce What Are the Disadvantages?
very much, and it is difficult to
use the new breeds efficiently in Of course, there also are pos-
small numbers. By keeping costs sible disadvantages to raising chick-
low, some farmers can make suffi- ens. Some people say that livestock
cient profit on a small flock to in general are inefficient producers
allow for expansion to a larger of food and that most developing

3
nations cannot afford to use their nical advice that may not be
scarce resources to raise them. By found in your area;
growing such crops as soybeans, they l Compared to traditional ways
of raising chickens, these
say, farmers can produce much more projects need a large invest-
protein per acre. Livestock also ment per bird.
often compete directly with humans After considering the advantages
for cereal grains such as wheat and and disadvantages, most developing
maize (corn). But much agricultural nations have decided to encourage
land isn't suited for growing protein poultry production. This encourage-
crops. Chickens eat less per unit of ment has not yet reached many small
protein produced and require less farmers. Here is where you may be
land than other livestock. They also able to help.
can be raised on diets containing
foods not usually eaten by humans.
Chickens provide high quality protein What Do You Need to Raise Poultry?
that is particularly well suited to
human digestive systems and dietary Just as humans have certain min-
needs. imum requirements for life, there are
Medium-size poultry operations basic chicken needs which must be
in developing nations have other provided for by the farmer if the
possible disadvantages: birds (especially the new breeds)
l Poorly run projects can de- are to be productive. These include:
stroy a small farmer's scant
savings or put him deeply shelter; protection from disease, pests
into debt; and predators; temperature and hum-
l Market cycles can hurt or de- idity controls; sanitation; control
stroy a poultry project, even
if it is well run; of light; and elimination of stresses.
l Feed, water or labor stoppages Examples of stresses are: noise
can cau-e failure; and other disturbances; dust; drafts;
l These projects need specially- foul or stale air; crowding; changes
bred birds, pharmaceuticals,
markets, transport and tech- in feed; introducing new chickens

4
into established flocks; changes in never attempt to persuade farmers to
weather; and keeping males with do something that they don't think
females. Stress factors are addi- is in their best interest.
tive, that is, the more that a chick- v -- The chicken
en has to bear, the worse the effect has been linked with human society
may be. An otherwise healthy bird for so long that many cultures have
may contract only a mild case of a developed special ways of dealing
disease when exposed to it; a bird with them. Vegetarians, of course,
that has worms, is crowded, or is don't eat chicken meat and many don't
not eating well may die when exposed eat eggs, especially fertilized ones.
to the same disease. Other societies relish eggs in which
The most important element in the fetus already is formed. Some
poultry raising is a good relation- people regard fowl as sacred and will
ship between the caretaker and the not eat them, while others won't
flock. A caretaker must like and touch them because of the worms and
understand chickens and be dedicated manure that chickens sometimes eat.
to seeing that they do well. In Some cultures forbid eggs to pregnant
short, chickens need tender loving women. There are many other such
care. taboos and traditions throughout the
world. In most places, however, people
welcome chickens and eggs to their
What Do You Need to Expand
Beyond the Farmyard Flock? menus and willingly form a good mar-
ket, but you must learn from local
Interested Farmers -- Unless farmers people about their customs and atti-
are convinced that poultry raising tudes if you are to work effectively.
is a good idea and are ready to pro- Financial Means -- Farmers must have
vide the constant care and attention, available cash of their own, be able
finances and other support that larger to pool their resources through cooper-
flocks need, there is no point in ative efforts or be able to borrow
going on. You cannot and should from private sources or government

5
agencies. For small farmers, investing or good roads usually have a good
in the new breeds means that a large market, even though competition may
portion of their resources is not reduce their per bird profit. Those
available for other uses. They must in remote areas often can't sell as
realize that they risk losing part or many eggs and birds, but may make
all of their investment. Even if up for that by receiving higher prices.
they do make a profit, it may not be Breed Source -- A farmer who wants to
for some time-- in layer operations start a medium-size poultry operation
this may take at least one and a will need a source of an improved
half years, sometimes longer. breed. Ways to work with and upgrade
Local Supplies and Technical Support flocks of country chickens are de-
-- You must have an assured supply scribed in Chapter 4 (p. 37), but if
of clean water and fresh, well-bal- farmers are to spend their limited
anced feed for the life of the birds. resources on buildings, feed or other
This is easier to arrange for meat support, they should use birds with
birds that are kept for only a few the greatest genetic potential.
months than it is for layers that Market Plans -- Farmers will have to
will need vaccines, medicines and food determine: when to start their flocks
supplements, and advice on how to so they are ready for laying or sale
use them. in the most profitable season; which
Markets and Infrastructure -- Even if types of eggs and meat are most en-
the people in your area enjoy eating joyed by buyers; what quantities
chickens and eggs, they may be too realistically can be sold if neigh-
few or too poor to justify an ex- boring farmers also are expanding;
panded chicken operation. Transport what to do about other seasonal prob-
problems may mean that you cannot lems such as scarcity of labor during
deliver your products, especially harvests, lack of water during dry
eggs, to market quickly enough so seasons, and so on. These topics are
that they are fresh, attractive and discussed in Chapter 9 (p. 153.)
earn a profit. Farmers near towns

6
Where Has Poultry Development were accustomed to traditional ways
Worked Well? of raising chickens and were reluc-
tant to change to new methods until
Many developing nations have they were proven.
made big gains in their poultry indus- While a few neighboring countries
tries in recent years. Poultry devel- have had little success with poultry,
opment in India serves as a good ex- India has made much progress. Much
ample of the way a developing country Of it is due to intensive, broadly-
can increase its protein production. based extension work, some of it
done by Peace Corps Volunteers. Once
Poultry Development in India
farmers began taking advantage of the
Most of India's poultry devel- extension service, bought and raised
opment has happened in the past 20 better birds and found they were
years. A country with minimal cereal making money, they began to demand
grain resources, India faced many more service and even better birds.
other problems as well. Many farmers The government and others re-
could not afford even a small back- sponded to the new demands by estab-
yard poultry operation. The vast lishing tax incentives for poor
majority of Indians are vegetarians. farmers, setting poultry feed ingre-
There were transport problems, and dient standards, building more feed
difficulties with feed and medical analysis laboratories, issuing loans,
supplies. Extension personnel were insuring experienced farmers, improving
few, and though some were dedicated, government breeding programs, in-
others were not. Most areas had no creasing vaccine production and deliv-
poultry feed analysis laboratories. ery, providing better disease diagnos-
All viable improved breeds (breeds tic services, and expanding extension
in which a high percentage of chicks activity.
live and turn into good producers) Peripheral industries sprang up.
were being imported, usually through Small shops began making poultry
multinational corporations. Farmers equipment such as brooders, feeders,

7
and supplies such as egg shipping have accepted unfertilized eggs as
cartons and baskets. Farmers in re- part of their diet.
mote areas organized cooperative Today, the number of eggs pro-
societies. With advice, loans and duced in India has increased 600%,
grants from the government and inter- from 2 billion in 1969 to over 12
national agencies, the cooperatives billion in 1979. The growth of egg
began mixing feeds, buying supplies production has outpaced population
and equipment, building storage units growth, resulting in lower egg prices
and marketing members' products. relative to family income.
They began contracting with farmers What India is learning about
and rice mills, and growing their own chickens can be and is being learned
feeds as well. Major breeding, in other developing nations. As a
pharmaceutical and feed supply compan- poultry production worker, you can
ies also expanded and assisted farmers help make poultry an important food
in more remote areas. and income source in your area.
Marketing also had been a prob-
lem. The vast majority of Indians
are Hindu, a religion which pro-
hibits or discourages eating anything
which is or has the potential to be
animal life. It was believed that
all eggs had the potential for life
and therefore should not be consumed.
Consumers were taught by poultry
people and nutritionists that eggs
could be produced without the pres-
ence of roosters and that a differ-
ence existed between the fertilized
and unfertilized egg. Although some
'Hindus still will not eat them, most

8
2. What Do
You Have To
Work With?

Assessing the
Local Situation

If you are living in your work you must know much more about how
area, you probably already know quite the supply or lack of chickens affects
a bit about the local poultry situa- the lives of the people around you.
tion. You most likely have bought Do people eat eggs and chickens often
eggs and perhaps chickens in the or save them for festive occasions?
market and know something about the Do local restaurants serve them daily?
quality and quantity available there. If so, where do they and the market
Do people present you with a chicken sellers get their supplies? Is the
as a token of their esteem? Does a neighbor's rooster or the upwind
neighbor's rooster awaken you? Or chicken coop unique, or are there
have you found yourself downwind from many around? Do you think prices
a poorly run chicken coop? We tend are high or low compared to other
to notice first the things that affect local foods? How do local prices com-
us personally. pare with those in other areas of
If you want to see whether you your country?
can be useful in poultry production, If you are in one of those rare

9
places without chickens, what are they think their problems are, and
the reasons? It may be a temporary finding out what kind of improvements
condition caused by a severe out- they would like. Unless you already
break of disease, a drastic increase know quite a bit about both chickens
in the predator population or a long and people, you should limit your-
drought. In such cases, you may be self to questions, for your purpose
able to help reintroduce chickens now is to learn.
to the area. In other cases, where The descriptions and illustra-
people won't eat eggs and chickens tions in this section are included
and don't want to have them around, only for the purpose of showing a
you may want to find another activ- progression of technology and the
ity entirely. basic types of poultry operations. A
view in your own village may differ
somewhat, but the principles will
be similar. Following chapters ex-
Which Management plain advantages and disadvantages of
Systems are Used each of the six systems shown here.

In Your Area?
Country Chicken, Free Range
From the small backyard flock to
the lOO,OOO-bird automated house, In this system the farmer makes
poultry management systems can be no attempt to control the flock's
classified in any number of ways. food or water intake, although they
We have chosen the following six may be thrown an occasional food
categories arbitrarily to give you a scrap or handful of 'grain. The
rough guide to what you may see in flock finds its own shelter and uses
your area. You should observe local its instincts to avoid predators.
farmers closely, seeing which methods The farmer provides no sanitation,
they use and why, finding out what and the only vaccinations that may

10
occur are given by government agents gets very few eggs, little meat
during widespread epidemics. The and has very little of either to sell.
hen tries to hide her few, small Losses, especially of chicks, to
eggs and often succeeds. She hatches disease, predators and theft are
her eggs on her own. The farmer high.
Partly Controlled, Free Range and the farmer may place other hens'
eggs under her as well%. (A brood
In this system the farmer pro- hen is a hen that wants to set and
vides overnight shelter and some hatch eggs and take care of chicks.)
supplemental feed. Breeding is The farmer may make use of the local
uncontrolled, but the farmer does agricultural extension system for
provide a nesting place where a some advice and vaccinations.
brood hen incubates her own eggs
Contained, with Limited Range stationary. The chickens may be con-
fined to one yard, or may be rotated
There are many variations of this every few months to fresh adjacent
system. The essential feature is that enclosures.
the flock is contained in a shelter In limited range systems the
overnight and during bad weather. At farmer provides most, if not all,
other times the chickens are free to feed and water, sometimes outside
eat any grass and other food they can as well as inside the house. The
find within a fenced yard or run. chickens may be either from local
Sometimes the shelters are small and flocks or improved breeds. The
portable, have wire mesh floors and farmer may have the benefit of
are moved frequently to fresh ground technical advice beyond that avail-
and grass within the yard. Other able from neighbors. If the house
times the shelters are larger and is stationary, it may use either a

13
deep-litter or raised-floor sys- has the benefit of technical advice.
tem (see below). Losses to predators, disease and
theft are greatly reduced compared
to previous systems. The contained
Contained, Deep Litter system requires a substantial in-
vestment per bird,
In any contained system the The floor of a deep-litter
chickens remain inside at all times. house is covered with up to 15
The breed source almost always is centimeters (cm) of bedding mate-
a commercial breeder. The farmer rial (wood shavings; rice, wheat
provides all feed and water, nesting or other grain hulls; shredded sugar
boxes and perhaps perches (roosts) cane or shredded straw, etc.) that
inside the house. The farmer usually absorbs moisture from droppings.

14
Contained, Raised Floor Cage or Battery

The characteristics of this This system is used only for

system are the same as those of the layers. The hens live in cages
deep-litter, except that the chick- where food and water are provided.
ens live on a raised, semi-open The cages may be placed in any
floor, and droppings fall to the sheltered area. The farmer most
ground or to a light layer of litter likely uses extension advice. The
below. The floors usually are made investment per bird may be the high-
of spaced, wooden slats, but some- est of all systems, especially if
times wire mesh or expanded metal is the cages are made of expensive wire.
used. (Expanded metal is sheet
metal which has been partially cut
and stretched and looks like heavy
gauge wire mesh with diamond-shaped Can You Help?
holes.)

We assume that anyone in an area

where no chickens are being raised
and where there is little hope of
introducing them already has traded
this manual for other reading mate-
rial. If you are in an area where
large-scale poultry raising is abun-
dant, egg and meat prices are very
low, and there is little chance of
you contributing unless you are a
highly skilled technician, you should
be looking for something else to do.
Both of the above situations

15
are rare in the developing world. not some idealized situation where
Usually there is room for improvement no error can occur, but what reason-
of the existing situation. The more ably can be expected by your friends
you learn about chicken raising in and neighbors if they work willingly
general and the specifics in your and seek good advice. There is no
area, the better you will be pre- exact formula to determine the pro-
pared to help. The following chap- duction potential, although this
ters will give you essential facts manual does give you some production
and some useful ideas for suggesting averages that are fair guides. Local
local improvements. The biblio- conditions and attitudes always will
graphy lists more reading matter you determine the final outcome.
can order. But before you dive As you gauge the technical poten-
deeply into technical material, tial and compare it to the present
there is an approach to working situation, you will see some degree
wijh people in development (in this of difference between them. Produc-
case, poultry farmers or potential tion potential minus the present sit- .
poultry farmers) that we suggest uation equals the gap. You will be
you keep in mind. working to help fill this gap.
Address yourself to the local
gap. Don't worry about the big dif-
ference between what you see and the
Finding results obtained in industrialized
the Gap nations. Work with possible local
advantages, such as: small invest-
ments of more time, money and energy
Almost any poultry operation may yield relatively large returns;
fails to reach its maximum produc- labor and some supplies may be rela-
tion potential. You should try to tively inexpensive in your area;
assess the production potential in market prices may be high, and minor
your area. What you are seeking is decreases in them may increase de-

16
mand exponentially as poorer people proper food and water.
see they now can afford some eggs Although small, these changes
and meat. will bring rapid results and are
not costly. Then you can begin to
address the other problems one at
a time. Close the gap by helping
Filling farmers select increments that they

the Gap can most easily absorb, and that

have the best chances for early,
observable results. This manual will
The key to filling the gap is describe most of the basic incre-
increased control over production ments that may be of use and help
factors. This may mean introducing you choose the ones you might suggest.
new methods and resources, or it may To aid'in determining the gap, use
mean cutting the costs of those now the Farmer Specific Assessment Cri-
in use. The gap between the existing teria (Appendix C) for each farmer
and potential situations often can in your area.
be overwhelming. If you attempt to
change everything at once, you and
the farmer are likely to become
frustrated. To avoid this, break Evaluating
the gap down into smaller increments Your Resources
that the farmer can handle. For ex-
ample, if chickens are overcrowded,
in a poorly ventilated structure, Appendix F (p.207) lists a few
have intestinal parasites and are resources available to you, but most
not properly watered or fed, you of them will be hard to obtain. It
can%first suggest selling off a few always is best to work with local
chickens to reduce overcrowding, resources. There should be many avail-
increase ventilation, and provide able if you seek them out.
$8

17
Government Agencies they are and what they can do.
l Cultural considerations --
how to work with them.
Before beginning any poultry
activities , you should consult with 0 Local language extension
publications -- how to ob-
the government poultry agency, usu- tain them.
ally a part of the Ministry of Agri- o Topics not mentioned in this
list -- there may be many.
culture, The people there can tell
you about the support they offer.
It probably includes recommendations
on: Private Companies
0 Vaccinations and medica-
tions -- dosages, schedules,
It is in their interest to have
equipment, emergency programs
and free service available. farmers do well. They often offer
Nutrition -- feed mix sources, information and advice difficult to
ingredient sources, costs,
obtain elsewhere. However, if you
seasonal fluctuations, what
works best in your area. have a choice of more than one firm
Building designs -- use of in a field, it is best to check with
local materials, environ-
mental considerations, cost several and try to balance the var-
reductions. ious self-interests. Firms to look
Water supply -- availability, for include:
water-borne diseases and
treatments. l Breeding companies -- Unless
they also are egg and meat
Equipment -- sources and producers who might feel
designs. threatened by possible com-
petition, information that
Stock -- sources of chicks
you receive from them should
and pullets (female chickens
less than a year old), breeds be good.
available and which produce l Pharmaceutical companies --
best. They are good sources of in-
Financial assistance -- formation on diseases and
sources and application pro- their control.
cedures. m cmanufacturers-
Laboratory facilities --where This may be a local artisan

18
 in a small market stall, a International Technical Assistance Agencies
shop in a town or an import
distributor. With their local
experience they can help you Groups such as the United Nations
cut costs and avoid mistakes. Food and Agriculture Organization
l Feed suppliers -- They provide (FAO), the United States Agency for
feeding recommendations with
their ready-mixed feeds. If International Development (AID)
you plan to mix your own feed, and many others may have offices in
they may advise you on the
leaat costly ingredients your country where you can obtain
and provide vitamin, mineral helpful advice and publications.
and protein supplements.
They may even have a resident poul-
try expert. Your local Peace Corps
staff or Peace Corps' Information
Collection & Exchange (ICE) may be
Cooperatives, Lending,
Education and Research Institutions able to put you in touch with a re-
source you need.
You should know where they are
and-what they can offer. Cooperatives
are discussed in Chapter 9 (p. 153). The Market Network, Local and Distant
Lending institutions are not
just sources of finances, they also Everyone you meet who is engaged
can provide information on how to in poultry production and marketing
reduce costs and risks. Universities, can offer advice on prices, seasons,
technical schools and research lab- supplies, consumer preferences and
oratories often are sources of much so on. Sometimes their advice may
useful information. be conflicting and confusing, but
more often you will hear a consensus
that leads you in the right direction.
The next three chapters describe
various poultry care and marketing
practices, Once you have these basics

19
in mind, you can use the suggestions
in Chapter 9 (p. 153) to identify
people who may want to try chicken
raising or who want to improve their
current operation. When they have
expressed their needs, you and they
can begin planning how to fill
those needs.

20
3. Gettingto
Know the Chicken
Before planning any poultry pro-
duction effort, you need some basic
Characteristics
information about chickens. If you of Chickens
are inexperienced with these birds,
you will need to become familiar
with the parts of a chicken, the Chickens come in many sizes and
general appearance of a healthy bird colors. They lay eggs which can
and the differences between male and range in color from pure white, to
female chickens. You do not need dark brown, to olive green, to
to become an expert in chicken anatomy, speckled. The number of eggs an
but to work in poultry production adult female lays in a year varies
you do need to know what the prim- from none to 365, or one a day. The
ary characteristics of chickens are, typical country chicken which has
their normal life cycle and how to had no breed improvement usually
handle live birds. This chapter de- will lay between 25 and 100 eggs per
scribes both external and internal year, depending mostly on conditions
anatomy of chickens; such information such as feed, exposure to disease
will be especially useful later on and predators, weather, and others.
when diagnosing and treating chick- Layers usually start producing eggs
ens for disease. between six and eight months of age,
depending upon their health and the
time of the year. The improved
breeds start laying at five to six

21
months of age, and under good condi- At hatching, chicks are wet. Within
tions will lay between 180 and 365 a few hours they dry out and are
eggs yearly, with an average flock covered with a soft down. The first
of 100 birds producing 240 to 28G feathers appear within a week on
eggs per layer. There also are the wing tips and tail; other fea-
improved breeds which are intended thers grow in later.
specifically for meat production. Chickens mature at different
Chickens from such breeds can weigh rates, depending on breed, nutri-
over 2 kg at only seven to eight tion and environmental factors.
weeks of age. Most will be mature by six months
Chickens hatch from fertilized of age. Males are called cockerels
eggs after 21 days of incubation. until they reach maturity, when they
In noultrl7 J production, incubation are called roosters or cocks. Be-
can either be by natural means (a fore reaching maturity, female chick-
broody hen) or by artificial means ens are called pullets; once they be-
(an incubator). Before hatching, gin laying, they are called hens.
chicks absorb the yolk of their egg Some farmers will refer to a whole
into their lower body in the yolk flock of female chickens as pullets
sac. This yolk supplies them with until the entire flock reaches full
enough food and water for up to two egg production.
days, at which time they must begin
drinking and eating on their own.
Chicks hatch by breaking through an
--air cell in the large end of the
Anatomy of
shell. Using their upper beaks, Chickens
chicks peck a hole through the shell,
then continue to peck at it until
the shell is weakened enough so that To be able to work with chickens,
it can be entirely broken open. you first must know the various parts
This process is called pipping. of a chicken and their functions, and

22
how to tell male and female chick- for fighting and protection.
ens apart. The major external parts And third, it functions as
the teeth of the chicken,
of a chicken include these: enabling the bird to break
grass, bananas and other
l Beak -- The chicken's beak
foods into pieces small
serves three functions.
enough to swallow.
First, it is the chicken's
mouth. Second, it is used l Comb and wattles
-- -- It is be-

Comb

Eyes
Tail
Beak

\
Wattles

Wing

i /-Foot
- Claw

23
 lieved that the comb and female of another breed.
wattles of chicken serve to This greater size is not ap-
cool their blood. parent until the chicken at-
tains four weeks of age. At
l Ear lobes -- The ear lobes
one day old there is no dif-
of chickens serve hearing
and other ear functions. ference at all between male
and female chicks.
l Eyes -- The eyeball of a
chicken is stationary; thus, l Comb and spurs -- The comb
a chicken must move its head of the male will become much
larger than the comb-'of a
to vary the range *:jf vision.
female. On the female, spurs
o Feathers -- Feathers provide hardly develop at all when
insulation and buffer ex- compared to the male.
tremes of heat and cold.
l Vocal expressions -- Everyone
0 Wings -- Chickens cannot knows that a rooster crows
fly very well. They can while a hen doesn't. What
flap their wings sufficient- is not generally known is
ly to raise themselves about that roosters crow inter-
three meters (m) off the ground . mittently all day long, not
just in the morning.
l Tail and tail feathers --
The tail is used for balance l Feathers -- Adult males have
while walking and, in flying, distinguishably different
as a rudder for up-and-down feathers from those of adult
and side-to-side motion. females. The most distin-
guishable are the tail feath-
l Feet and claws -- In addition
to walking, feet and claws ers which are long and stringy
are used in fighting (for on the male.
protection) and in finding
food. Usually male chickens of improved
There are several differences layer breeds are destroyed within a
between male and female chickens day or two after they are taken from
that should help in identification. the incubator because it is uneco-
These are: nomical to raise them for meat. In
0 Size -- The male will grow the case of improved meat breeds,
taller and usually weighs
both female and male are of economic
between 0.5 and 1 kg (1 to 2
pounds) more than females of value and are raised.
the same age upon reaching
maturity. A male of one
breed may weigh less than the

24
Internal Anatomy of Chickens functions of the ceca are not under-
stood fully.) After digestion in both
Although it is not expected that intestines, the waste materials in-
you will become an expert, it will be cluding both urine and stool are
useful for you to understand the excreted through one opening called
anatomy and functions of different the vent. The excreted material is
organs of chickens. Chickens do called feces.
not have stomachs like other animals, The heart and lungs of a chicken
but have a different means of food function in the same way as these of
storage and digestion. First the most other animals. Air enters through
food enters the beak (mouth) and the nostrils then goes down a tube
goes halfway down the esophagus called the trachea, located right
(throat) to a storage area called beside the esophagus. Both tubes are
a crop where it is moistened and thus located on the under side of the neck
softened. Food then continues down when the chicken is standing. The
the remainder of the esophagus and entrance point to this air tube is
enters what is called the proventri- located at the back of the mouth and
culous, or true stomach. The pro- is called the larynx. The trachea
ventriculous secretes digestive looks like a thin plastic tube with
juices (enzymes and acids), and is rings around it. This ends at a
directly attached to the gizzard Y-shaped junction and two bronchial
which grinds food up into smaller tube? lead off to the right and left
pieces. Food leaving the gizzard lungs. The trachea and bronchial
enters the small intestine where tubes look like semi-transparent plas-
nutrients are picked up by blood tic tubes. The lungs are segmented
vessels and circulated throughout and located between the rib bones
the chicken's body. Food particles leeding from either side of the back
then move into the large intestine, bones of the chicken. Going further
which has two "blind" or dead end back towards the tail, you find the
attachments called ceca. (The reproductive system, then, closest

25
to the tail, tiiere are pockets in a leads to the oviduct through which the
larger bone which contain the kidneys. yolk passes and in which the egg white,
If normal, the kidneys are brownish then the shell, is formed, a process
red in color. which takes about 24 hours. Upon
If you open the chicken lying on mating with a rooster, sperm passes
its back, the first thing you will through the oviduct system in the op-
see is the liver which is divided into posite direction. Fertilization takes
two parts, just forward of the soft place at the ovary end. Sperm may
skin above the vent. There is often stay viable for up to 4 weeks and are
yellow or white fat between the skin stored in the oviduct. The best way
and the liver. The normal liver is to learn about the chicken is to
the same or slightly lighter color than go to the market place and buy a
the typical animal liver found in a chicken. If you are not willing to
marketplace. Under and forward of the kill a chicken yourself, have it killed.
liver you will find a small sac of Later on, you'll get used to killing
green fluid. This is the gall bladder. chickens if you work with them very
After you pick up the liver and the much. If there are no chickens in the
intestines, you will find a sma': ball- market, buy one from a farmer. Watch
shaped organ, the spleen, above the the way he kills it. You may want to
kidneys. The spleen is lighter in use the same method used by the farmer.
color than the kidneys. In any case, take it home and try to
In the female adult chicken, if find all the parts of the chicken
it is laying eggs, you will find to described above. Do this several
the rear of the lungs and along the times, until you have learned the
back the ovary, which consists of a parts. If possible, go to a veter-
mass of egg yolks ranging in size inarian for a test, using a male and a
from microscopic to almost an inch in female chicken. (Don't go to the
size. The smaller ones will be opaque. veterinarian until you have tried on
Egg yolks enter a tube through what your own several times. If you go too
is called the funnel. The funnel early, all you will do is memorize

26
 ^“‘- -----

and forget what is shown to you.) Watch others handle chicks. When they
come from a hatchery at day-old, they
are usually in a cardboard box or bam-
boo basket. Pick up a chick with
Handling your hand over its back. Do not
Live Chickens squeeze, as they are very delicate.
Hold it as gently as you can without
dropping it. Carefully examine the
Thus far, you have learned some chick. Practice picking it up and
general information about the chick- setting it down gently. Hold its
en. Now it is time to begin learning leg a little to one side and notice
to handle live chickens. The best way how delicate it is. Stretch the wing
to learn is by experience, and the gently to the side and feel its bone
best chance to get this experience is structure. Hold a cup of water in
when a farmer or local veterinary work- one hand and the chick in the other.
er also is doing it. Find out if there Using your thumb and index finger to
are any poultry handling activities keep the head of the chick still,
coming up in the near future. These practice dipping the beak of the chick
activities may include the arrival of in the water. Later on you will find
chicks from a hatchery, vaccinating, this capability of holding a chick
debeaking, moving chickens from one in one hand useful for vaccinations
house to another and marketing. (You and giving its first drink of water.
do not need to worry about these terms. To hold an adult chicken for
They are explained later in the man- examination, place your middle fingers
ual.) Some farmers, veterinarians between the legs with the head of the
and extension workers will not want chicken facing behind you at your
you to be involved in different poul- side. The breast of the chicken will
try handling activities: you will rest on your arm. Stroke the chicken's
need to be understanding about their back until it is calm. Once you are
natural skepticism and concern. accustomed to this, extend your arm

27
out in front of you to get a good When removing older chickens
look at the chicken's head, neck and from crates or cages, catch them by
wings. When examining layers to de- their legs and, holding the head in
termine the differences between a the free hand, take them out head
layer and nonlayer of eggs, keep the first. If you take them out feet
chicken at your side. first, their wings may be caught
Handle a rooster. Look it over in the cage opening, resulting in
carefully. Find other roosters and injury to the bird.
compare their appearances. In partic- Next, practice holding four or
ular, notice the spurs, comb and state five chickens in one hand at the
of health. Feel the breast of sev- same time. Do this by adding one
eral roosters. One may be very thin after another, holding both legs bet-
and all you will feel is a breast ween your fingers and with the heads
bone. Others may be fatter, healthier, of the chickens straight down toward
with breast meat. the floor.
Handle several hens. Ask a Practice handling and examining
farmer to show you one that laid chickens of all ages. Notice any
several eggs during the past week. differences in weight, feather devel-
Ask also for some which have not opment, comb size and so on. If
lair1 any eggs for a long time. Com- possible, help in vaccinating, de-
pare the chickens for differences, beaking, moving or any other poultry
especially the softness of the skin handling opportunity that comes up.
below the vent, the distance between In all cases, be sure you take a
the bones on either side of the bath and wear freshly washed clothes
vent (called the keel bones) and the before handling chickens. To avoid
distance between the breast bones any chance of transmitting disease
and the keel bones. Measure how many into a poultry flock, take a bath
fingers you can fit between the keel and change clothes between visits to
bones when your fingers are side-by- different farn :rs as well. Carry
side. spare shoes for entry into a poultry

28
house. Some farmers will not think To use the hook, quietly approach the
this is so important and if this target chicken from behind and, when
is the case you probably cannot ad- close enough, rapidly hook the chick-
vise them in this regard. en's leg and pull steadily toward you.
If you have the chance to move Another way is to corral the
chickens into or out of carrying chickens using a framed wire mesh or
crates, the head always goes in first, bamboo box with hinged corners on
and usually out last. As a rule-of- three sides with the fourth side open.
thumb, the air space around, below This box can be used for catching
and above a chicken in a crate should large numbers of chickens, but at least
equal the space occupied by the two people are needed for this method.
chii-.ken itself. In hot climates, Before starting, remove all feeders,
the air space must be greater. The waterers and other equipment from
larger the chicken, the greater the the pen, leaving only the chickens
provision for ventilation must be and the litter. Next, corral the
when moving chickens. chickens as you move the opened box
(or catching frame) across the floor.
When a number of chickens are inside,

Catching close
reach
the box.
in and pick
Then you can easily
up a chicken.
Chickens Now that you know what a chicken
looks like inside and out, tastes
like and feels like, you are ready to
There are several methods of read the rest of this manual and
catching older chickens. One is to use the information that is most
use a catching hook: appropriate to your conditions.
I
-.---1.6 - 1.9 m (5 - 6 ft.)
.---.____
\handle \-heavy

Catching Hook
48
I( )I
115 cm (6 in.)

29
4.Working with
Country Chickens
The country hen is an admirable The one thing she can't do is pro-
creature. Through the thousands of duce eggs and meat as well as the
years she has lived among humans, improved breeds can.
she has developed into a self-reliant, The country hen is geared to
disease-resistant, parasite-tolerant produce just enough eggs to assure
scavenger who can survive on almost the survival of her species. This
any kind of vegetable and animal usually means about 4i) to 50 eggs a
matter that comeslIer way. She can year, many of which are lost to
evade predators, knows where to shel- predators, heat, cold, dampness,
ter when it rains and how to find breakage and human consumption. If
safe roosts at night. Her eggs, farmers give her good care she may
though small, are tasty, and her meat, double her egg production, but she
though tough, is delicious. never will reach the levels attained
For good reason, the country by the new breeds.
hen is a universal symbol of mother-
hood. She is eager to set and hatch
her eggs, turning them as needed Why Work With
and staying on them continually for
three weeks except for very brief
Country Chickens?
forays for food and water. She is so
good a mother that she often is used Using the country chicken may
to hatch and care for the young of be the only choice in some areas.
ducks and other species of poultry. Local farmers may not be able to

31
afford the high per-bird investment they are part of a large, single
that new breeds require. The village system. Individual flocks may
may be too remote for the transport "belong" to a particular farmer,
of live chicks from a commercial but they interact with other
breeder. Vaccines, medications and chickens and thus influence
the balanced feeds needed by the im- other farmers' outcomes. For
proved breeds may not be available example, if a farmer vaccinates
locally. Or, farmers just may not against a disease, it might re-
want to work with commercial breeds sult in a disease outbreak among
that require so much effort for them other chic!rqns. If some farmers
to survive and produce. protect their chickens from rats
If this is your situation, don't and other predators, the remaining
be discouraged. There are many things farmers will face increased pred-
that can be done to improve country ator problems. Most likely all
chicken production. However, you the chickens in the village com-
. .
f'
must&--irst consider : pete for the same food sources.
Farmers' attitudes and desires If some farmers increase the size
"&less you have the active inter- of their flocks, will there be
est of at least one farmer who enough food?
wants to improve the flock and The market In most cases, country
is willing to work with you on flocks are improved to benefit
identifying problems, setting family consumption. Is there
priorities and developing an room for expansion beyond this?
improvement plan, you won't
get very far. Never cast your-
self in the role of an expert
outsider presenting an unde-
batable plan.
The effect on the whole area
When country chickens run free,

32
 0 Use government programs, if
Production available, such as veterinary
services, vaccinations, loans
Potential and grants, breed upgrading
help, lower-cost feed, or
feed concentrates.

Keep in mind the limits of the

country chicken. Do not encourage
farmers to spend more money on their
Gathering
flocks than they will receive in, Information
benefits from home consumption or
sales. You can assume that the
average country hen has a production The best source of information
potential of 80 eggs per year. This on the current country chicken situa-
does not mean that a particular, tion is, of course, the farmers in
small flock of five or so hens will your area. Local officials and your
lay 80 eggs each a year under good own observations will be helpful as
management. Individuals or small well. For your area as a whole, you
groups may have a higher or lower will want to know such things as the
potential than average. If there number of farmers with chickens, the
are 100 or more country hens in the total number of chickens, the average
area,however, you can use 80 eggs number per farmer, the types of
per hen as a goal until your exper- management systems they use and the
ience suggests a different figure., problems that concern them. This is
The smaller the flock size, the best discovered by talking to as many
more you must try to reduce the cost individuals as you can, keeping in
of inputs to be on the safe side. mind such questions as:
Some examples are: l Why does the farmer keep
chickens?
l Use locally available inputs,
especially free ones such as l How many years has the farmer
harvesting and food processing kept chickens? Did previous
by-products. generations of the family

33
 keep chickens as well? l I-low many chicks were last
l How many eggs and chickens hatched, how old are they,
does the family eat each and how many are stiL. alive?
year? How many do they give Are these the usual totals
away or sell? for a chicken generation,
and if not, why not?
l What are the major causes of
egg and chicken losses? What l Which management techniques
protection is given? does the farmer use and why?
l At what time of the year l If the farmer supplements the
does the farmer think that flock's diet, what foods are
having eggs and meat avail- used and why?
able is most desirable, and l Has thkfarmer had technical
why? (For example, there advice? If.so, who gave it
is usually a heavy demand and how?
for eggs and meat at the end
of-a religious fasting per- l Did the farmer follow pre-
iod in countries with large vious recommendations? If
Islamic populations, and a not, why not?
similar demand for meat for l Who in the family tradition-
Christmas celebrations in ally cares for the chickens
places with large Christian ( women, men, children)?
populations.) In addition to Were they the ones who re-
times of general demand, ceived previous technical
farmers often can benefit by advice?
contracting with local lead-
ers for meeting special de- l Are this farmer's responses
mands for local celebrations, similar to those of other
weddings, and so on. farmers? If so, do they
indicate area-wide problems
l If eggs and meat are rela- that need attention first?
tively expensive food items,
when will consumers have the Now that you have this informa-
most purchasing power? After tion, you should have a broad under-
harvest season? Will the
fishing season have an impact standing of poultry in your area.
on egg or meat demand? You have made contact with a number
l When does the farmer or flock of different farmers, and differences
hatch chicks, and do they
reach production peaks at in the way they care for their chick-
the time of the year when ens should be evident. Also, the
eggs and meat are most de-
sired? If not, why not? better farmers may be good future
contacts for improved ideas which are

34
appropriate locally. Now you can Shelter at Night
look at possible areas where you
might focus poultry development The country chicken is an indepen-
efforts. dent creature that does not adapt
well to a contained system, but it
does need nighttime shelter.
Possible Shelter overnight probably is the
most important possible improvement
Management because it protects the chicks from
Improvements nocturnal attacks of dogs, cats,
rats, owls and other predators. tiven
adult chickens can be lost to preda-
As often said, almost any oper- tors.
ation can be improved. Some of the
techniques that can be used with
country chickens follow, listed
approximately by priority. As you
and an individual farmer discuss
them, the two of you together can
begin setting goals and form a plan
to meet them.
Study this manual's sections on
working with improved breeds. Some
of the recommended management prac-
tices and equipment can be adapted
for country chickens.

Night Shelter

35
 Shelter for Chicks does, she will become broody and stop
laying for six to eight weeks or
Chicks should be protected con- even longer.
stantly until they are at least four
weeks old. If a brooder (see Chapter
Care of Chicks
5, p. 58) or another heat source, such
as a box or pen near a kitchen fire, Chicks do not need feed or water
is available, chicks should be sep- for the first 24 hours after hatching
arated from the hen about one week because part of the yolk remains in-
after hatching. The sooner this is side them. Give them water,but be
done, the sooner the hen will lay sure they cannot get into the container
eggs again. and drown. Use whatever materials
and foods ,-ou have available to come
as close to modern management {see
Nests
Chapter 5, p. 55) as you can. An adult
Set a box or basket lined with chicken's production potential de-
straw or other suitable litter in pends heavily on the quality of care
a dark place where the hen can be it receives during early growth stages.
trained to lay her eggs. To train
a hen, introduce her to the nest
Improved Feed
each morning about the time she
usually lays. Put an egg in the nest It usually is uneconomical to
each morning, using a new one every feed a fully balanced ration to coun-
few days so that it doesn't spoil. try chickens; coming as close as
If an egg is already in the nest, possible to ideal nutrition with
the hen probably will decide it is available foods can be a challenge.
a safe place to lay another. Eggs The main considerations are:
should be collected every day. A l Vitamins -- Feed fresh or
dehydrated greens -- carrot
country hen will want to sit on her
tops, weeds, over-ripe fruits
eggs if they accumulate. If she and vegetables, etc. They are

36
 rich in vitamins and contain for worms when the chickens are four
some minerals as well.
months old and every four months
0 Protein -- The country chick-
en's diet rarely includes thereafter.
enough protein. Use meat and
fish scraps (not rancid), white
ants (termites), beans that Male Chickens
people won't eat, insects
that have been attracted and
killed by a kerosene lantern Surplus males waste feed. Sell
and so on. Give priority or eat them when they are eight to
to chicks and laying hens.
ten weeks old. Always keep two
l Carbohydrates -- Energy is
roosters in country chicken operations
supplied by such foods as
broken rice, pressed coco- for breeding purposes. Even with small
nut meat, stale bread and
flocks, keep a second rooster in case
other scraps.
one dies, unless replacements can be
obtained easily and inexpensively.
Health Care

Keep feeders and waterers clean.

The shelter should be dry and clean
also. Remove old litter and replace Upgrading
it with clean litter every three or the Flock
four months. Compost the old litter
or use it for making methane gas.
Follow local recommendaitons for Country flocks can be improved
vaccinations. Use coccidiostats (see or upgraded by introducing roosters
Chapter 7, p. 123) when possible, from improved breeds. In most cases
mixed in the water supply as recom- the objective of this type of upgrad-
mended by the manufacturer. However, ing is to increase egg production.
since country chickens are free to Thus, roosters from improved egg
roam, use of coccidiostats in the breeds are crossed with the country
water may not be of any use if other females. Do not attempt to improve
water sources are available. Treat both egg and meat production at the

37
 potential of 130 to 150 eggs
a year.
The more generations that are
upgraded, the higher the potential.
However, each generation's potential
will increase at a slower rate, and
they will need more intensive care
and balanced feeds. If an upgraded
flock mates among itself, potential
production eventually will fall to
the levels obtained before upgrading.
For upgrading meat production,
simply use improved meat breed males
in place of the egg breed, as above.

Farmer
Assessments

You may find it useful to pre-

pare a simplified version of the
Farmer Assessment Worksheets (see
page 193). In your talks with a
local farmer, the two of you can
review such a worksheet, find the
biggest gaps and plan how to fill
them to improve production of coun-
try chickens.

39
5. rodtry
Husbandry

This chapter deals with raising a farmer must understand their

the improved breeds of chickens. needs, be ready to provide the
Even if it were many times its pres- daily attention they require,
ent size, it could not offer all the and understand that small de-
information a dedicated farmer needs tails may mean the difference
to provide the best care for the n,:w between success and failure.
breeds. Good use of other infor- Management system.For reasons
mation resources and accumulation of discussed later, this manual
local experience will help fill this recommends using a fully con-
gap. tained system for the new breeds.
If farmers are interested in Local considerations may influ-
trying the new breeds, or if they ence this decision, but in gen-
are raising them already and want to eral a well-run, fully contained
improve their operations, this chap- system has the highest profit
ter will provide them with some essen- potential. This will mean that
tials to consider. The most impor- the birds completely rely on the
tant are: farmer for all of their needs.
Individual interest and commit- Eggs or meat. It is best to con-
ment, In raising any livestock, centrate on producing either eggs
there is no substitute for ten- or meat, not both. Which will
der loving care. To do well be the main product depends on
with the new breeds of chickens, the local market and the types

41
 of breeds available. Some fam- successful farmers in other areas.
ilies, fully occupied with crop Try to pick areas that are as sim-
production during certain sea- ilar to yours as possible in such
sons, may find thaf an eight- features as social structure, cli-
to ten-week cycle of raising mate, altitude and water and feed
meat chickens fits their time availability.
available off-season. If you cannot-get advice from
experienced farmers, you will have
to rely on the recommendations of

Breed commercial
breeding
breeders
farms.
or government
Know as much as
Source you can about your area's character-
istics before you talk to breeders.
Chicks from the best producing
Far too many breeds and breed breeds probably will have the high-
combinations exist throughout the est p.rices, but this is a very small
world today for this manual to at- part of your total costs--it usually
tempt to discuss them in any detail. is unwise to try to save money here.
The number of new breeds available Ail things being equal, the most
in a developing country usually is desirable breed is the one that lays
limited to a very few. Chicks can the most eggs or produces the most
be transported from other countries meat per unit of feed. Other con-
by air, but that is expensive and siderations are the breed's hardi-
delays or other problems along the ness, adaptability to your area and
way can kill them. selected management system and, most
If people in your area have important, its acceptability among
worked with improved breeds, their local farmers.
history will be helpful in selecting
a breed. If no one nearby has had
such experience, you can try to find

42
 Distinguishing features -- White
Layer feathers and ear lobes; adult
Breeds females weigh about 2 kg
(4.4 lbs.); males weigh about
2.7 kg (6 lbs.). Not all white-
The basic decision is between egg layers have white ear lobes.
breeds that lay white eggs and those White Leghorns are known to be
that lay brown ones. There is no quite nervous and flighty. With
nutritional difference between white proper care, however, they are
and brown eggs. However, people in excellent egg producers.
your area may have a strong prefer-
ence for oqe color or the other, and
Brown Eggs
this should be considered. Good
layers usually begin producing when Rhode Island Reds and New Hamp-
they are 21 weeks old and continue shires are two popular brown-egg
for 12 months, laying about 250 breeds, but there are many others as
eggs during that time. well. These breeds are heavier than
_-

White Eggs I

The most popular white-egg

breed is the White Leghorn. It is
smaller than other breeds and produces I

the most eggs per unit of feed eaten; I

thus, it has a higher profit potential.

Generally, //
the best producer is a
hybrid White Leghorn, but special
breeds or crosses may have been
developed in your area to meet local
conditions.
me Rhode Island Red

43
White Leghorns. Some of them will Rocks, Cornish, Barred Rocks and other
lay as many eggs as White Leghorns, breeds. Mature adult females weigh
but will eat more feed per egg about 3.6 kg (8 lbs.); males weigh
produced. about 4.5 kg (10 lbs.). They should
Distinguishing features -- Eggs be kept only until they are about
vary in color from light beige eight to twelve weeks old when females
to dark brown; ear lobes are weigh about 1.8 kg (4 lbs.), and males
red; feathers vary from almost weigh about 2.3 kg (5 lbs.). In ten
white to red, brown, black or weeks these breeds reach almost the
combinations; adult females same weight as egg breeds reach in
weigh about 3 kg (6-l/2 lbs.); 20 weeks. Meat breeds also have more
males weigh about 3.6 kg meat per unit of body weight than
(8 lbs.). Some of the newer egg breeds. Some breeds with dark
crosses weigh much less at feathers also have dark skins -- a
maturity. feature that many consumers don't
like. If no meat breeds are avail-
able in your area, it might be econom-
ical to use males from the heavier
Meat brown-egg breeds for meat production.
Breeds

A popular improved meat breed

Dual-Purpose
is a cross of a White Rock (a heavy Breeds
breed) with another medium-weight
breed, such as a Cornish or some-
times another White Rock. Present-- Generally, these breeds are used
day meat strains are known as "syn- to produce eggs, and the meat pro-
thetic breeds" and are the result duced by them is a secondary consider-
of crosses which may include White ation. If you are concentrating

44
on producing eggs, evaluate these hatcheries that supply day-old chicks.
breeds as you would layer breeds. If Chicks should be kept in warm and humid
it is meat that you want, the choice conditions while transported to the
will be more difficult, because it farmer. If possible, the people at the
will be expensive to keep poor-laying hatchery should vaccinate the chicks
hens to maintain the flock. When the far Marek's and Newcastle diseases
specialized meat and egg breeds are before shipment. Chicks should be
available, it almost always is wiser from a Salmonella pullorum disease-
to select one of them. free breeder source. Plan to have the
chicks arrive at the best time of the
year and when equipment and supplies
for them are ready -- ordered chicks
Starting a may take several months to arrive.
New Flock Chicks may come in one of two ways:
l Straight-run, or unsexed --
Straight-run chicks are half
males and half females. This
Fertilized Eggs is the way all chicks are sold
except specialized layer breeds.
l Sexed -- An expert examines
Obtain eggs from a neighbor or
the chicks and disposes of
commercial source, or use eggs from most males. People who sex
a current flock. Be sure that the chickens are about 95 per-
cent accurate, so expect a
eggs are no more than seven to ten few cockerels in the flock.
days old and have been kept cool If you cannot buy sexed chicks for a
continuously. They will be hatched layer flock, unsexed chicks will do.
either by a broody hen or an incuba- With heavier breeds, males can be
tor (see below). raised as meat birds. With smaller
breeds, such as the White Leghorn,
Day-old Chicks it is best to eliminate all males as
soon as you can recognize them (any-
Most countries have commercial where from three to eight weeks, de-

45
pending on breed), unless you want to Coccidia are present everywhere but
isoiate and keep a few for breeding. the different strains are not distrib-
Layers do not need roosters around uted evenly -- and immunity to one
to produce eggs; in fact, the pres- strain does not guarantee immunity
ence of males may lower production. to the others.

Started Pullets

Young hens (four to six months) Hatching

who are about to or have already Chicks
started laying are called started
pullets. They will cost much more
than day-old chicks, but they begin To have more chicks you will
to produce as soon as they arrive, need a rooster to fertilize the eggs.
and the farmer saves the time and One rooster is enough for five to
equipment needed to incubate eggs fifteen country hens. If you can ob-
and/or raise the chicks to laying tain one, consider using an improved
age. Started pullets should be ex- rooster to produce progeny with the
amined very closely for parasites disease resistance of the country
and signs of disease. Know as much chicken and some increase in egg
as possible about the hatchery's or meat potential.
management methods -- have the pullets Three or four days after a healthy
been fed properly, vaccinated reg- rooster is introduced, the eggs laid
ularly and otherwise cared for well, should be fertile if the rooster and
and do they come from good stock? hens are good breeders. Fertilized
Started pullets may come down eggs for hatching can be kept cool in
with coccidiosis since the farm a clay pot as described in the marketing
where they came from possibly had section of Chapter 9 (Pa 160). Eggs
different prevalent strains of can be kept in the pot up to five
coccidia than your farm does. days. If refrigeration is available,

46
eggs can be kept up to ten days at in small containers just out of reach
15.5O C (60' F). Use clean, fertile of the nest in the brooding pen.
eggs from several hens if possible, When you have a broody hen,
because not all hens will produce treat her and the nest for lice (see
fertile eggs. Eggs should be average Chapter 7, p. 126). Set about 10 to
size, normal shape and without cracks 15 fertilized eggs under her; the
(see below). number of eggs she can cover depends
Select or develop a broody hen. on her size. The sooner the eggs are
In general, hens from improved breeds set for hatching after laying, the
won't do because broodiness has been better the hatch will be. You should
bred out of them. Pullets (females expect seven or eight chicks from
less than a year old) often do not 10 to 15 eggs, half of them female and
make as good mothers as older hens half male.
do. A broody hen ruffles her feath- Keep the hen confined to the
ers, stays on her nest and will re- brooding pen day and night, allowing
turn to it quickly if taken off. her out to eat and exercise at dawn
She is not as docile as usual and and at 2 pm. for about 20 minutes
will peck your hand if you try to each time. Do this at the same time
move her or take her eggs. If no every day throughout the incubation
hens are broody when needed, you period. She will become accustomed
can try to develop one by setting to the routine and will be upset if
three or four eating eggs on a nest it is changed. While she is out,
in a small pen in a quiet location clean any feces from the nest and
that is protected at night. Put a provide fresh water. The water
healthy hen (the fatter, the better) container should be attached to the
on the nest at dusk. Do this every side of the nest box so she can't
evening until she becomes broody. tip it over. In very dry climates,
If it takes more than three days, it may help to sprinkle a little
provide new eggs and eat the old water on the litter under the eggs,
ones. Always keep water and feed but never on the eggs themselves.

47
In most cases,
eggs and keep them moist
the hen will turn
by herself.
the
Incubation
Occasionally, a brcod hen will
refuse to leave the nest to eat.
In this case, carefully lift her For small numbers of eggs, one
straight up off the eggs, making sure or more broody hens will do the job
she doesn't have any tucked between nicely. If there are no such hens
her wings and body, and put her out. around, or if you want to hatch more
Let or put her back 20 minutes later. eggs, you will need to incubate the
On the 7th day of incubation for eggs artifically.
white'eggs (10th day for brown eggs) The main reason: you will want
you can use a candle to test eggs to incubate eggs is to produce chicks
for fert-ility while the hen is out which, when grown, will bring greater
(see p. 54). Remamberthat there returns than chicks which could be
may be a delicate embryo inside, obtained elsewhere. Other reasons
so handle eggs carefully. Remove all could include incubation for educa-
eggs without embryos, and those that tional purposes or unavailability of
have cracked shells' or malformations. chicks from other sources when they
On the 21st day of incubation, are wanted. In order to succeed in
chicks should begin to hatch. Do your incubation you must have these
not disturb the hen on the nest until basics:
the hatching period ends in the a Selected clean, fertile eggs
evening of that day. At that time, @ A source of heat
remove all unhatched eggs and broken l A means of humidity control
shells. Dispose of weak chicks that More specifically, clean fertiie eggs
can't free themselves from the shell; are from hens ideally between the ages
they never will do well. Provide of eight to eighteen months. These
clean litter for the nest. At this hens and, if possible, sisters, brothers, 1
point chicks are ready for brooding. and parents of these hens, should have I
the characteristics desired in the

48
chicks. Since one hen may produce in the village except those of
infertile eggs, use eggs from sev- improved breeds.
eral hens. In order for eggs Step 4 -- Two weeks after the un-
to be fertile, a rooster must have wanted roosters have been re-
access to the hens for at least four moved from the village, begin
days prior to collection of eggs for saving eggs for hatching.
incubation. Again, the sisters, The cross of a country chicken
brothers, and parent generations which averages 60 eggs per year with
df the rooster should have the de- an improved male whose sisters lay
sired characteristic . This can be 250 eggs will bring excellent results.
a history of high egg production, The daughters will lay 100 or more
rapid .growth rates, resistance to eggs if kept properly and will have
disease or egg size. nearly the same disease resistance
The more factors you select for, of the country chickens. If kept
the slower the progress will be. under ideal conditions, they may
For the purpose of rapid progress lay 125 to 150 eggs.
and simplicity the following is
recommended:
Step 1 -- Acquire roosters from
an improved breed. Since most 4%
commercial breeders destroy the Selection
males of egg production flocks
at the time of hatching, a
commercial breeder is an ideal Selection of good eggs for
source of roosters. They will hatching is important to achieve good
be one day old when you get them . results. First priority should be
Step 2 -- If possible, find out given to eggs from hens which are
from farmers which country between eight and eighteen months
chickens lay the most eggs. of age. This is because the size,
Step 3 -- Cull out all males interior and shell quality of eggs

49
from this age group is most likely What you have left should look like
to be good for hatching. Next, this:
look at the shell closely. Elimi-
nate any eggs which are cracked,

0
dirty or misshapen. The best way
to determine which are typically
shaped is to lay 20 or so eggs on a
table. Eliminate those which are
nearly the shape of a round ball: It may have some specks of calcium
deposits on the outside. This is

0
all right if the size of the specks
is smaller than the size of the per-
iod at the end of this sentence.
Bacteria on eggs will penetrate
Eliminate those which are nearly the the egg shell within two to five hours
same size at both ends: after the egg is laid. Clean eggs
can be sanitized by dipping them in
a chlorine solution (500 parts chlor-

0 ine per million

105'
yin2
they will
F.
baskets
leave
parts
Do not use iron
or containers
a rust
of water)
metal
because
residue
at
dip-

on the
Eliminate those which have uneven eggs l
Quarternary ammonia is quite
shell structure: effective as a disinfectant. Use
500 parts per million and dip eggs
into a solution which is warmer

:[I> than the eggs.

the eggs from the solution
not handle
In either

them until they

case remove
and do
are dry.

50
 box with a regulatable heat source, a
Incubator thermostat and a high-quality, easy-

Management to-read the.rmometer that shows frac-

tions of degrees accurately. Ideally,
an incubator should have a small,
A hen on a nest of eggs provides glass window through which to read
constant body heat and moisture, and the thermometer, and a means of mea-
turns the eggs frequently. Good suring and controlling humidity.
artificial incubation mimics condi- A tray filled with water should be
tions in a nest. provided to generate the necessary
A good incubator is an insulated humidity. The humidity should be

thermometers: l------
chamber
wet bulb
dry bulb

egg tray
LI

4 L,

humidity control
water pan
I I--

Kerosene-Heated Incubator

51
measured using a wet thermometer. Place a tray of water inside or fill
A wet thermometer is simply an or- the receptacles provided in the in-
dinary thermometer with the lower cubator, and keep them filled.
end of the thermometer inserted in Turning the eggs prevents the
water, or a thermometer placed above embryo from sticking to the shell
a source of water with a piece of lining. The eggs should be turned
cloth wrapped around the end of the at least once every eight hours, but
thermometer and the bulb placed in shorter intervals are better. Turn
the water. The incubator should the eggs an odd number of times each
have some means of adjustable ven- day so that the position of the eggs
tilation as well. are alternated each long night inter-
Thoroughly clean the incubator val. Remove the tray, closing the
with a strong disinfectant before incubator door so no heat is lost.
use. Warning: do not use phenol, Use the pencilled x as a guide to
coal tar or pine tar for disinfecting rotate the eggs 180'. If the tray is
an incubator. When heated, the resi- square, rotate it a quarter turn
dues release fumes that can kill each time you turn the eggs. This
embryos and chicks. will help even out the effects of
Once you have built or bought uneven temperatures on different
an incubator, run it empty for at sides of the incubator. Keep an
least three days to practice regula- accurate record of temperatures, time
ting the temperature, keeping it at of each turning and which numbered
37.8 - 38.3O C (100 - 101' F). Then side of the tray is in front.
place hatching eggs in the incubator. On the 7th day of incubation
The incubator ,hould be in a for white eggs and on the 10th day
well-ventilated but not drafty room. for brown eggs, you can use a candler
Once the internal temperature is to test the eggs for fertility (see
37.8 - 38.3' c (100 - lOlo F), place p. 54). When handling the eggs,
the hatching eggs inside. Pencil remember that there may be a delicate
an x on the upper side of the eggs. embryo inside. If there is no embryo,

52
the egg may be edible provided that vents for maximum air circulation.
the air space in the egg (shown by On the 19th day, and for the
the candler) is no larger than 9 next three days, do not open the
millimeters (3/8 in.). The size of incubator except to check the temper-
the air space will also help gauge ature if there is no viewing window.
the humidity in the incubator. Decrease the dry bulb temperature to
about 99O F.
On the 21st day, the chicks will
7th day begin to hatch. Ideally, all chicks
14th day should have completed hatching exactly
18th day 21 days and 6 hours after setting
in the incubator. Some chicks may
not hatch until iater in the day;
these late chicks have been shown
to be inferior genetically to those
which hatch on time. After 21 days
A candled egg showing normal
air space during incubation. and 6 hours, you should open the
incubator and remove all broken
shells and unhatched or incompletely
If the air space is larger than hatched eggs. If the incubator has
shown, increase the water surface more than one tray, distribute the
area available for evaporation; if chicks evenly in them and gradually
smaller, decrease it. reduce the temperature to 35' C
Whether edible or not, remove (95' F). Remove any shell fragments
all eggs without embryos or that stuck to the chicks. The chicks then
have cracked shells. Increase the are ready for brooding.
temperature to 38.9' C (102' F).
On the 18th day, double the
water surface area available to in-
crease humidity. Open all incubator
 Day 21
Day 15

Twenty-one- Davs of Chick Development

jector, a powerful flashlight (elec-

Candling tric torch) or even a candle.

Et%s Use the candler in a darkened

room. Turn the eggs quickly in the
You can get a good view of an light so that the contents rotate,
egg's interior by using a candler. and look for:
A candler encloses a light source in d Embryos -- Thin blood vessels
emerging from a dark red spot
a case or box with light shining mean the egg has been fer-
through a circular hole 3 cm tilized and the chick has
started developing.
(l-1/8 in.) in diameter. Usually the
l Cracked shells -- The candler
light source is a 25-to 60-watt light will reveal cracks that can't
bulb, but you can use a slide pro- be seen otherwise.

54
 l Mold or rot -- Various colors
on or in the egg, or its
smell are signs of moldy
or rotten eggs.
Always wash your hands before
handling hatching eggs.

Brooding
Chicks

Small numbers of chicks can be

given to a broody hen to care for.
After she has set on a few eggs for
at least two or three days, she
should accept chicks. In the evening,
0 Shape and movement of yolk --
Yolks noticeably out of their slip a few chicks under her and, if
usual central position, stuck she doesn't reject them, give her the
to their shell, uneven in
color or of abnormal shape rest and remove the eggs.
indicate poor quality eggs. If there is no broody hen about,
0 Blood spots -- Although or if there are more than a dozen or
blood spots in eggs are harm-
less, many people find them so chicks, they will have to be brooded
unappetizing, so don't mar- artificially. This is a critical
ket eggs that contain them.
time in their lives -- they must be
Discolored whites -- Clouded
or streaked whites reduce kept warm and have water available
egg quality. at all times.
Size of air cell -- An air
cell more than 1.25 cm
(l/2 in.) deep may indicate
a bad egg.

55
Preparation their directions carefully. On the
following day, wash the walls and
If the house and equipment have floor with a two percent solution of
been used for chickens before, older a mild disinfectant, if available;
chickens should be removed at least otherwise, use water. The house and
a month before the chicks arrive. equipment should have at least two
To avoid disease problems do not days to dry out. Spread litter 5 to
mix groups of chickens, especially 10 cm (2 to 4 in.) deep on the floor.
chicks with older birds. Remove all Depth of litter depends on its mois-
feeders, waterers, nesting boxes, ture-absorption capability (see below).
hoppers, roosts and other equipment If sawdust is used for litter material,
from the house. Wash them, leaving cover it with paper during the first
no visible dirt. Clean them with three days so the chicks don't eat
a strong disinfectant, and rinse it. Sawdust can cause problems in the
with fresh water. If possible, let digestive systems of young chicks.
them dry in the sun. Replace the equipment and install and
Remove all old litter from the test the brooder at least 3 day; before
house. Sweep walls, ceiling and the chicks arrive.
floors to remove dirt and dust, then Deep litter management -- Any or-
scrub with water and disinfectant. ganic material that absorbs moisture
Make any necessary repairs to house can be used for litter. Availability
and equipment. Spray the house and cost, of course, must be considered.
with a safe insecticide if ticks, Possible litter materials, ranked
lice or mites have been a problem. approximately in absorption capacity,
Warning: Be very careful when using are:
any type of insecticide. They can 0 Peat moss -- Usually very ex-
be dangerous to humans and chickens pensive, if available at all.

if used improperly. Check with l Chopped oat straw

local authorities to determine l Softwood chips

which insecticide to use, and follow @ Hardwood chips

56
 Chopped rice straw The crop of a chicken that has eaten
Chopped wheat straw a substantial amount of straw will
Softwood sawdust -- (only feel hard. More often, there will
after four weeks of age)
be only a few pieces of straw caught
Hardwood sawdust -- (only
after four weeks of age) on the lower end of the crop. If the

Shredded maize (corn) stalks chicken then eats and drinks normally,

Rice hulls feed and water will be clogged above

Groundnut (peanut) shells the straw. The result is a large,

Shredded sugar cane stalks soft and mushy crop. There is no

Dried pineapple waste practical cure for a crop-bound

Coffee hulls bird -- it is best to eat it.

Ground maize (corn) cobs,

shucks or husks -- may
present mold problems
Broadleaf leaves -- may
present mold problems
Sand -- use as a last resort

Watch for mold in litter since most

good litter materials are also good
mediums for mold due to their water
Crop-bound Chicken
retention characteristics. Any
straw used should be well dried in
the sun. Chopping the straw, although
it may be difficult, increases its Start with a litter depth of about
usefulness because it absorbs more 7.5 to 10 cm (3 to 4 in.), depending
moisture and can be turned more on its absorption capacity, and grad-
easily than unchopped straw. ually increase it until it is about
NOTE: Do not use fine grass straw -- 15 to 20 cm (6 to 8 in.) deep at the
the chickens may eat it and some may end of a laying cycle. Don't let
be caught or bound in their crops. litter get packed down -- turn it .

57
frequently. In humid climates, this wire around it to keep chicks from
should be done each day. Replace crowding next to the hot glass or an
wet litter immediately. Add powdered electric light bulb can be used as
lime to moist litter to help dry it. a heat source. Charcoal stoves have
In dry litter, enough heat builds to be tended too frequently to be
up to kill most bacteria, worms and practical.
fly larvae. Hover design -- A hover is a hood
that retains and distributes heat
Brooders evenly. It can be made of wood,
woven bamboo or sheet metal, and
Brooders are used in place of either placed on legs or hung from
brood hens to beams. When using any heat source
keep chicks warm (the other than electricity, the hover
hover) and protect chicks from wan- should have a vent on top to allow
dering. Either a kerosene lamp with fumes to escape.

Light Bulb Brooder for about 50 Chicks

58
 hanging wires
/

sheet metal cone

set on bricks

Mlm\'
(3-l/5 ft.) I

Colonv Brooder Suitable for 100 Chicks

Place litter beneath and distri- base and careful handling is a must
bute feeders and waterers evenly. to avoid spilling kerosene.)
Electric light bulbs (200 watts) can Other heat sources can include
be substituted for kerosene lamps. solar heat and wood chips. If solar
(Note: brooders are a major cause heat is used, there must be a means
of chicken house fires. Kerosene of heat storage such as a water
lamps, especially when near dry tank, sand or rocks. This stor-
litter, must have a solid, level age is necessary for night warmth.

59
 Basket Brooders

Brooder guard -- A temporary fence pile up and smother. As the flock

outside the hover area is called grows, the brooder guard should be
a brooder or chick guard. A brooder expanded.
guard keeps the chicks near the Brooder temperatures -- Read tem-
hover, but allows them to get away perature 5 cm (2 in.) from the
from excessive heat. It usually is floor and 30 cm (1 ft.) from the
made of solid material, such as card- heat source. Start the brooding at
board, to reduce floor drafts. It 35O C (95' F) for the first week,
has no comers where chicks can and reduce the temperature by 2.8' C

60
( 5' Fj each successive week by ad- Brooding feeders -- The first few
justine the heat source or height days chicks will pick at anything
of the hover. and will not be able to tell a
feeding area from the rest of the
floor, so it is wise to have feed
scattered over a large area. Put
newspaper or cut cardboard boxes
Too cold
down on the floor and scatter feed
on them to supplement the chick-size
feeders.

.JTnst right
2.5
(1

chicks' backs

Too hot

Chick-size Feeder

Brooder Temperatures -- Top view For their first three weeks, 100 chicks
of chicks distributed around
brooder heat source. will need about 2.5 m (100 in.) of
feeding space -- four feeders, each
33 cm (13 in.) long should be enough.

61
Brooding waterers -- For 100 chicks, tinuous supply of fresh, clean water
use four waterers made of small if they are to do well. Change the
clay jars or tin cans inverted in water at least once, and preferably
saucers or the bottoms of larger tin twice, each day. Keep waterers as
cans (see page 101). Increase number clean as possible and replace rusty
and size of waterers as the flock ones.
grows (see chart, page 100). Be- Distribute waterers evenly
cause chicks drown easily, openings throughout the house. During their
in waterers must not be large enough first week or two, no chicks should
to allow chicks to fall or be pushed be more than 1 m (3 ft.) from a
into the water. waterer and not more than 3.5 m
(10 ft.) thereafter.
Keep lip Disease can start quickly when
at level of
water is spilled on litter. Keep
I chicks' backs
the area
clean. It
around
is better
waterers
to place
dry and
the
waterers on flat rocks, bricks or
slatted or wired platforms than on
litter. Remove and replace wet
litter as soon as possible.
(1 in.) Placement of brooding equipment --
hole 1.25 cm (0.5 in.) Distribute the equipment evenly
from open end of can
under the hover to give all chicks
Chick-size Waterer a good chance to eat. Shift the
position of waterers and feeders
often to keep litter clean and dry.
Place waterers on flat boards and
keep the area around them dry.
Chickens need water every 15 to
20 minutes. They must have a con-

62
 feeder

Layout of Brooding Equipment

Brooding the Chicks all vaccination recommendations and

schedules. Before vaccinating chick-
A few hours before the chicks ens against any disease, get approval
arrive , put clean water in the from the appropriate government
waterers, completely fill the feeders ministry. If you vaccinate for a
and put some feed on the paper or disease that is not present in your
cardboard. The temperature under area using live serum, you may intro-
the hover should be 35' C (95' F). duce that disease instead of pro-
When the chicks arrive, count tecting against it.) Watch the chicks
them and dip the beak of each one for at least two hours. If any are
into a waterer to be sure that it obviously ill, remove them. The
gets a drink. Vaccinate them for chicks' behavior will tell you
Newcastle disease (see page 119) whether the brooder temperature is
if this hasn't been done. (Note: correct. If they huddle close to the
Check with local authorities for heat source, it is too cold; if they

63
 crowd the brooder guard, it is too eating well, remove the paper or
hot. Check the distribution of the cardboard.
chicks and see that they have feed For the rest of the chickens'
and water often -- every three hours lives, completely change their water
for the first 24 hours, including at dawn and in the early afternoon,
the night. rinsing the waterers out as you do
During the brooding stage, chicks so. Chickens should have water avail-
will eat through the night because able at all times.
light is available continuously. On the 4th day, begin looking
They should never be without feed for signs of coccidiosis (see page 122).
for more than 30 minutes at a time If there is a serious outbreak, take
(the same is true for mature birds immediate action. Be alert for
during daylight). The feed should coccidiosis until the flock is at
,c contain a coccidiostat, if recom- least 12 weeks old.
mended by local authorities (see On the 6th day, be sure that
page 123). there is grit in the feeders. From
Spend time every day just ob- then on, always have grit available.
serving the flock. While they grow, On the 7th day, fowl pox vaccin-
see if they are all about the same ations may be recommended (see page 120).
size and are putting out feathers Decrease the temperature to 31.1' C
at about the same rate. If so, the (90' F). Remove the brooder guard.
chicks probably are from good stock, On the 14th day, lower the
healthy and receiving good feed. temperature to 29.4' C (85' F).
Watch for inactive chicks -- one that On the 21st day, provide larger
stands still for more than ten min- feeders (see chart, page 106). Lower
utes most likely is sick. the temperature to 26.6' C (80' F).
On the 3rd day, allow the On the 28th day, lower the
chicks to finish the feed in the temperature to 23.9' C (75' F). If
feeders. From then on, fill the recommended by local authorities,
feeders half full. If chicks are vaccinate against Newcastle disease

64
and bronchitis. Remove any sick birds. If there
On the 35th day, you may begin are more than one or two, perform a
vaccinating for bronchitis and fowl post mortem examination (see
cholera, if appropriate (see page page 128)) or take the birds to a
120). Place waterers on a slatted veterinarian or a laboratory for
or wire mesh platform. Lower the analysis.
temperature to 21.1' C (70' F). If
nighttime temperatures do not fall
below this, remove the brooder.
Even in cold weather, you may remove Layer
the brooder a week later. Make sure Management
that drinking water does not freeze.

Layers should be kept in the

same house or cage during their
Meat Breed laying year. Moving them when they
Management are laying may cause them to stop
laying for several weeks. They need
water and feed available continuously
Once meat birds have been vacci- during daylight, and their calcium
nated on the 35th day (see page 120), requirements are high. The figure
they may not need any more special shows a typical layer house equip-
care, as they should be sold by ten ment arrangement.
weeks of age. If they are kept be- Layer management schedule -- On the
yond ten.- weeks, they probably will 42nd day, vaccinate for fowl pox,
need larger feeders (see chart, if recommended by local authorities.
page 106). On the 52nd day, vaccinate for New-
Watch the flock and treat for castle disease. On the 84th day,
outbreaks of worms, coccidiosis, increase feed and water space (see
parasites and other health problems. chart, page 106). Begin lighting

65
 grit and calcium hoppers, waterers
/

l-l
nest boxes roosts
on darkest
side of
house

u 1 11
-feeders
I
Layout of Layer House

wogra if appropriate (see you are going to use cages, place

page 69). hens in them this week. (One does
In the --15th week, if you plan not have to change to laying ration
to use roosts, put them in the house. until 50% of the flock are laying.
In the 16th week, if dead or The main difference between a laying
culled birds show signs of worms, ration (fed to layers) and a growers
begin medication. ration (fed to growing birds) is the
In the 19th week, place nesting amount of calcium in it. Chickens
boxes in the house so the pullets shouid not be fed extra calcium until
get used to them before laying. 50% of the flock start to lay.)
In the 20th week, change to a In the 21st week_, white-egg
laying ration (see page 140). Cull breeds should begin laying. The
all pullets that look sick. If chickens might start laying at 16 to

66
22 weeks of age if the lighting it may be economical to keep them
program is wrong. for another six months. Under good
Look for any eggs outside the management conditions, Leghorns may
nests. Hens found laying in other lay up to 18 months at an economical
places should be introduced gently level, some heavier breeds up to 15
to a nest with an egg in it. Once months.
hens begin laying, they should not The time to replace a flock is
be disturbed in any way. determined by many factors and it is
In the 23rd or 24th week, brown- wise to consult with local poultry
egg birds should begin to lay. authorities before making decisions.
Egg production should peak at Checking feed and market price
about 85 to 95 eggs per day per history, seasonal considerations,
100 hens and then fall gradually to and historical data on breed sources
about 55 to 70 eggs at the end of used, if available, will help in
12 months of laying. decision-making. This, of course,
Genetically improved layers must be done in sufficient time to
today appear to molt (lose and re- allow preparations for the 5- to
place feathers) throughout their 6-month rearing period.
adult lives rather than to lay eggs
for a period, molt and start laying
Lighting
again. There are several factors
which can influence how long a flock Light is a stimulus which has
of layers will produce economically. a direct impact on egg production.
These include breeder, egg and feed Increasing day length has a positive
prices and environmental factors influence on egg laying. Decreasing
including general management, weather day length has a negative influence.
and seasonal considerations. Nor- Thus, under natural lighting, a
mally, layers are kept for 12 months country hen not near the equator
of lay. In certain cases, where begins laying eggs as the days grow
flock replacement costs are high, longer in spring. She tapers off as

67
the days become shorter in the fall. in the north, January 19-26 in the
The new breeds respond the same south.
way when kept in natural light. If this timing does not match
This means that all hens in an area local market conditions or chick availa-
on a natural schedule will hit peak bilities, or if local weather condi-
production at the same time of the tions are prohibitive (monsoon rains
year, thus causing overproduction accompanied by heavy winds), you can
and low prices in some seasons, and consider manipulating the length of
scarcity and high prices in others. the day. Chicks and pullets should
If you want your hens to pro- have a decreasing length of day until
duce best during periods of high they are 21 weeks old. When the
prices, pay attention to the length brooder is turned off, use kerosene
of their day. Layers need 14 to 16 lanterns or electric light bulbs
hours of light during a day for op- before sunrise or after sunset to
timum production. If they receive artificially lengthen the natural
less, or if the length of the day day so that peak production will
is decreasing, egg production will result at the desired time. The cor-
suffer. But, if pullets under 21 rect intensity or amount of light
weeks old are exposed to lengthening is necessary for proper lighting.
days, they may start before they are You will need the equivalent of one
physically ready to maintain pro- bulb watt for each four square feet.
duction. This can harm them. If Thus, a 40-watt bulb is sufficient
egg prices are even throughout for 160 square feet. For large areas,
the year, you can take advantage use more bulbs to ensure even dis-
of natural lighting and hatch or tribution of light, especially onto
buy chicks 21 or 22 weeks before feeders and waterers. Lamps and light
the shortest day of the year (Decem- bulbs get very dirty in a chicken
ber 21 in the northern hemisphere, house -- clean them once a week.
June 21 in the southern). That means If you know how long the natural
starting the flock about July 18-25 day will be when the pullets are 21

68
weeks old and you decide use of 4. Your breed of chickens will
begin laying during the 22nd
artificial lights will be necessary,
week of age and will be pro-
determine your artificial light ducing at peak levels for
about three months. Their
needs. The following example will
peak three months will be from
help you in this decision: the 27th through the 40.th weeks.
This will occur during the months
Assumptions:
desired using the following
1. Egg prices are projected to lighting program:
be highest during the months
First, you need to count back
of October, November and
December. to the time you need day old chicks.
2. You are in the southern Assume your chick supplier can pro-
hemisphere. Working back
vide them on March 20.
3. The longest day is December 21.
from the day length at 21 weeks:
The shortest day is June 21.

Weeks of Age Dates Day Length (hours)

l-5 Mar. 20 - Apr. 30 Brooder Lights

6 May 1 - May 7 16
7 May 8 - May 14 15-314
8 May 15 - May 21 15-l/2
9 May 22 - May 28 15-l/4
10 May 29 - June 4 15
11 June 5 - June 11 14-314
12 June 12 - June 18 14-l/2
13 June 19 - June 25 14-i/4
14 June 26 - July 2 14
15 July 3 - July 9 13-314
16 July 10 - July 16 13-l/2
17 July 17 - July 23 13-l/4
18 July 24 - July 30 13
19 July 31 - Aug. 6 12-314
20 Aug. 7 - Aug. 13 12-l/2
21 Aug. 14 - Aug. 20 12-l/4

69
 Now, you want to bring them steady 16 hours through the end of
into production. The natural day the 12-month laying cycle, sometime
length on August 21 is 12-l/4 after August 21.
hours and you know the natural This schedule has accomplished
daylength is increasing until Decem- the following objectives:
ber 21. After December 21, the l The day length was artificially
longest day of the year in the south- decreased up to the 21st week.
This part is often called a
ern hemisphere (south of the equator), "step-down" lighting program.
the natural daylight will begin de- The step-down program pre-
vented the chickens from
creasing. Since you don't want the starting to lay eggs too
early.
chickens to slow down in egg produc-
l The day length was increasing
tion due to the decreasing day
after the 21st week, the time
length, we must begin to use arti- when we wanted to stimulate
egg production. If this had
ficial lighting. Thus:
come at another time of year,
-- August 21 - December 21, the nat- we might have had to use
ural day length increases and no artificial lights beginning
at the 21st week.
artificial lighting is needed.
l The day length was artificially
-- Beginning December 21, assume increased beginning on Dec-
ember 22. If this were not
the natural day length on December 21
done, egg production would
is 14 hours: have slowed down substantially.
This series of light increases
is called a "step-up" program.
Day Length (hours)-
Dec. 21 Natural - 14
Dec. 22 - 28 For a step-up program it is im-
14-114
Dec. 29 - Jan. 4 14-l/2 portant that day length increases
Jan. 5 - Jan. 11 14-3/4
Jan. 12 - Jan. 18 not be made too rapidly because this
15
Jan. 19 - Jan. 25 15-l/4 can result in damage to the reproduc-
Jan. 26 - Feb. 1 15-l/2
tive system. An increase in incre-
Feb. 2 '- Feb. 8 15-314
Feb. 9 - Feb. 15 16 ments of 15 to 20 minutes per week
is the maximum recommended.
-- From February 15 on, keep a
Forced Molting Generally, forced molting is
not a procedure used for the most
After a year's egg production, genetically advanced egg layers.
a hen normally stops laying. She However, it is a procedure used in
then molts, shedding and replacing some situations. A typical case for
her feathers. About seven weeks forced molting is one in which there
later, she resumes laying, but at has been a severe nutritional or en-
a lower rate than the year before. vironmental stress which has resulted
The eggs will be larger than with in a drop in egg production between
new pullets,but will have-thinner the 6th and 8th month of production.
shells, resulting in more breakage. The situation by that time is a
Although you feed new chickens for flock laying perhaps at a 50 percent
22 weeks before they begin to lay level, one not likely to recover to
and molted birds only seven weeks, full production unless forced to
the molted birds eat more per day. molt. Forced molting is like re-
Most farmers sell the old flock at building a car engine to make it more
18 months of age and have a new one efficient.
ready to start laying. To force a molt, begin when the
There are times when it could hens are producing at a rate of less
pay to keep the old flock, such as than 45 or 50 eggs per 100 birds
if replacement birds aren't avail- per day. If you are using artificial
able, or if egg prices will be lights, stop. Do not feed the flock
very high in the period two to ten the first two days, then for the
months in the future. In such cases, next two days give them just enough
a forced molt reduces the time feed so they finish it two hours
needed and puts all birds on the before sunset. Do not provide water
same schedule. It usually is un- the first day, provide half the nor-
economical to force brown-egg breeds mal amount on the second day, and give
to molt, due to their higher feed them a continuous supply thereafter.
requirements. On the 5th day, resume the lighting

71
program, if you use one. It will in production -- culling them loses
take about six to eight weeks to future eggs.
bring them back to full production. As you gather eggs, gently
The flock should produce well for examine hens who have just laid.
another six to eight months. Their combs will be large, bright
red and waxy, their ear lobes and
Culling wattles will be smooth and soft.
The area between their pubic bones
Removing sick or poorly pro- and breastbones will be large, soft
ducing chickens from a flock is and pliable, and their vents will be
called culling. When you cull birds, large, oval and moist. If they have
you lessen the chance of spreading been laying for several weeks, they
disease, and you reduce the waste will look bleached, for the yellow
of feeding non-layers, pigment in their bodies is going
During a flock's first five into their eggs. You can place
months, watch for sick birds. In three fingers between a good layer's
village flocks of less than 50 chick- pubic bones, and four fingers bet-
ens, you can put sick birds in a ween her breastbone and pubic bones.
special pen. If they recover, they Her feathers may be a bit worn
can rejoin the flock, but be careful and dirty from visiting the nest
-- an apparently recovered chicken often.
may carry the disease back to the About four weeks after laying
flock. In larger flocks, it often begins, you can cull the obvious
is better to destroy obviously sick non-layers. A hen that isn't laying
chickens. Examine them closely, will have a shriveled, pale and
or take them to a veterinarian. scaly comb, her wattles and ear
Culling may increase the profits lobes will be rough and dry, her
from a laying flock by up to ten vent small, puckered, yellow and
percent. This takes experience, dry and her abdomen hard and fatty.
for some layers go through pauses

72
 comb: large, red, waxy shriveled, pa le,
/ scaly

eye ring and beak:

yellow pigment
present

wattles: dry,
rough

wattles: soft, smooth

Non-layer -
Good layer

small, puckered,
vent: large, oval, dry, yellow
moist, bleached
\

Good layer Non-layer

HOW to Tell a Good Layer from a Non-layer

73
 I

3 fingers ' 1 finger

Good layer Poor l.ayer

Examining Distance Between Pubic Bones

Good layer Poor layer

Examining. Distance Between Pubic Bones and Breast Bone (Keel Bone)

74
 Vaccinations -- The stress of
Other General vaccinations cannot be avoided,
but it can be reduced by
Management following
and handling
the right schedule
the birds gently.
Principles Moving the flock -- If possible,
keep the birds in the same
house all of their lives.
Stress Factors
Damp litter -- The smell of
ammonia given off by damp
Chickens subjected to stress
litter is a stress. Also,
will not produce at maximum poten- damp litter is an ideal
medium for the growth of dis-
tial. Examples of stress are:
ease-causing organisms.
l Noises -- Barking dogs and New chickens in the flock --
nearby automobiles frighten
During the early weeks of their
chickens.
lives, chickens in a flock
m Rats and predators -- These establish a hierarchy of
disturb the flock as well as dominance, or pecking order.
eat chickens and feed. When new chickens are intro-
duced to the flock, the order
l Strange people in the house -- has to be re-established over
If possible, the same person
several weeks while growth
should attend the flock and production suffer. New
every day throughout the birds in the flock also can
chickens' lives. Other cause disease problems.
than a veterinarian or an
extension agent, no visitors 0 Violent weather -- Reduce the
should enter the poultry effects of storms by partly
house. They can view the d covering windows with shutters,
flock through the windows. burlap or mats. Allow some
This practice not only air circulation for ventilation
reduces stress, it reduces and remove the window covers
the chance of introducing as soon as the weather clears.
disease. However, many l Very hot weather -- When the
farmers will have children temperature in the chicken
assist in tending the flock. house exceeds 32.2' C (90' F),
This is acceptable as long it is an extreme stress.
as it is also done on a Above 37.8' C (100' F),
regular basis. some chickens may die.
@ Changes in routine -- The l Cannibalism -- Chickens may
farmer should visit the flock attack and even kill other
at the same time each day. chickens.

75
 l Decreased day length -- them and perform a post mortem exam-
Layers need at least 14
hours of light to produce ination. If the mortality exceeds
at their maximum. one percent per month seek veterinary
In short, a stress situation occurs advice immediately. This may be an
with each deviation from good manage- early warning of a severe outbreak.
ment practices and whenever chickens It is best not to eat obviously
are subjected to something other diseased birds or those who die of
than the daily routine. unknown causes. Bury the bodies in
the ground. If wild animals or dogs
Males and Females dig up buried chickens, you will
have to either burn the bodies or
Young male and female chickens construct a deep pit in the ground
can be kept together until the cock- with a solid cover.
erels become sexually mature. At For small flocks of 50 to 100
maturity, cockerels should be iso- chickens or less, you may want to use
lated from the females because they an isolation pen for the period of
will begin to bother the females, sickness. In larger operations, this
as well as each other, creating a is not a good practice.
stress situation. Cockerels are
sexually mature when their combs Hot Weather
and spurs show rapid development.
This will occur between 12 and 18 Chickens do not perspire for
weeks of age. relief from heat -- instead, they
pant and hold their wings out from
Mortality their bodies. When the temperature
exceeds 37.8' C (100' F), chickens
Expect to lose about one per- may die from heat stroke. Make sure
cent of the flock per month. Some the chickens have plenty of shade
will die suddenly; others will show and cool drinking water. Completely
obvious signs of disease. Remove open all ventilation areas. Add
extra waterers or buckets of water to l Placing evergreen boughs
reduce crowding. Chickens in cages (such as pine) with needles,
leaves, fresh-cut green grass,
should be sprinkled with water, torn up newspapers, etc., in
the pen when pecking begins
especially if any deaths occur.
to be a problem. The chick-
Chickens on deep litter and the ens will be diverted to
pecking at these, rather
deep litter itself can be sprinkled
than each other.
at mid-afternoon to increase evapor-
l Improving the diet.
ation.
l Treating for lice or mites.
l Spreading pine tar or other
Cannibalism non-toxic, bad tasting sub-
stances or commercial pre-
parations over the wounds
An accidentally injured bird of pecked birds.
with blood on it will be pecked, l Always removing pecked birds
from the flock.
sometimes to death, by other birds.
l Removing the most aggressive
Pecking also may start when the
birds from the flock temporar-
chickens are overcrowded, fed an ily.
inadequate diet (especially a salt Debeaking -- To prevent chickens
and/or protein deficient diet), from pecking eaeh other and reduce
are growing permanent feathers or feed wastage, many farmers make it
when there is a lice or mite infesta- a standard practice to cut a portion
tion. Thus, to prevent cannibalism, of the upper beak and the tip of
good management is of prime import- the lower beak off. Other farmers
ance. debeak only if the flock starts
Once a pecking problem occurs, pecking.
the best action to take is to Do not debeak if they are allowed
debeak the chickens. But other to range for food. Debeaked chickens
measures may help. These include: cannot pick up food from the ground.
l Reduction of flock density If a cannabalism problem develops
by expanding space avail-
in range chickens, cutting the
able or removal of some birds.
tips of both top and bottom beaks

77
equally, or just burning back of the burn back the top beak quickly. For
beak with a red-hot iron, will older birds, hold the tongue back
usually solve the problem. with the tip of your index finger,
Layers put in colony cages cut and cauterize the beak as shown
should be severely debeaked. Layer in the illustration below. Where
type chickens should be debeaked this equipment is too expensive
before they start producing eggs. or not available, chicks also can
For meat birds being fed growing be debeaked with nail clippers, a
mash, just cut l/3 of the top beak sharp knife or another similar sharp
so they can scoop up-the feed and device. Cut off l/3 to l/2 of the
eat more easily. upper beak and the tip of the lower.
Equipment specifically designed Press a red hot iron to the beak to
for debeaking is now available in cauterize it and stop the bleeding.,
most countries. Debeakers may be Older birds can be debeaked
found at poultry extension offices, using a sharp knife or similar ob-
larger poultry farms, Tooperatives ject. It will take two people, one
or equipment dealers. These elec- to cut and the other to cauterize it.
trical devices are designed to cut After debeaking, feed should be
and cauterize with a hot blade kept at least 2.5 cm (1 in.) deep
and are quite efficient for de- for the next two days to prevent the
beaking large numbers of chickens tender beaks from banging against
at any age. the feeder bottom.
To debeak baby chicks, just

78
 213

h
Debeaking -- The top beak should be cut back l/2 to 2/3 for layers and l/3
for meat chickens while the bottom beak should be cut l/4 to l/3 for layers
and not at all for meat birds. Birds on an open range should be debeaked
only if a problem with cannibalism occurs. In this case, it is very impor-
tant to debeak both top and bottom beaks equally.

Rat Control in a small tunnel or box with an

entrance at one end and an exit at
Rats and mice are the financial the other and located inside poultry
enemies of people raising poultry. house corners or near entrances
One rat eats as much feed as an to rat tunnel holes found around
adult chicken every day. They also the perimeter of the chicken house
spread disease, eat young chicks or feed storage areas.
and disturb the flock. Snap traps
and locally recommended poisons
can be quite effective, but take
care that chickens, other animals
and children cannot get at them.
Poison bait should be placed

79
6. Housing
and Equipkent
Local climate, building methods,
management systems, space available
and size of flock all will influ-
ence the construction of a chicken
house and other equipment. Of these
considerations, the management sys-
tem selected probably is the most
basic.

Free-Range
Contained,
Whether or not overnight shelter With Limited Range
is provided, any kind of free-range
system usually is unacceptable for
the new breeds. Losses to disease The many variations of this sys-
and p-redators will be much too tem all seek to protect the chickens
high to justify costs. from disease and predators while
allowing them to find some food
for themselves in a fenced-in area
or range.

81
Advantages: a What the chickens eat outside
the house can be estimated
o The cost of feeding the and allowed for when mixing
chickens can be reduced by as, feeds.
much as 20 percent if the
range is well managed with l When the range is large, stress
a good growth of grass. due to crowding is reduced.
l Using grassy areas under Disadvantages:
fruit or other crop trees l In areas with prolonged
as range can mean more rains, the chickens stay
efficient use of that land. inside the house both night
0 Sunshine provides vitamin D; and day. Therefore, houses
chickens kept out of the sun have to be as large and
need supplemental vitamin D well equipped as those with-
in their feed. (Note: de- out ranges. Thus, in addi-
pending on their diets, chick- tion to equal housing costs,
ens will need other vitamin farmers must pay for fencing.
supplements as well.) o If grass on the range is
l Exercise and outdoor life sparse, savings on feed
produce tougher, but tastier costs will be slight. Land
chickens that some people that grows lush grass often
prefer. is more profitably used for
cereal grains or other food
l Inside a fence, the chickens crops.
receive some protection from
predators. l Unless the fence is at least
2 m (6 ft.) tall, the farmer
l Isolating the flock from will have to clip the flight
other chickens provides some feathers on one wing of
degree of disease protection. each bird. Small, light

82
 breeds can fly over even thousands of birds. This manual
taller fences.
concentrates on those of smaller
l Other species of birds enter-
ing the range will carry scope, but the principles are the
pests and diseases, espe- same no matter how large the project.
cially fowl cholera.
Basically, there are three kinds of
l The chickens should be ro-
tated to fresh range every contained systems.
few months to prevent the
build-up of disease-causing
contaminants in the soil, Deep-litter
which requires more land.
l Maintaining a range as well Properly managed deep-litter
as a house requires more
labor than maintaining just systems provide excellent environ-
the house. ments for the improved breeds and
Recommendation -- Unless unusual yield valuable fertilizer as well.
local circumstances favor this Advantages:
0 Deep litter is a good insula-
system, farmers will do better
tion. It protects chickens
using a fully contained one. from cold weather, and during
hot seasons they can nestle
into it and reach the cool
floor below.

Contained
Systems

Contained systems allow the

farmer more control over diseases
and feed, and provide protection to
the birds against predators. These
systems vary from makeshift cages
in the corner of a veranda or porch
to fully automated batteries of

83
l Studies show that when all chickens are kept using the
other factors are equal, deep-litter system. Also,
layers produce more eggs on fatty liver syndrome is less
deep litter than in cage likely in floor birds.
systems.
Disadvantages:
l Chickens can be brooded and 0 There is a grea.t.er chance of
kept through their produc- worm and tick infestation
.tive lives in the same house. and coccidiosis (internal
l Deep litter allows the bird Trotnzoan narasites) than
to dust itself against lice with cages or raised floor
and other parasites. systems.
l When a production cycle of l The deep-litter system is
100 layers is finished, the inappropriate for very humid
litter and manure combination areas (80 - 90% humidity) --
will be enough to fertilize damp litter spreads diseases.
a 0.4 hectare (ha) (1 acre) l The litter must be turned
area of rice, wheat or other often, particularly in damp
cereal grain, or 0.2 ha weather, and this requires
(l/2 acre) of intensively more labor than other con-
cultivated vegetables. (Note: tained systems.
Do not apply manure directly
to growing crops -- its 0 Sometimes adequate litter is
high nitrogen content will difficult to obtain.
harm them.)
Recommendation -- Deep litter
l Deep litter is an improved
is recommended for both meat
system which is readily
adaptable to traditional birds and layers.
night shelters used in many
village situations,
o The chicken, by nature, Raised Floor
scratches and pecks in the
litter, reingesting wasted
Floors, raised to about 1 m
and undigested food. In
this process, some of the (3 ft.) above the ground, are made of
feed is recovered. At the wire mesh or expanded
time, the chicken picks up wooden slats,
enzymes which are believed metal. The chicken droppings should
to reduce the char- ..E
"gizzard erosion", a problem be collected frequently from under
which rarely occurs when I the house and composted.

84
 very difficult for chicks.
Thus, a separate brooder
house is needed.
a These systems are unsuitable
for hot, dry climates because
the floors heat up, unless
they are built near shade
trees. They also are unsuit-
, able for use in cold seasons
due to their lack of insul-
ation.
l Unless the droppings are well
managed, they can attract
flies and cause objectionable
smells. Their value as
fertilizer also is reduced.
l Egg production probably will
be lower than.with deep--litter.
Advantages:
Recommendation -- Use in humid
l In very humid climates, this where litter material is
areas,
is a healthier system for
chickens than is deep litter? not available .and where construc-
because disease transmission
tion costs are lower than for
through fecal matter is
minimal. deep litter. Also recommended
l This system often is better for both meat breeds and layers.
suited for a few birds than
is deep litter.
l In some areas, it costs less Cages
to build a raised-floor
house than a deep-litter Cages allow the maximum in con-
house.
trol. They can be used for any num-
Disadvantages: and construction costs
ber of birds,
l Young chicks cannot be
can be geared to the desired size of
brooded well in these houses.
Since the floor is not in- the flock.
sulated, it is difficult to
Advantages:
maintain the high tempera-
tures the chicks need, and l Cages can be placed under
walking on such floors is existing roofs; thus, a spe-
 properly.
l They involve very high initial
investment per bird.
l There must be constant and
excellent ventilation.
l There are more broken eggs
than with deep litter.
l The feed must contain all
necessary vitamins and min-
erals needed by birds.

Recommendation -- Cages are good

cial building may not be for cli.mates with high humidity,
required.
where labor costs are high, and
e With cages more birds can be
when a farmer wants to keep a
.- _ kept in a building than on
deep litter. large flock of layers. Where
l Less labor per bird is needed ticks are a problem, cages
than with other systems.
are especially advantageous.
l Poor layers can be identified
Cages are recommended for layers,
immediately and culled,
thus saving feed. but not generally used for meat
l Problems with parasites, par- birds.
ticularly ticks, are reduced,
but nutrition may be a prob-
lem.
When properly constructed,
l
cages can last many years. Building a
l Fewer disease problems
caused by transmission
are
Chicken House
through fecal matter.
a Cages are a cheaper invest-
ment in the long run due
A good chicken house, no matter
to ease in care and feeding
of the birds. what its size or which materials are
Disadvantages: used for it, has certain essential
l Cages are hard to construct features. These essentials, dis-

86
cussed further beivw, include a cially important for deep-
litter systems.
water-tight roof, good ventilation
with no cold drafts, intern,1 sur- l Within sight of the farmer's
home, but far enough away
faces that are easy to ciean, ade- from other buildings to
allow for good ventilation.
quate floor space for the number
of birds contained, rat-proof I) Near a source of clean water .
0 In areas of high winds, the
floors and walls and a well-chosen
site should be protected by
location. a hill, stand of trees or
Some sample chicken house de- other windbreak. Otherwise,
a solid wall facing the pre-
signs are given in Appendix A vailing monsoon or rain dir-
ection may be better.
(p. 175). The Peace Corps' Manual .9
8 Well away from other chicken
Number 6, Self-Help Construction of
houses to reduce the spread of
One-Story Buildings, (available disease. An absolute minimum
of space between houses is
through ICE - see inside front 10 m (32 ft.), but the more,
cover), offers information on the better.
general construction principles. l In hot climates, placing the
house under tall shade or
If you will be building a chicken
crop trees, such as coconuts,
house, try first to build a model will protect it from the
sun. Bushy trees that block
out of paper or cardboard. General
ventilation won't do.
considerations in building a chicken
a Away from roads, work areas,
house are given below. and other noisy places to
reduce stress caused by dis-
turbances.
Sites

Sometimes there is no choice of Floor Space Requirements

where to put a chicken house. If
there is a choice, features of a A crowded chicken is an unhappy,
good site are: unprod'uctive chicken prone to peck
8 Well-drained land not s-object other chickens, sometimes so severely
to flooding. This is espe-
that they die. Putting too many birds

87
in a confined space is a false 110 chicks are pr:chased, ten
economy. probably wil die during the
Below are recommendations on 8- to 12-week growing period.
space requirements. Large layer One hundred ready-for-market
breeds will need somewhat more space birds need 14 sq. m (150 sq. ft.).
than small ones. More space will be If they are kept beyond 12 weeks,
needed in very hot and/or humid cii- they will need more space -- at
mates. Some farmers have experi- least 28 sq.m (300 sq. ft.) by
mented with crowding chickens pur- 14 weeks, but they should be
poseiy to reduce their per-bird sold before this age.
investment in housing and equipment. Layers -- Because they will be
They have reduced the space per bird kept longer than meat birds,
to as little as 930 sq. centimeters start with 115 sexed chicks for
(1 sq. ft.), but usually have found every 100 layers desired. Aver-
that providing less than 2,250 sq. cm age space requirements for small
(2-l/2 sq. ft.) per bird, even with breeds of layers (White Leg-
sophisticated ventilating equipment, horns, fcr example) are given in
is unprofitable. the table on the following page.
A common sign of overcrowding Under good management, 0.225 sq. m
is when the birds begin pecking each (2.5 sq. ft.) per lighter breed
other. The only practical remedies layer is sufficient, and this is
available to small farmers are to recommended for more experienced
provide more space, which may be farmers using a deep-litter sys-
difficult, reduce the size of the tem. On slatted floor systems,
flock or debeak the chickens (see 0.18 sq. m (2.0 sq. ft.) is suffi-
page 77). cient space per adult bird.
--Meat breeds -- Space requirements A space of 27 sq. m (300 sq. ft.)
should be based on the maximum should be enough for 100 layers
size the flock may attain with throughout their life, and enough
good care and good luck. If for 200 broilers up to the age of

88
 Age in Space per Space p.p-
weeks Bird 1( Birds
0- 6 650 sq. cm 100 sq. in. 6.5 sq. m 75 sq. ft.
7 - 12 930 " " 1 sq. ft. 9. 3 11 11 100 II 11
13 - 16 1,860 " " 2 It ,I 18.0 " " 200 " "
17 & up 2,790 " " 3 " " 27.5 " " 300 " "

12 weeks. Note: This is living Ventilation

space needed. It does not in-
$~* elude space occupied by feeders, Chickens need more fresh air per
':*
t:-:, waterers and other equipment. unit of body weight than any other
,\6,
", livestock. In addition to stale air,
,i 6 m (20 ft.)
they exhale or excrete large amounts

a’?/l of moisture,
per bird
up to 0.37
each day.
liter
High humidity
(3/4
in a
pint)

27 sq. m 4.5 m
(300 sq. ft.) (15 ft.) chicken house encourages the spread
of disease, so good ventilation is
I important. Electrical fan systems are
needed for wide or densely populated

Space Requirements for Chickens houses. Natural air circulation or

on Deep Litter gravity systems (natural circulation
assisted by flues) should not be used
for houses wider than 9 m (30 ft.).
Dual-purpose breeds -- Space In hot, humid climates, many large
requirements for dual-purpose windows or screened openings are
breeds are the same as for meat needed. They should not be blocked by
birds until the males are sold. brush or nearby buildings.
After that, use the recommenda-
tions for layers.

89
Framing should be thick or insulated. In
places where it never gets very cold,
Local CoiiStiuCtlUn iu~i;hocis and thatch can be used, but it should be
materials, the weight of the roof and backed by rodent-proof wire mesh and
placement of doors and windows (if should be changed between flocks to
used) will determine the design of the reduce parasite and disease problems.
frame. Internal pillars may be needed The insides of the walls, if possible,
to support the roof, usually an 8 cm should be smooth (plastering with ce-
(3 in.) or thicker support for every ment is ideal), so they don't harbor
9 sq. m (100 sq. ft.) of floor space. ticks and can be cleaned easily. In-
Chickens need overhead space, terior partitions are not needed in a
especially in hot climates. The roof chicken house; they just reduce ven-
should be six to ten feet above the tilation.
birds to allow hot air and ammonia to
rise away from the chickens. The Roof
height of the building also is deter-
mined by the people who will use it. The roof should be as rainproof
They should be able to work within as possible. If the house has no
at such tasks as cleaning equipment shutters or." other window protection,
and turning litter without excessive the roof should overhang the walls by
bending. 1 m (3 ft.). It can be made of:
Q Thatch -- Usually the cheap-
est material available and
Walls it provides good insulation.
It probably will have to be
The walls can be made of any lo- replaced every three years,
and if ticks get into it,
cal inexpensive material such as wat- it should be replaced imme-
diately. Thatch should be
tle and daub, bamboo slats; adobe,
interlaced with bamboo slats
low-grade or used lumber and so on, or similar material to keep
predators out.
as long as it is relatively rat-proof.
l Sheet metal -- This usually
In areas with cold seasons, walls

90
 is too expensive, and in hot trolled. During storms, windows on the
climates it should be covered windward side of the house can be
by thick thatch or other
insulation. It is easily covered by hinged, permanent shut-
cleaned, an important ad- ters, burlap bags, straw or bamboo
vantage where ticks are a
problem. mats, etc. In humid climates, win-
l Tile -- Although usually dow design should take as much advan-
more expensive than thatch, tage of the sun as possible to re-
sun-baked tile will last
much longer. Because of duce the amount of moisture in the
its weight, the framing for house, but the chickens should have
a tile roof must be stronger
than for other materials. some shade at all times.
Window areas are best covered
by wire mesh or expanded metal. Bam-
Windows
boo or wooden slats can be used, but
Window design depends on local this will reduce ventilation. In
climate. Chickens need more fresh the end walls of gable buildings,
air than humans, but should bt, shel- a ventilation hole should be located
tered from wind, dust and rain. Pre- near the roof peak.
vailing strong winds should be con-
-- -- ...___
-----__ .-----_ _
ventilation
hole
bamboo/wooden

wire

Gable Chicken House

Door drainage. Pack it by tamping until
it is firm and very smooth so that
Whether made of metal, wood or water can't collect in holes. If
bamboo, and whether solid or of possible, cover it with a 5 cm (2 in.)
wire mesh in the top half, the door layer of cement. Otherwise, a fresh
should be sturdy enough to be opened layer of clay should be applied
and closed more than 1,000 times a between flocks. In order to reduce
year. disease problems, the floor of a
poultry house must be constructed
Deep-litter Floors such that thorough cleaning is pos-
sible between flocks or batches of
The ideal floor for a deen- chickens.
litter house is a concrete one de- Disinfectant Dip -_- An optional
signed for good drainage with heavy but highly recommended part o'f a
wire mesh imbedded in it to keep deep-litter house is a shallow,
rats out. This, of course, is ex- water-tight basin set flush with
pensive. Strong bricks or large, the door sill and filled with
flat stones can be used,but are disinfectant. A disinfectant
harder to clean. Many small farmers dip has several advantages. First,
are limited to clay floors. it helps reduce the transmission
Deep-litter floors should be of disease-carrying dirt. Second,
built in a well-drained area. If and just as important, it is a
possible, put down a layer of heavy 'daily reminder to the farmer of
gravel or wire mesh first to keep the importance of sanitation. It
rats out. Turn the edges of the is especially important where
mesh up about 25 cm (1 ft.) to join barefoot farmers, or those who do
the walls. The floor should be not have spare pairs of shoes for
about 15 cm (6 in.) higher than the each chicken house, visit more
surrounding ground and slope slightly than one such house each day. The
from the center to the sides for dip can be formed with mud or clay

92
 door sill: about
20 cm (8 in.) above
floor level to
clear litter

extends bey
door frame

Cement-lined
is difficult
Disinfectant Dip -- The dip
to avoid stepping into.
should be largeenough so that it

and lined with concrete or a Raised Floors

sheet metal tray. In some cases
it may be better to construct Again, local practicalities will
a shallow basin-like dip instead. influence selection of materials and
A basin-like dip should be no design. Pillars that are not rot
more than l/2 inch deep with a resistant should have stone or con-
large center area. This has crete footings. Pillars may be made
advantages over a deeper dip of wood, bamboo, oil drums, concrete
because the disinfectant solu- blocks, etc.
tion and the accumulated Floors should be about 1 m
dirt can be swept out. People (3 ft.) above the ground -- lower
also are more likely to walk floors are difficult to clean under;
through a shallow dip than a higher ones result in an unsteady
deep one. building. Floor joists, depending
on their strength, are spaced 1 to

93
2 m (3 to 6 ft.) apart. The floor l Expanded metal -- Expanded
metal, although expensive,
can be: is extremely durable. It
l Wire mesh -- The wire should should meet the same re-
be strong or "heavy gauge”, quirements as wire mesh (above).
as large in diameter as a
standard pencil lead, if
possible. The maximum
space between wire in at
least one direction sh '_d
be 2.5 cm (1 in.). Making
0 Slats -- Made of either wood
or bamboo, slats should be
Wire Cages
2.5 cm (1 in.) at the top
and slightly tapered down-
ward. They should be set
2.5 cm (1 in.) apart. In many poultry producing areas,
artisans specialize in making en-
tire cages, or they may provide
just the front, the most complicated

L----- ~E’;ni~~~o~i~~g~:e(~~s~om~~e
,
cost less than double (two-thirds)
cages, but egg production may be
2.5 cm' 2.5 cm lower. Layers placed in cages should
be debeaked Severely (see page 77).
If you would like to make your own
cages, you can use this relatively
simple design. More elaborate de-
signs use dropping boards or rolls
of tarpaper to catch droppings.

Slatted Floors

94
Materials 5xlOcm(2x4in.). This
is used for the front.
Wire mesh A -- Wire with dia- Wire -- Any heavy gauge but
meter of 2 mm (l/8 in.) welded pliable wire, to be used to
into mesh spaced 2.5 x 5 cm join cage parts.
(1 x 2 in.). This mesh is
used for all parts of the cage Form
except the front.
Wire mesh B -- Same diameter Cut a piece of wire mesh A
wire welded into mesh spaced 3.66 m x 150 cm (12 x 5 ft.) and
bend it as shown.

40
(16 in

A Wire Mesh Cage Form -- The 2.5 cm (1 in.) spaced wire should be
inside the cage so that the eggs will roll out.

95
Sides and Dividers 38 cm x 3.75 m (15 in. x 12-l/4 ft.).
Use the protruding wires on the sides
Cut pieces of wire mesh A and top of the front to join it
4Ox45cm(16x18in.). Use to the form. Secure the front to
four such pieces, spaced 122 cm the cage dividers with wire.
(4 ft.) apart, for colony cages;
use 17 spaced 22.8 cm (9 in.) apart
Door Opening
for double cages. Secure the sides
and dividers to the form with wire At the center of each cage, cut
every 15 cm (6 in.) on the three a door opening 15 x 30 cm (6 x 12 in.).
sides that touch the form. Sliding Door -- Using wire mesh B,
cut a piece as shown I)by the darker

Front lines. Bend the horizontal wirc!s

-of the door -opening-,-as- shown
Cut a piece of wire mesh B below.

30 cm
T
(12 in.)
L

A Sliding Door

96
Feeders and Waterers as high as possible on the cage to
reduce feed wastage and splashing of
Feed and water troughs made of water onto the feeder and poultry
sheet metal and mounted with wire house floor, certainly not higher
hangers run the length of the cage. than the chicken can reach. A good
If possible, the waterer should be rule of thumb is to place equipment
secured on tile opposite side of the no higher than the tail feathers of
cage from the feeder. Split bamboo the chicken being put into the house
can be used for feeders. Both or cage.
feeders and waterers should be hung

cm (2 in.)

cm (3.6 in.>

.O cm (4 in.)

Feed and Water Troughs

97
 A single cage can be placed on a
Use of stand, or one or more cages can be
Cages hung from beams. The figure on page 99
shows a 72-bird system that occupies
8.75 sq. m (85 sq. ft.). The cages
This cage is suitable for 18 should be at least 62.5 cm (25 in.)
layers, six to each colony cage above the ground or floor, and
or two to each double cage. Note: the area below them should be
The cage must be hung 30 that the cleaned frequently.
back of the floor is 7.6 cm (3 in.)
higher than the front. This allows
the eggs to roll out. Excessive
slope of the cage floor will cause
the eggs to break as they roll.

62.
(25

-- --level li

Hang cage on a slant so eggs will Cage on a Stand

role out.

98
Cages Hung from Beams

The above cage designs, which disadvantage: the feeders and

slant on all sides when hung, are waterers will have to be tightly
recommended where wire costs are secured to the cage to prevent them
high. This design has a certain from hanging away from the cage..

99
 An alternative design uses a cleaned often so it should be sturdy.
little more wire for the front of Local wood and metal workers can help
the cage: with design and construction.

Waterers

Watering space -- Whether you

use a straight trough or round
waterer, the length or circum-
ference of the waterer's lip is
important. Minimum lip length
(space) is given below. Measure
the lip available to the birds --
when chickens use both sides of a
Equipment trough, the lip available is
twice the length of the trough.
Additionally, the volume capacity
Equipment used in rbicken houses of the waterers must be sufficient
can be made of local materials. This to meet the daily requirements
equipment receives heavy use and is of the chickens.

Minimum Water Space Requirements -- 100 Birds

Age in Space required

weeks Daily consumption (length)

o-1 2 liters 0.5 - 1.0 gal. 0.7 m 30 in.

2-4 8 " 2.0 - 4.0 " 1.0 " 40 "
4-9 15 " 4.0 - 8.0 n 1.5 11 60 "
9 or more 19 " 5.0 II 2.0 v 80 "
Layers 36 " 9.5 ‘I 2.5 )1 100 "

100
 Very Important Note: In hot, the bottom of a larger tin can.
dry climates, chickens may con- Punch a hole about 2 cm (3/4 in.)
sume up to four times the above from the open end of the tin can.
volumes of water. Therefore, Fill the can with water and
watch the water consumption cover it with the plate. With
carefully. You may need to in- one hand on the plate and one
crease volume capacity. Never on the tin can, quickly invert
allow chickens to run out of both. The position of the
clean water. punched hole and the vacuum in
Waterer design -- The simplest the tin can will regulate the
waterer is a tin can inverted water level in the plate.
into a soup or pie plate, or

5 cm (2 in.)

Inverted Waterer
Here are some other possible
designs for waterers.

CLAY POT REMOVEABLEBOTTLE

with hole or groove in lip Strapped to Wall or Stand

Cut holes in sides and BUCKET

sink into ground for stability. Set into slatted platform.
Not for chicks. Not for chicks.

Other Waterers

102
 Automatic waterer -- Fit a large, will serve 100 birds if they
clean oil drum with a faucet or drink from both sides. Level
other type of valve and a tight the trough on flat rocks, wood
cover. Set the drum on a 1 m blocks, etc., so that the lip of
(3 ft.) stand of blocks, bricks the trough is as high as the
or reinforced clay mud either birds' backs. Fit an overflow
inside or outside the chicken hose or pipe 5 cm (2 in.) above
house. Run a hose or pipe from the bottom of the trough in the
the faucet to one end of a gal- side opposite the incoming water.
vanized sheet metal trough about Run the overflow pipe o?ltside
10 cm (4 in.) high and 12.5 cm the house to a place where over-
(5 in.) wide. The length of the flow water will not run back into
trough depends on the size of the the house. Adjust the faucet
flock; a 1.2 m (4 ft.) trough or valve so that the overflow

Automatic Watering System

103
 of water Ls minimized. Protect increased (see p. 106).
the trough from contamination l Chickenproof -- Birds can't
by birds, using a spinner (a bar get into or roost on it
(using a spinner).
that rotates so chickens cannot
l Efficient -- It should have
roost on it), or constructing a lip to prevent birds from
"beaking" feed out onto the
a cover over it.
floor.

Feeders Distribute feeders evenly through-

out the chicken house. No feeder
A well-made feeder is: should be more than 4.5 m (15 ft.)
l Durable -- It must withstand from a waterer. Adjust the height
frequent cleaning.
of the lip of the feeder to a level
l Stable -- It should not tip
even with the backs of the birds.
over when bumped by farmer
or chickens. This will help prevent them from
l The correct height and depth scratching contaminated litter into
-- As birds grow, the feeder
the feeders. In fact, the more they
height and depth should be

depending upon the size of the feeder, the lips

should measure l/4 - 3/4 in. (l/2 - 1 l/2 cm).

wood sheet metal bamboo

Feeders with Lips to Prevent Waste

104
have to stretch their necks to reach When feeding chickens supple-
feed, the less feed will be wasted. mental vegetable matter, don't
Except for the first three days throw it on the floor -- suspend
with day-old chicks, feeders should it at beak level with a rope, put
not be filled more than half full, it in a hanging net, or place it in
as feed will be wasted. One-third a wire or slatted hopper, a feeder
full wastes even less feed, but feed made out of wire mesh.
has to be supplied more often. Feeder space (length) -- As with
To reduce spoilage and moid waterers, feeder space is the
problems try to adjust amounts of linear distance of lip avail-

feed supplied so that the birds able to the birds -- either

finish it at sundown. This will the circumference of a round
take practice. Supply the feed feeder tray or twice the length
regularly at sunrise and about of a trough if the birds feed
2 p.m.; more frequently if the birds from both sides. Minimum space
empty the feeder. and depth requirements are
given below.

105
 Feed Requirements for 100 Chickens

Age ih -Dailv consumption (will vary) Suggested Space required

weeks Meat birds Layers Feeder depth (length) _
1 1.8 kg 4 lbs. 1.4 kg 3 lbs. 5 cm 2 in. 2.5 m 100 in.
2 2.3 5 1.8 4 ,I II ,I II

3 4.6 10 2.7 6 1, II II II

4 5.0 11 3.2 7 8.9 II 3.8 150

5 6.8 15 4.1 9 1, 3-l/2 II 11
6 7.3 16 5.0 11 II 1, 6.1 240
7 8.2 18 5.5 12 11 II IS 1,
8 8.6 19 6. 4 14 ,I ,I II 1,

9 9.5 21 6.8 15 ,I II 9.6 380

10 10.5 23 7.3 16 12.5 5 ,I II
11 11.4 25 7.7 17 ,I II ,I 1,
12 13.2 29 8.2 18 1, 1t I, I,

13 14.1 31 8.2 18 II ,I 1, 1,
14 15.9 35 8.6 19 11 I, 1, ,,
15 9.1 20 15 6 12.7 ,I
16 9.5 21 II 1, 1, 1,

17 10.0 22 11 I, 1, II
18 10.0 22 ,I 1, ,I 500
19 10.0 22 11 II 11 II

20 10.5 23 ,I I, 1, 1,
21 10.5 23 11 1, I, ,I
22 10.9 24 ,I 11 1, II

23 11.4 25 1, ,, II 11

24 11.4 II 1, II 1,
25

106
 Feeder design -- This wooden Bamboo feeders -- Bamboo can
trough feeder is designed for be used for inexpensive feeders.
layers 15 or more weeks old. To keep the birds out, use a
Dimensions of intermediate spinner, or tightly wrap the
feeders should be adjusted feeder with wire, as shown
for the age and size of the below.
birds (see feed space require-
hanging wire
ment table). I/

spinner:
5 cm (2 in.) square

nail-

(2 in.)

(10 in.) '

Wood Feeder
\ wood brace to prevent tipping

A spinner is made from a rod of Bamboo Feeders

wood with a metal rod attached
to each end so it is able to
rotate. The metal rod can
simply be made from a nail Dimensions depend upon the
by cutting off its head. number and size of birds.

107
 Hanging feeder -- Hanging feed- to adjust their height. They
ers have several advantages, can be made from large tin cans
including: rats have diffi- (sometimes available from
culty getting into them; they restaurants), or from sheet
continuously supply feed at metal.
the proper height; it is easy

-hanginn wire

-----

T
least '
12 in.)

at least
45 cm (18 in.)

e e 3-I
& 3
---.-F-- --- \ / c ,-__- -- 3-1
tray:
sheet metal
i \
at least
5 cm (2 in.)

Hanging Metal Feeder -- Such a feeder with a tray of 40 cm (16 in.) in

diameter is sufficient for 10 mature layers.

108
Grit Hoppers size of small peas and have a rough
surface. Small river gravel that is
Instead of teeth, birds have a not smooth is excellent grit. Rela-
muscular organ, the gizzard, to grind tively inexpensive grit can be bought
their food. To crush food well, from commercial feed suppliers. Grit
gizzards must contain hard, small can be served in any container that
stones, or grit. Over time, the grit the chickens can't enter and contam-
crumbles or dissolves and must be inate. A grit hopper that can supply
replaced. Country chickens, ranging 200 chickens for about a week is
free or in fenced-in yards, usually illustrated below. Keep the cover
can find their own grit, but the closed so the grit remains clean.
farmer must supply grit to contained Make sure grit always is available
birds. or the chickens will not digest their
Good grit stones are about the feed well.

60 cm
(2 ft.)

Grit Hopper

109
Oyster and Egg Shell Hopper start to eat their own eggs. The egg
shells from a flock do not provide
Chickens need a source of calcium enough calcium to meet that flock's re-
to maintain their bodies, and laying quirements. Keep a calcium supply
hens need extra amounts to produce always available and the chickens will
strong egg shells. The usual calcium take what they need. Old hens require
source is crushed oyster shell or more calcium than young ones. Also,
limestone, purchased commercially. hens need more calcium in hot weather.
Powdered limestone does not work well A calcium source can be included
because hens do not like to eat it. in a mixed feed, or provided separately
This can be supplemented with boiled in a container similar to the grit
and dried egg shells broken into very hopper. It may be convenient to use a
small pieces so that the hens don't two-compartment hopper for grit and
recognize what they are eating and calcium, as shown below.

A Two-compartment Grit and Calcium-source Hopper

110
 Nests Nesting boxes -- Wi th more than
a few laying hens, the farmer
Providing nests for laying hens probably will find that it pays
helps keep eggs clean and reduces to provide special1 y constructed
breakage. Baskets, reinforced with nesting boxes. The concept
sun-baked clay or cow dung, can be is to enclose a volume of space
used for nests (see below). Usually about 0.028 cubic m (1 cubic ft.)
clay is applied to the outside of per bird with wood, sheet metal,
the basket. Nests should be placed wire mesh, clay or mud bricks,
on the darkest side of the house, woven mats, etc., and line it
preferably where the morning sun with litter. Well-constructed
will not hit them. Line them with boxes will stand up to frequent
fresh litter and keep it clean. Pro- cleaning.
vide one nest for every five hens. Boxes may be placed on the floor,
In hot climates, nests should be raised by supports or attached
well-ventilated. to the wall. A set of boxes may
have one, two or three tiers. Any
boxes above the floor should
provide a perch in front where
birds can alight before enter-
ing the nest. Ideally, there
should be a means of closing
the nests in the evening so
that birds don't roost in and
dirty them.
Two types of nest boxes could
be used:
l Individual nest boxes are
constructed so that only
one hen will be able to
fit in one compartment at
a time.

111
Individual Nest Boxes

l Colony nest boxes are or more of floor space

constructed large enough to without dividers). These
allow four or more hens to are not recommended because
lay at one time (4 sq. ft. more eggs will be broken
than with individual boxes.

112
 tion easier. Building roosts takes
Roosts
time and money. If you use them,

chickens prefer place a removable droppings board

When they can,
under them or screen off the area
to spend the night roosting in trees.
beneath. Clean the boards or the
Contained birds don't need roosts, Allow 20 cm
screened area often.
but the presence of roosts can help
(8 in.) of roost for each bird.
concentrate droppings, making sanlta-

,hanging wires
\

3.0 cm (1 ft.)

Roosts
7. Keeping
Chickens Healthy
Chickens are subject to as many ing about major health problems and
ailments as humans are. Some chick- how to treat them is important--but
en and human diseases even have the not as important as preventing these
same names: Pox, colds, cholera, problems in the first place.
typhoid, hepatitis, pneumonia, bron- Even with good management, of
chitis and so forth. Parasites, course, health problems can occur,
such as tapeworms, ticks and lice, and the farmer should be alert for
and poisonous substances such as them., A sick chick is inactive,
aflatoxin and botulism attack chick- doesn't stand erect and may have
ens as well as humans. A well- runny eyes or dried traces of diar-
trained veterinarian, backed by a rhea around its vent. It may sleep
competent laboratory, can identify in an odd position or walk with a
most chicken diseases with a good strange gait. Older sick chickens
degree of certainty, but even then show obvious signs of poor condition:
often can't prescribe effective thin, hunched body, scraggly fea-
treatment, because some diseases thers, wings hanging loosely, gen-
cannot be treated, only prevented. eral weakness and smaller size than
So what hope is there for small the healthy members of the flock
farmers and extensionists who don't (assuming that the flock is all the
have the veterinarian's experience same age and breed, which is
and equipment? Plenty. Good man- stongly recommended). Two major
agement of chickens, with special signs of health problems in a flock
attention to sanitation, quality of are if total feed consumption
feed and vaccinations greatly decreases, or if mortality exceeds
reduces the chances of diseases or one percent in any seven-day period.
parasites attacking the flock. Know- Observe your flock for deviations

115
from normal for at least 15 minutes the farmer has a methane gas diges-
each day. ter, dead chickens can be put in
Even in a well-managed flock this, but feathers will have to be
you can expect to lose an average of removed first because they do not
one percent each month. In other digest for many months. If this is
words, if you start with 100 chicks, done, burn the feathers.
you should expect to have about 90
left at the end of a year. Some _
wiil die suddenly; others will show Diseases
obvious signs of disease. Remove
sick and dead chickens.
For small flocks of less than The innumerable diseases that
50 chickens, use an isolation pen can affect a chicken may be divided
for the period of sickness. For into three categories:
larger operations, slaughter sick l Those prevented by locally
recommended vaccines (such
birds and perform a post mortezl as Newcastle).
examination to see if the cause of
l Those prevented by or treated
sickness can be determined.
automatically in a good man-
If mortality exceeds the one agement schedule (such as coc-
cidiosis).
percent rate or if there are more
than one or two sick chickens in a l Those for which good sanita-
tion and nutrition are the
flock of 100, seek veterinary best means of prevention
advice immediately. (such as cholera or coryza).
Bury all dead chickens in a pit
in the ground to eliminate any Prevention by Vaccination
chance of disease transmission from
these chickens. A dead bird dis- Before doing any vaccinations,
posal pit should have a tight cover you should become familiar with what
to prevent predators such as rats diseases are prevalent in your area
from getting at the chickens. If or you may needlessly vaccinate for

116
a non-existent disease. Check first non-vaccinated birds. Don't give
with local authorities. A vaccine, more vaccine per bird than recom-
which contains bacteria or viruses mended, and don't give less--stretch-
introduced into the body to produce ing vaccine supplies is dangerous.
immunity to a specific disease by Administer mixed vaccine at once and
causing the formation of antibodies, get rid of the remainder--don't keep
can be administered to chickens in a it overnight as it will lose its
number of ways (see below). Handle effectiveness. Thoroughly sterilize
the birds swiftly but smoothly to your equipment if you plan to use it
minimize stress, but be sure that again (it is best to dispose of it
all receive the proper dosage. and use new equipment). Change your
Be extremely careful with vac- clothes and disinfect your shoes
cines--they can kill birds. Store before visiting other chickens.
them according to directions; many Methods of vaccination include:
need refrigeration. Mix them away e Medicine or eve drODDer--PIIt
a drop of vaccine in the
from poultry just before using.
bird's eye and wait for it to
Don't spill them on or near chick- blink, or place a finger over
one nostril, put the drop in
ens. When working with large num-
the other nostril, and wait
bers of birds, have adequate help-- until the drop is breathed
in.
the person mixing and giving the
l Feather follicle--Pull a few
vaccines should not handle the
feathers from the bird's
birds, if possible. If you are thigh and rub the feather fol-
licles in the area with a vac-
using a live virus vaccine, teil
cine-soaked cotton swab or
neighboring farmers because if they brush.
have not already vaccinated their l Wing web stick--Dip a web
stick into vaccine and use it
birds, the live virus could spread
to puncture the skin on the
the disease to their chickens. If underside of a wing. Be care-
one farmer vaccinates and the next ful not to hit a blood vein.
Always stick the same wing of
doesn't, be certain there is no all birds (either the left or
the right wing) so that you
means of transmitting the disease to
can check later on for a scab

117
 disease and attempting to cure it.
.heads of sewing needles Seek professional advice whenever
filed to sharp points
possible.
Newcastle (Ranikhet) Disease
Newcastle is the disease most
widely feared by poultry farmers
around the world. When it strikes
young chickens, mortality may be as
tube or narrow high as 100 percent. In parts of
bottle for handle Asia, it is known as Ranikhet.Dis-
ease,

Wing Web Stick Cause--Virus transmitted by-

other chickens and other spe-
cies of birds.
Symptoms--Coughing, gasping and
which shows the vaccine has raspy breathing and/or extreme
been effective, or "a take."
l Drinking water--Some vaccines
are mixed into the flock's
drinking water.
0 Intramuscular--Use a syringe
to inject the vaccine into
the breast. vaccinate

Diagnosis

Other than knowing the obvious

sytnptoms of the most common chicken
diseases and what to do about them,
an inexperienced farmer, should be
very cautious about diagnosing a Puncturing the Wing Web

118
 i
I

nervousness, and distended crop . sary to vaccinate for this illness

Inactivity, uncoordination, before the chicks are five weeks of
drowsiness, huddling near heat age. Pigeon pox vaccine is only
source, drooping head, partial needed to provide emergency treat-
paralysis, coma, death. The ment if there is an outbreak of fowl
presence of ali these symptoms pox in a non-vaccinated flock.
does not confirm the diagnosis Cause--Virus spread by insects,
--only lab tests can do that. especially mosquitoes,and then
Newcastle quite often appears by direct contact with infected
as a respiratory condition chickens and wild birds.
before a nervous condition Symptoms--Fowl pox most fre-
appears. quently attacks birds when they
Post mortem signs--Mucus in are three to five months old.
trachea, possibly yellow and There are two types:
thickened air sacs; possible a Dry pox or modular form,
which generally appears as a
hemorrhages in proventriculus.
wart or insect bite. Causes
Treatment--None. swelling of comb, wattles,
face and sometimes eye. By
Prevention--Most countries have
itself, dry pox doesn't usu-
vaccines available. A gen- ally cause much mortality.
eral rule of thumb used by many l Wet or diptheritic form
begins with discharge from
poultry experts is to vaccinate
e?es and nostrils, tken a
on a 4-4-4 schedule, meaning at cheesy material forms in the
mouth. This can cause suffo-
four days of age, four weeks,
cation unless it is removed.
'and four months. But you Wet pox results in high mor-
should use local recommenda- tality-- up to 50 percent--and
egg production in layers
tions. decreases substantially.
Fowl Pox Post mortem signs--Mucus in
Fowl pox is a disease that trachea, possibly yellow and
attacks birds when they are three to thickened air sacs, hemorrhages
five months old. It is not neces- in the proventriculus.

119
Treatment--In an affected flock: of cholera which affect chick-
if the birds have been observed ens:
daily, this disease can often be l Peracute or severe cholera:
the only symptoms are dead
detected before many birds are
birds.
affected. In this case, vacci-
l Acute and chronic: sudden,
nate the unaffected birds with almost total lack of appetite;
fowl or pigeon pox vaccine greenish-yellow diarrhea; dif-
ficulty in breathing; high
immediately. fever and increased thirst;
If a neighboring flock gets head turns blue; enlarged, hot,
swollen combs and wattles;
the disease, vaccinate all affected birds feel very hot;
flocks in the area immediately. swollen eyes and thick dis-
charges from nasal passages
There is no treatment for similar to that found in cor-
chickens already having fowl yza.
pox. Treatment--A recommended bacter-
Prevention--Follow the recommen- iacide (sulpha drugs) in feed
dations of local authorities. and water may reduce mortality
In most cases this means: in an infected flock. Remove
0 If fowl pox is prevalent in affected birds and change lit-
an area, the best action is
to vaccinate. Many experts ter. Thoroughly disinfect
suggest vaccinations around equipment and house.
the sixth week of age and
again at 12 weeks. Prevention--Primarily, cleanli-
ness. If vaccines are recom-
Fowl Cholera mended, it may help to adminis-
Cause--Bacteria spread by drop- ter them in accordance with the
pings of infected birds through recommendations of local author-
contaminated soil, feed or ities.
water. Vectors include wild Infqctious Bronchitis
birds and the feet of people Cause--Virus
--- spread through air
and animals. or via contaminated material.
Symptoms--There are two types Symptoms--Chicks: sneezing,

120
gasping, mucus, clicking heard Mortality may range from 5 to
in throat, discharge from nos- 50 percent.
trils and eyes. Layers: egg Treatment--None for the infec-
production drops abruptly by tion, but disease spreads
10 to 50 percent, remaining slowly, so unaffected birds
production poor quality (thin can be vaccinated.
shells, misshapen, watery Prevention--Never vaccinate
whites). In chicks, mortality where there is no history of
may be 5 to 60 percent; in the disease. If an outbreak
mature birds, zero to two per- occurs nearby and vaccine is
cent. available, use the schedule and
Treatment--None for the infec- methods recommended by local
tion. Antibiotics can be given authorities.
to lessen complications. Marek's Disease (Leukosis)
Prevention--Following nearby Cause--Virus spread through
outbreaks, vaccines, if recom- chicken dander (cells sloughed
mended by local authorities, from feather follicles), the
can be used in accordance with major component of chicken
their recommendations and sche- house dust.
dules. Symptoms--Droopiness, poor feath-
Laryngotracheitis ering and weight loss may be
Cause--Virus, airborne or car- the only signs before death.
ried on clothing and equipment Some birds are mildly to com-
from infected birds. pletely paralyzed; they lie on
Symptoms--Birds have extreme their sides and slowly starve.
difficulty breathing, may Mortality may be up to one per-
stretch their necks when inhal- cent per day for two to three
ing and droop their heads on weeks.
their chests when exhaling, Treatment--None.
also may cough up bloody mucus. Prevention--Vaccination of day-

121
old chicks--usually done by the Coccidiosis
breeder, if done at all. Vac- Cause--Nine species of cocci-
cinated egg-breed chicks are dia (protozoan parasites) spread
especially valuable. through contaminated food, water
Pullorum or litter. Each species attacks
Cause--Salmonella bacilla trans- a different portion of the
mitted through the eggs from intestines or ceca, an intesti-
one generation to the next if nal appendage. It is extremely
parents are not salmonella-free. difficult to isolate chickens
Can also be transmitted through from coccidia.
visitors' feet, animals, con- Symptoms--Signs of the disease
taminated feed, equipment, and will vary with the type of coc-
wild birds. cidia involved and the degree
Symptoms--Chicks: sudden of immunity the flock has to
deaths, other chicks droop that type. General indications
wings, huddle near heater. Diar- are: decrease in food consump-
rhea is white, sticky and foam- tion; birds hunch backs, droop
ing. Chicks may have 50 per- tails and ruffle feathers.
cent mortality. Adults: in Diarrhea may start and the loose
acute outbreaks are weak and droppings may be bloody (red-
depressed, may have greenish- dish brown). Following bloody
brown diarrhea. diarrhea, mortality may increase
Treatment-- Sulfa-based drugs rapidly.
for market stock; do not use Post mortem results--In chick-
infected birds for breeding. ens less than 16 weeks old, red
2Prevention--Buy only certified specks on interior wall of
pullorum-free chicks and imple- intestines (in severe case, pur-
ment sanitary management prac- ple spots show through exterior
tices. wall). Intestinal wall thicker
than normal. Other signs:

122
gray-white streaks on wall of the outside air is consis-
tently under 50 percent.
upper intestine, pink or red-
Sudden, massive invasions of
dish substance on intestinal coccidia can hurt the flock
severely, and large doses of
wall. In chicks (under nine
medication can prevent future
weeks) ceca may be filled with immunity.
blood and swollen to the size l Complete prevention--Give the
flock the recommended medium
of a finger. For birds older
level of coccidiostat through
than 16 weeks, a lab test is its first 15 weeks. This
most likely will prevent the
needed.
birds from contracting cocci-
Treatment--If a confirmed out- diosis at all, but they won't
develop immunity either. Use
break among chickens one to
this method only for broilers
twelve weeks old is severe, and for layers that will be
kept in wire cages.
treat immediately with locally
l Immunity plus treatment--Use
recommended coccidiostats.
the low-level dosage recom-
Prevention--There are three mended during the first 15
weeks. This should allow
ways to deal with coccidiosis.
the birds to develop some immun-
l Natural development of immun- ity , and they may not need any
ity--Allow the flock to build further attention. In case of
immunity without administering a mild outbreak, treat broilers
any drugs unless there is and layers going to cages with
a severe outbreak. This works the largest recommended dosage.
well when the flock is exposed Treat layers that will be kept
only to low levels of cocci- on litter with heavy doses only
dia. Under very dry condi- during severe outbreaks so that
tions, there may not be they otherwise build up as much
enough infection present to immunity as they can. This
develop immunity. In a very method is the safest overall,
dry environment, sprinkle and would be the best single
the litter with water at recommendation for small- and
weekly intervals to maintain medium-sized flocks.
a constant exposure and
immunity level in the flock. Coccidiostats--These drugs come
This may be necessary where
in many forms, many combinations
a well-ventilated poultry
house is located in an area and under many names, both generic
where the humidity level of
and proprietary. It's a good

123
idea to switch from one type of 3-Nitro, NF-180-furazolidone,
drug to another each chicken nitrofurazone, phthalysulfacet-
cycle so that local coccidia do amide (TSC), and sulfaethoxypy-
not establish resistance to any ridazine (SEZ).
particular nne. Don't mix one Infectious Coryza (Cold)
with another-- it may be harmful. Cause--A bacteria, spread from
F'ollow manufacturer's direc- chronic or acutely infected
tions closely. birds to healthy birds.
Some effective coccidiostats Symptoms: Foul-smelling dis-
are: amprolium; amprolium plus charge from eyes and nostrils;
ethopabate (not for laying coughing; sneezing; difficult
chickens); arsenobenzine, stop breathing; chicks shake their
use five days before slaughter; heads as if trying to get rid
glycarbylamide (not for laying of something; often found
chickens), stop use at least where different ages of birds
four days before slaughter; are kept together and birds are
dinitrodiphenyldisulfide; nic- overcrowded. Rare in adults,
arbazin, stop use four days but when found, egg production
before slaughter; aklomide, drops, feed consumption de-
stop use at least five days creases. Mortality rare.
before slaughter; bithionol and Treatment --Sulfa drugs in the
methiotriazamide, stop use at feed or water will eliminate the
least five days before slaugh- problem within two weeks if
ter; 3,5, dinitro-o-Toluam.ide other diseases or complications
(not for laying chickens);? and are not present.
sulfaquinoxaline. Other drugs Prevention--Do not mix birds of
that can be used as coccidio- different ages: cull all birds
stats, though not as effective found with swollen head parts
as those above, include: ter- before they infect the rest of
raymicin, nidrafur, agribon, the flock; there may be bacter-

124
 ins or vaccinations available roundworms, found in middle of
in some countries, but not most. small intestine, are yellow-
Use proper management practices. white, from 4 to 7.5 cm. (1 ,1/2
to 3 in.) long, and compara-
tively thick-bodied. Cecal
Parasites worms, found in blind ends of
Parasites, both internal and the ceca, are white and about
external, weaken and can kill chick- 1.25 cm. (l/2 in.) long. Tape-
ens. In addition to getting its worms, found in the small
food from a chicken's body, a para- intestine, are flat, white, rib-
site also can carry disease or bon-like and segmented. They
increase the bird's susceptibility vary in size from microscopic
to disease. to 15-17.5 cm (6 to 7 in.).
Worms Preatment-- Each type of worm
At least nine species of worms requires a specific drug:
may infect various internal parts of piperazine for roundworms, phe-
chickens. Chief among them are nothiazine for cecal worms
roundworms, cecal worms and tape- and dibutyltin dilaurate for
worms. Worms are spread through tape worms. Some manufacturers
feces or through a variety of inter- combine one or more of these
mediate hosts, including snails, drugs in a single medication.
slugs, earthworms, flies, cock- Treat as directed for major
roaches and other insects. infestations.
Symptoms--Initial increase in Prevention--Primarily, sanita-
feed consumption with little or tion. !vkIke sure that litter is
no weight gain. In severe replaced between flocks, keep
cases, chickens lose weight wild birds out of the house,
rapidly. Laying chickens pro- use insecticides against cock-
duce fewer eggs. roaches and other intermediate
Post mortem results--Large hosts and do not feed snails or

125
 slugs to chickens. If you sus-
pect that worms are present
(they probably are), treat
broilers at four weeks of age
and every two months thereafter;
layers at ten weeks and every
two months thereafter.
Lice
The most common poultry para-
sites are lice. They spend their One Kind of Chicken Louse
entire
. life cycle on the body of the
bird.
Symptoms -- Skin irritation,
scabs, ruffled feathers, diarrhea, farmers use a mixture of ashes
small weight gains or decrease with sulphur powder or gun
in egg production, some dead powder obtained from the local
young chickens when infesta- market. About 20 grams of
tions are heavy. sulphur powder to 1 kg of cold
Treatment -- Infested chickens ashes or a 1:50 ratio is said
on raised floors, in cages or to be quite effective.
ranging free should be sprayed Prevention -- Keep nests clean.
or dusted with malathion, car- If you use roosts, paint them
baryl, pyrethins, naled, couma- with nicotine sulfate -- the
phos or similar preparations, bird's body heat will create
using a crop sprayer. In deep- fumes that kill the lice. Some
litter systems, the litter and use creosote in the cracks and
all equipment except feeders and joints of roosts (carbolineum).
waterers can be sprayed or dusted. Mites
Where chemicals are too expen- Mites are almost invisible, spider-
sive or not available, some like creatures that come in var-

126
ious species. Some stay on the birds weight, possible anemia.
continuously, while others attack only Treatment--Same'as for lice,
at night. then aggressively attack infes-
Symptoms --Scaly leg mite: birds tation, removing litter and
lame, legs swelling, scaly and equipment, feeling in cracks in
crusted. Red mites (nocturnal): feeders and elsewhere for ticks,
loss of weight and egg produc- cleaning and spraying every-
tion, anemia. Depluming mites thing, and repeating that twice
(base of feathers): birds pull at two-week intervals and once
feathers out to relieve itching. six months later. If the roof
Treatment --None for scaly leg, is thatch, change it. If the
cull affected birds. For other house is old, consider building
mites, same treatment as for a new one. Some farmers go
lice. over cement and other non-in-
Prevention--Same as for lice. flammable materials with a
Ticks blowtorch.
In addition to sucking blood, Prevention--Sheet metal feeders,
fowl ticks (flat, egg-shaped, red- nesting boxes and other equip-
dish-brown bugs), can carry spiro- ment are easier to keep free of
chetosis. Spirochetosis, or tick ticks than wooden ones. Roosts
fever, results in rapid death with- hung by wire are safer than
out any other symptoms. Usually, those on stands.
ticks are found only in hot, dry
areas. They spend part of the time
in cracks in walls, roosts, and
other wooden equipment and are very
hard to find. If you suspect their
presence, pry into cracked boards
with a knife and examine closely.
Symptoms--Loss of appetite and

127
 It will be helpful to examine
Other the insides and outsides of as many
Health healthy chickens as you can when
Problems they are slaughtered. Note the posi-
tion, size, color and texture of all
internal organs, Then, when you
Feed that is improperly stored work on a sick bird, you will be bet-
or kept too long can go bad, causing ter prepared to spot abnormalities.
botulism or other food poisoning. This manual will not attempt to
Be very careful around chickens with give instructions on how to diagnose
insecticides, rat poisons, gasoline most diseases --that is best done by
(petrol) engines and other possible special publications'with color
poison sources. Crowded or impro- illustrations--but there are some
perly cared for chickens may start signs you should look for.
pecking each other.

Performing a
Post Mortem
Examination

Looking carefully at the body

and insides of a chicken that has
died of unknown reasons may help dis-
cover those reasons. Very sick
birds, with no hope of recovery,
should be killed, using locally Killing a Chicken. Stretch
neck and bend back around
approved methods, or by dislocating thumb.
their necks.

128
 Examine a bird as soon after Open the bird carefully. With
death as possible, before body con- a knife or shears, cut through the
ditions have changed. As you Work, side of the mouth and esophagus.
take good notes. They will help vet Look for the lesions (injured a.r.eas>
erinarians or lab technicians, if of pox, fungus, excess blood or muc-
they are available, to identify the us 9 and other abnormalities and
problem. Ideally, you would take foreign matter and nodules. Slit the
or send a few sick but still living larynx and trachea, looking for
chickens to the vet or lab for diag- excess mucus, inflammation, blood and
nosis, but this often is impracti- cheesy matter.
cal. To look inside the bird, first
In a post mortem, first exam- slit the skin over the hip joints
ine the outside of the bird. Look and dislocate them so that the body
for lice or mites, particularly lies flat. Puncture and cut the
around the vent, that may have con- skin from just below the poi,nt of
tributed to the death. Discolored the breastbone to the head. Pull
head parts, such as the comb and the skin flaps aside to bare the
wattles, are indications of a num- breast. With heavy shears, cut
ber of diseases. Straighten the through the heavy bones and ribs on
neck, pull the tongue and examine both sides of the keel (center ridge
the throat and windpipe for cheesy of,breastbone), and remove the keel
nodules (lumps), signs of pox. and breast muscle. Do this with
Check the nostrils for a putrid care or you will damage the internal
smell. If the legs are rough, organs. Check for fluid in body
scaly and swollen, it may indicate cavity. In females check body cav-
mites. Look for swollen leg and ity for broken egg yolks (a black
wing joints and excessive abdominal fluid if broken yolk has been in
fat. Also look for blackened spots body cavity for a while).
which can be caused by scorpion Slit the crop, remove food
stings. (noting if it smells sour), and

129
examine lining for worms, fungus inflammation. Slit the gizzard,
and other problems. Examine the looking for erosion. Gizzard ero-
liver, noting its color (normal is sion most often is caused by a nutri-
dark brown), and looking for les- tional deficiency and is indicated
ions or nodules (soft ones may when ulcers and/or peeling of the
indicate leukosis). Check the heart gizzard lining is seen. Check the
for lesions, hemorrhages on the fat, kidneys for urates (white material)
and cheesy matter or fluid inside. in internal passages. Examine the
Examine the spleen and bronchial brachial nerves--if swollen, may
tubes for lesions and nodules. Note indicate leukosis. Note gall blad-
the color and texture of the lungs der size and color (normally green).
(normal, bright red and spongy, will In layers, check the ovary and ovi-
float in water). Look for fluid duct for excess fat and ruptures
(pneumonia), tumors, nodules, and (breaks) that lead egg yolk into
congestion (dark red, will sink in other body areas.
water).
Remove the intestines and look
for tumors, nodules or hemorrhages.
Slit the intestines to check for
worms and other problems. Thick-
ened intestinal walls may indicate
microscopic worms or coccidiosis.
Also look for blood, inflammation
and excess mucus. If you find blood
in the ceca, look for cheesy matter,
scarred lining and cecal worms.
Open the proventriculus (true
stomach, located at the joining of
the esophagus and gizzard), check-
ing for hemorrhages, worms, or

139
8. Feedand
Nutrition
For every animal there is an greens, cereal grains, etc., on the
optimum amount and balance of foods side. This practice is all right if
or nutrients that will produce peak the feeding program includes these
physical condition, growth rates, items in formulating the final bal-
and, in the case of chickens, pro- ance.
ductivity. It is important to under- Because chickens have a short
stand that both amount and balance life cycle and are easily contained,
are important in attaining maximum many scientists have studied how I
productivity. It is not enough to various diets affect them. Much has
feed a layer all she can.eat. A been learned-- too much to cover in '
chicken would like to eat a lot of this manual.
fresh greens and corn because these In improving breed operations,
things appeal to it (chickens the chicken farmer will most likely
can't taste). But, as in the case spend more money on feed than on
of humans, what.appeals most is everything else in the operation
often not that which is best for combined. For this reason, it is
the well-being of the chicken and, important that care be taken in
in turn, the poultry farmer. Thus, choosing a feeding plan. There must
. .
proper nutrition, proper balance be an assured source of good feed
and control by the farmer of what for the birds, either locally grown
the chicken takes in is needed. A or commercially prepared. Commer-
frequent mistake in poultry feeding cial feeds are the easiest to work
is to feed a nutritionally-balanced with. In some remote locations
feed and then ruin that balance by they may be too expensive or simply
feeding excessive amounts of fresh not available. Where commercial

131
feeds are available and being used and other high carbohydrate ingre-
successfully by some farmers, they dients.
are most certainly the choice feed Finally, the last alternative is
source for all farmers. to mix feed using only locally avail-
The concept of "too expensive" a'ble ingredients.
should be explained. The end result The specific approach take?1 in
of how much profit can be made using meeting nutritional needs of poultry
a feed is more important than the is dependent upon several factors:
cost of the feed itself. .4 steady o Type of Chicken--Improved
breeds do not produce well
supply of a well-balanced feed may
unless the feed given them
result in more profit per bird than contains a proper nutrient
a feed which is half as costly,but balance. Country chickens
can withstand a varied diet
is not always available or is not and can survi,-e under less
than ideal feeding condi-
properly balanced in nutritional
tions. Country chickens may
content. do quite well on locally
produced ( non-commercial)
If good commercial feed is not
feed because these birds are
available or is too expensive, the low producers. But they too
will grow faster and produce
next best alternative for improved
better if food intake is
breed operations is to consider improved.
mixing local ingredients (usually 0 Size of Operation--If a far-
energy sources) with a "protein mer has only 100 chickens,
it will probably be more
concentrate" and vitamin/mineral costly and certainly more
mixture. 'time-consuming to mix feed
Protein concentrates
than it will be to purchase
often are available near urban and from a commercial source.
coastal areas where they are either Additionally, the smaller the
poultry operation, the less
imported or mixed locally using fish reliable or steady will be
the supply of necessary
or other protein sources. These con-
ingredients. If there are 20
centrates can be transported to more or so small farmers, a poul-
try cooperative which has
remote areas and mixed with local
feed mixing and storage ser-
maize, rice polish, tapioca, tubers vices could well be an answer.

132
Climatic Conditions--In hot Q Type of Operation--A broiler
climates with humid condi- operation will require a
tions, feed cannot be stored steady supply of feed for
more than a month without only seven to ten weeks.
spoilage. Vitamins deter- Ingredients may be available
iorate rapidly in hot cli- for short periods in line
mates and must be used with- with harvest and grain mil-
in a few days after purchase ling, fishing times and other
unless refrigeration is seasonal variations. Layer
a,vailable. Again, large operations are different.
feed mixing operations can The feed must be available
purchase and use vitamins without interruption through-
rapidly. All ingredients out the year, and year after
which contain fat must be year, to be successful.
used quickly as well. If a
commercial anti-oxident is
available and not too -costly,
buy it and mix with any ingre-
dients which contain fat.
Commercial
Availability of Commercial
Feeds
Feeds--In addition to the
cost factor mentioned earlier,
other factors in favor of Except in some remote areas,
commercial feeds must be
farmers will probably use commercial
taken into consideration.
The commercial supplier takes feeds for improved breed operations.
care of ingredient purchas-
Commercial feed, in most places, will
ing, price negotiation,
transport, advance planning, come in the form of a dry mixture
storage of buffer stock and
called mash. Whether commercial or
contracting with ingredient
suppliers. If a commercial home-mixed, feeds must match the dif-
feed is available and you
ferent protein needs of chicks, grow-
cannot answer where ingre-
dients will come from a year ers (stage between chick ;md adult),
from now for your own mixing
. broilers or layers. It is the pro-
operation, you probably
should rely on the commer- tein content which distinguishes what
cial source. You must be
feed should be given to these dif-
certain you will have the
proper mix of ingredients to ferent ages and types of chicken.
provide all necessary nutri-
Commercial feeds are sold with these
ents at all times.
designations:

133
 l Chick mash--Fed from a Greens are sometimes used to reduce
chick's hatching until eight
weeks old, chick or starter cannibalism or to make the egg yolks
mash contains 20 percen'L pro- darker in color. If greens are used,
tein.
try to encourage use of high protein
l Grower mash--Fed from 9 to
20 weeks old, grower mash types such as alfalfa, clover, bean,
contains 16 percent protein. pea and lentil greens. Discourage
e Broiler mash--From hatching use of cereal grains unless the
to sale, broilers need large
amounts of protein for rapid amount fed is included in the feed
growth and their feed con- mixing plans. Remember, a chicken
tains 22 percent protein.
can eat only a certain amount of
l Layer mash --Through the lay-
ing period, hens receive feed. Every grain of corn, rice,
mash containing 16 to 18 per- etc., (which contains almost no pro-
cent protein. (This level
is usually recommended. How- tein) eaten reduces the intake of
ever research indicates that protein, vitamins and minerals con-
a 15 percent level is suffi-
cient to maintain a high tained in the balanced ration.
level of production as long
as the essential amino acid
content is balanced. Where Feeding Methods
protein costs are very high,
it may be wise to try the 15
percent level. Otherwise Among the ways of feeding chick-
use 16 to 17 percent to
allow a good margin of safe- ens are:
ty*> l Whole grain--Feeders often
If you are using a commercial are used for whole grain,
either by itself or mixed
feed, you may want to have it with other nutrients, Some-
checked out by a laboratory occa- times whole grain is scat-
tered in the litter. The
sionally to ensure it continues to whole grain method of feeding
have the proper content. Your local is not recommended. When fed
in with other ingredients,
government may have this capacity. the grain is eaten first,
Some farmers using commercial resulting in improper diet;
when scattered, much is con-
feed will want to give greens and taminated or lost.
cereal grains to the chickens. l Wet mash--Chickens usually

134
 eat more wet mash than dry feed mixing stays in the
because they enjoy its con- local area?
sistency. However, wet
mashes, particularly in hot a Is the commercial feed up to
weather, par with what you can mix
go bad very quickly.
If wet mash is fed to in- yourself? Does the commer-
cial company do a consistent
crease feed and water con-
sumption in hot weather, feed job in preparing the feed?
only an amount which will be
consumed within two hours. If it is cheaper and feasible

Dry mash--When it is well- to mix balanced feeds, the process is

balanced and stored properly, not too difficult to learn. The prob-
dry mash usually is the best
way of feeding contained lem of a continuous supply of ingre-
chickens. dients is the one of most concern.
Pellets or crumbles--Commer- Mixing feed takes time and patience,
cial mixtures in pellet or
especially in formulating rations.
crumble form are excellent
but usually too expensive. If you have decided to try mix-
Home-mixed feeds--The decision ing your own feed, you will need to
of whether to mix feed or use
know nutrient requirements of chick-
a commercial source has al-
ready been discussed to some ens, something about what those
H
extent.
nutrients are, sources of nutrients,
These factors should be reviewed:
how to formulate a balanced ration
l Economics-- Is it really less
and the mechanics of mixing the var-
expensive and/or more profit-
able to mix feed? ious nutritive ingredients properly.
a Logistics--Will there be a Some ingredients contain toxic sub-
reliable and constant supply
stances, o%ers too much fiber, and
of ingredients available
which will result in having you will need to know about avoiding
the proper mixture(s) year-
excessive inclusion of these in your
round?
feed mixtures. Finally, once mixed,
l Equipment-- Is feed mixing
equipment available? If not, feed must be properly stored. Much
can it be made locally?
of the information in this feed mix-
l Technology--Will provisions
ing section will be included in the
be made to ensure that the
knowledge required for proper appendices.

135
 (starch).
Nutrient Requirements Crude fiber--cellulose and
of Poultry other
materials:
difficult-to-digest
alfalfa, sor-
ghum, bran, oats. Crude
fiber content of feed ingre-
dients must be considered
in relation to formulation.
Too much crude fiber is
Energy usually what you must watch
for. If the diet contains
too much, the chicken will
Energy, measured in calories, not be able to eat enough
feed to meet its needs for
is required by birds to move, eat, energy, protein, etc. A
digest, grow, maintain body temper- common problem in many
countries is using too much
ature and, in the case of layers,
rice bran in the feed.
produce eggs. Chickens get energy Rice bran is a good, inex-
pensive ingredient, but it
from: often contains a high fiber
l Carbohydrates--Grain, roots, content. Mixed feed should
tubers and other starchy not contain more than five
foods and sugars provide car- to seven percent crude
bohydrates, the main source fiber where possible.
of energy in most balanced
l Fats--Have more than twice the
rations. When the chicken energy value of carbohydrates.
eats starch the large insol-
Fats are usually too expen-
uble molecules are broken sive for use in poultry feeds
down into glucose (a sugar).
because of the demand for
This process, digestion, is human consumption. Addition-
brought about by the action
ally, fats break down rapidly,
of digestive enzymes which The
causing feed spoilage.
are secreted into the intes-
more fat in the feed, the
tinal tract. Once formed,
shorter time it can be safely
glucose is absorbed through stored. Feed spoiled due to
the intestinal wall, into breakdown of fat is called
the bloodstream and on to rancid. Feeds containing
the cells of the body. Car- fats are fish meal and pea-
bohydrates can be divided nut meal.
into two categories:
Nitrogen-free extrgg--eas-
ily digestible to form glu- Not all energy eaten by the chicken
case, energy-rich material is used. The energy that can be used

136
is called metabolizable energy (ME). Those which are low in essential amino
Other energy is ejected in the acids are low in protein quality. An-
feces. imal proteins, such as fish meal and
The specific energy require- meat meal, are high quality, and vege-
ments of chickens depend on age, table proteins are considered low qual-
production level (layers) and en- ity. See Appendix E for protein and
vironmental conditions (degree of amino acid requirements.
confinement, temperature) as well Of the 13 amino acids listed in
as other factors. For the pur- Appendix E, only arginine, lysine,
poses of feed formulation, energy methion<ne, cystine and tryptophan are
requirements for the different of importance in feed formulation,
ages of chickens are: because they are the most limited in
many protein sources, and therefore it
Metabolizable Energy (ME) is difficult to meet the minimum
requirements of these essential
calories/lb. calories/kg
nutrients. Mixed feed could be defi-
O-8 weeks 1,250 2,750
8-20 weeks 1,280 2,815 cient in these five amino acids even
20 weeks on 1,335 2,950
if the total protein content of the
feed is adequate. Of these, require-
ments for lysine, methionine and
Protein cystine are the most important and
should be met first because they are
Protein consists of various com- the most difficult to meet. It is
binations of amino acids. Amino acids likely that all other amino acid
are essential for tissue building and requirements will be in a feed which
body functions. Essential amino acids has enough of these three. In order
are those which cannot be made by the to meet the minimum requirements of
chickens. High quality protein these amino acids it is most likely
sources are those which contain larger that you will need at least one ani-
amounts of the essential amino acids. ma1 protein source.

137
Vitamins flavin.
l Pantothenic acid--Rations
with enough riboflavin will
have enough pantothenic acid.
Vitamins are organic compounds
l Other vitamins--Vitamin K,
required in extremely small quanti- niacin, thiamin, pyridoxin,
biotin, choline are other
ties but essential for normal growth,
vitamins required by chick-
health and productivity. ensjbut deficiency is not pro-
s Vitamin A--Requirements are bable in an otherwise bal-
anced feed mix.
expressed in United States
Pharmacopoeia units (U.S.P.),
which are the same as Inter-
national Units (I.U.). Vita- Minerals
min A is easily destroyed by
heat, sunlight and contact
with air, minerals or rancid
Vitamin A is found in Minerals are basic elements
oils.
corn, sorghum, soybean, alfal- required for use in many life sup-
fa and all green leafy vege-
port functions. Not all the neces-
tables.
sary minerals will be found in an
l Vitamin D--Requirements are
expressed in International otherwise balanced feed. T'nus min-
Chick Units (I.C.U.), which
eral supplements must be added.
measure only the quantity of
D3 and not D2 because chick- (See Appendix E.)
ens can utilize only D3.
Chickens under daily sun- m Salt--Will have to be added
to the feed mix unless fish
light can make their own D3.
meal with a very high salt
Other chickens must have D3
content is included in the
in their feed. Use of arti-
ficial VT?-amin D3 is usually mix..
necessar; for contained l Calcium and phosphorus--Of
units. particular concern are cal-
l Vitamin E--Since cereal cium and phosphorus, which
grains contain a large most certainly will have to
amount of Vitamin E, defici- be provided separately (for
ency is not likely in most laying hens).
poultry feeds.
l Riboflavin--Feeds with only
cereal grains in the mix are
probably deficient in ribo-

13s
Non-nutrient Ingredient
Feed Substances Use Limits

.-Grit-- Grit consists of small Appendix E contains a list of

stones which are used in the
ingredients which should be used
gizzard of the chicken to
grind up feed. It is usually only to a limited amount in a feed
provided in a feeder separate
mix. Some reasons for this iimita-
from the mash.
tion are:
Water --Necessary for all life.
Medications--To control cocci- m Crude fiber--Content in the
diosis, medications often are feed will be too high if
mixed into the feed. Cocci- more than the recommended
diosis medications are called amount of some ingredients is
coccidiostats. Antibiotics used.
sometimes are included at
l Toxins--Cottonseed meal con-
very low levels in feed for
tains a toxin and should be
growth promotion. When used
used only in limited amounts.
for medical purposes, high
So does soybean meal unless
levels for short periods of
it is heat-treated.
time as per specific disease
control is recommended. e Palatability--Excessive use
Antibiotics are not used for of some ingredients or its
disease prevention because texture (too powdery or gum-
if fed at a constant level my) will make the feed unpal-
over an extended period of atable to the chickens, result-
tinm
c&I.- ~ntibi~tic-rPsistan+ ing in lower feed consumption.
bacteria will result. Anti-
0 Fishy tasting eggs--Will
biotics are not used for
result if too much fish meal
growth stimulation after the
is used.
age of 20 weeks.
@ Poor nutrient balance--Too
much of any ingredient (over
50 percent rice polish, for
example) will make it diffi-
cult to balance the ration.
The listed amounts are given
in some cases to simply help
you in attaining a balanced
ration.

139
 feed (ration) requires a considera-
Sources of
ble amount of trial and error,
Feed
patience and determination. But,
Nutrients
with a good formula the farmer
will save money and control feed
costs, which is the farmer's major
expense.
The charts in Appendix D list Become familiar with the price,
the amount of nutrients contained in nutritive value, availability and
33 sources. Using the nutrient other characteristics of all actual
requirements listed in the appendi- and potential feedstuffs in your
ces, and the methods outlined on area. If they are not listed on the
the following pages, you can calcu- feed formulation charts, a local
late a balanced feed. nutritionist may have information on
You can add your own list of them. Steps in formulating a feed
ingredients to use as nutrient are:
sources. You may have termites, Step l--Start by satisfying the
meat scraps from a local siaughter- protein requirements, both for
house to cook, dry in the sun and quantity and quality (amounts
grind. up, bananas, papaya, bread- of essential amino acids). To
fruit, ipil-ipil (Leucena sp.), and/ come close, use one animal
or winged beans. Consult with local source and one vegetable pro-
authorities regarding unconventional tein source. Be particularly
ingredients to ensure they are safe concerned with meeting the
and recommended. requirements for lysine and
methionine (methionine + cys-

Formulating a Ration tine, in place of methionine

alone will do). Meeting
requirements for lysine and
Arriving at a balanced chicken methionine dre generally most

140
difficult of all, which is why safer to exceed the protein
they are the first to be bal- minimum than fall short. In
anced. While calculating pro- this step also, calculate the
tein requirements, also look total crude fiber content of
for high-energy, low-cost car'bo- the feed. Try to keep it
hydrate sources for energy, below five percent.
such as maize (corn), wheat,
cassava flour and rice polish-
ings, Some protein will be Example--If feed for chicks (20
found in these sources and percent protein requirement) has
3,000 cal. per kg (1,373 cal.
this can reduce total feed per lb.), which is more than
costs. Once the lysine and the 2,750 (1,250) needed, pro-
tein content must be increased
methionine requirements have to 21.9 percent.
been met, check to ensure all
per kg (per lb.)
other essential amino acid
calorie 2,750 (1,250) 20% protein
requirements are met.
requirement = requirement
Step 2--Next, balance the pro-
calorie 3,000 (1,3; I 21.9% protein
tein and energy contents. level ad-
content
Poultry eat primarily to meet justed for
energy
their energy needs. This content
mnsthey will eat more of a
low-energy ration than a high-
energy one. If the ration is Keep the ration of calories to
too high in energy, the chick- protein in line with the var-
ens will eat less feed, thus ious needs of the birds. Try
meeting the&r energy needs, to stay within two percent of
but not their other needs-- the ratio.
especially protein. In such Calorie/protein ratio: For pur-
a .diet, the protein content poses of simplicity, the cal-
should be increased. It is orie/protein ratio is calculated

141
by dividing the number of per- Step 3--If the calcium and
centage points in the protein phosphorus in your formula is
requirement of a given age or low, add limestone, dicalcium
type of bird. The resulting phosphate or bone meal to meet
number or ratio is useful only requirements. For the birds
as a guideline in checking to to use both effectively, have
be sure you have enough pro- cioout twice as much calcium
tein in the feed. The rati" as phosphorus in the feed.
is meaningless otherwise. You only need about 60 percent
Example: For chick feed you of the calcium requirement in
need at least 2,750 calories the feed itself if the flock
per kg and 20 percent protein. has access to a calcium-source
The calorie/protein ratio is: hopper.
2,750 Cal/protein Step 4--Most foods, especially
= 137
20 ratio
fish or meat meal, contain some
In the prior example we had
salt. Therefore, add about
3,000 calories and a 20% pro-
0.25 percent salt to the ration,
tein requirement. To test the
that is 250 g per 100 kg (4
balance between protein and
oz. per 100 lbs.).
energy, the calorie/protein
Step 5--Balancing the vitamin
ratio is:
and-mineral contents of vari-
3,000 Cal/protein
= 150 ous foods requires many calcu-
20 ratio
Since the proper ratio is 137, lations. An easier and accep-

the protein content must be ted way to meet these needs is

with a commercial vitamin-min-
adjusted up to 21.9 percent,
resulting in: eral supplement. If you follow
the supplement's directions,
3,000
= 137,
21.9 the birds get enough of their
the correct ratio. needs without any harmful
excesses.

142
Example of Feed Formulation for Chicks

Assume the following is available:

cost Percentage Protein cost
# Source 100 kg 100 lbs. of protein per kg per lb.

Carbohydrate:
22. Rice polish $ 4.95 $ 2.25 11 -- --

24. Sorghum 8.25 3.75 9 -- --

5. Maize (corn) 9.90 4.50 8.5 -- --

Protein:
7. Cottonseed meal 7.70 3.50 44 18~ 8~
27. Soybean meal 17.60 8.00 50 35 16
ll3. Fish meal 24.20 11.00 60 40 18

Balance the ration's protein the cottonseed meal. All three

quantity and quality. Chicks carbohydrate sources supply
need at least 20 percent pro- about equal amounts of energy,
tein, 1.1 percent lysine, and and their protein contents are
0.75 methionine (or methionine about the same.
+ cystine) in a ration contain- Therefore, in this example use
ing 2,750 calories of ME per rice polish at near its maxi-
kg (1,250 calories per lb.). mum permissable rate (50 per-
Cottonseed meal is the cheapest cent) because it is the cheap-
protein source, but it can't be est. Although maize supplies
used for more than 15 percent much Vitamin A, it still is too
of the feed (see page 198). Soy- expensive. Instead, use sor-
bean meal is the next cheapest, ghum as the second carbohydrate
and will help balance the rela- source.
tively low lysine content of

143
ample Test Formulation

ME*
Q Protein Lysine Methionine Cystine Calories
ce -% 2 -% -kg z &g -% kJ$
polish 45 11 4.9 0.5 0.22 0.2 0.09 0.11 0.049 148,500
'rghum 20 9 1.8 0.2 0.04 0.16 0.03 0.15 0.03 66,000
ttonseed
meal 15 45 6.6 1.8 0.27 0.66 0.10 0.90 0.135 30,030

;i;y -20 50 10.0 3.2 0.64 0.7 0.14 0.74 0.15 50,600

tal
kg 100 23.2 1.17 0.36 0.364 295,130
* Total kg x calories per kg To find ME per lb., divide by 2.2.

This test ration has about

951 calories per kg, more than
needed, so more protein should
added.

calorie requirement 2,750 20% protein requirement

=
calorie requirement 2,951 21.5% adjusted protein level
needed in this ration

The test ration actually has:

Test ration
content Requirement

Protein 23.30% 21.5% (adjusted)

Lysine l.i7 1.2
Methionine + Cystine 0.17 0.8

144
 The test ration is too high in However, fish meal, which
protein quantity, but deficient in wasn't included in the first test
lysine and methionine + cystine. ration because of its cost, is a
Some soybean meal might be substi- good source of lysine and methion-
tuted for some cottonseed meal, ine. If some is substituted for
since the former has a higher lysine soybean meal, protein quality needs
content. However, the ration still will be met. Since the protein
would be short on methionine. The quantity in the first test ration
total proportion of soybean meal already is too high, the proportion
might be increased, leaving the cot- of sorghum should be increased
tonseed meal as it is, but then the (rice polish already is being used
protein level would be uneconomi- at the maximum level allowed).
cally high.

Example Second Test Formulation

ME
Protein Lysine Methionine Cystine Calories

-% k& 2 !z 5 kJ$
Rice
polish 45 0.5 0.22 0.2 0.09 0.11 0.049 148,500
Sorghum 25 0.2 0.05 0.16 0.04 0.15 0.037 82,500
Cottonseed
meal 15 44 6.6 1.8 0.27 0.66 0.10 0.9 0.135 30,030
Soybean
meal 5 50 2.5 3.2 0.16 0.7 0.035 0.74 0.037 12,320
Fish
meal -10 60 6 5.2 0.52 2 0.2 0.95 0.095 26,400
Total
kg 100 22.2 1.22 0,465 0.353 299,750

145
 The second test ration, with cium, phosphorus and salt needs.
1.22 percent lysine and 0.82 percent Looking at the tables (Appendix E,
methionine + cystine, meets protein page 2051, you will find the ration
quality requirements. The ration's has 0.79 percent calcium. The min-
ME is 2,997 calories per kg. To imum is one percent, so add about
adjust protein level to that energy 0.35 percent to be on the safe side.
level: The ration's available phosphorus
content is about 0.28 percent.
calorie 2,750 20% protein
Therefore, add 0.4 percent to keep
requirement = requirement
calorie the calcium/phosphorus ratio in the
2,997 21.8% adjusted
requirement protein recommended range (1.8 - 2,2 to 1).
level need-
About 0.3 to 0.4 percent salt will
ed in this
ration be needed in this ration. Vitamin
and other mineral needs will be
The protein content of the sec- provided by the commercial supple-
ond test ration, 22.2 percent, is a ment. You can also calculate the
little higher than the adjusted vitamin and mineral content of your
need, but that is a good safety feed mix. But this is difficult.
margin. It is easier, and usually less
Finally, checking on arginine expensive, to use a commercial vita-
and tryptophan (Appendix E, page 204), min/mineral supplement available in
we find that these amino acid almost all countries. Finally, if
requirements have been fulfilled. you are adding a coccidiostat or
(The ration has 1.49 percent argin- other substance, follow the instruc-
ine, more than the 1.2 percent tions on their packages.
required and 0.25 percent trypto-
phan, more than the 0.20 percent
required.)
Now that the ration is balanced
for energy, you can calculate cal-

146
sing a Protein Concentrate maize parts
protein maize
percentage
When commercial feeds are too
rpensive and mixing a complete ra- \, /

Len is impractical, you can mix a 8.5 X

lmmercial protein concentrate which

-so contains vitamins with local
-ains or other carbohydrate sources,
16%
kd perhaps some calcium. The con-
sntrate's formulation, if available,
-11 help you to balance the feed.
44 X
len using a concentrate it is neces-
Lry to know all the ingredients in I \
concetitrate desired parts
: and their specific nutrient make- protein protein concentrate
percentage level in
). Remember, vitamins deteriorate
feed
ipidly. If the concentrate is old,
: has been kept or transported im- To find the right combinations,
:operly, the vitamins may have be- work diagonally, subtracting the
rme useless. smaller numbers from the larger:
Use the square method to deter-
16 - 8.5 = 7.5 parts concentrate
.ne the relative proportions of pro-
44 - 16 = 28 parts maize
!in concentrate and carbohydrate
35.5
ceded for particular types of
hickens. To find the percentage of each
Example--Concentrate with 44 in the feed, divide each number of
Lrcent protein, mixed with maize parts by the total parts:
I.5 percent protein), to obtain a
7.5= 21.1% concentrate
; percent protein ration. In 35.5
tese calculations, the parts are
28 = 78.9% maize
r weight: 35.5

147
Mixing Feeds remaining feed before mixing it.
Don't pre-mix the vitamin and
Feed must be mixed thoroughly mineral additive with the calcium,
so that all chickens receive a bal- phosphorus and salt -- add them
anced ration. Coccidiostats, vita- separately to the total feed. There
min and mineral supplements and are several ways of mixing feed.
other additives are used in such l By hand--You can mix lo-20 kg
small amounts that they must be (22-44 lbs.) of feed at a
time in a large tub. Or,
incorporated gradually. First, put you can layer ingredients
in 1 - 2 kg of an ingredient and on a cement floor or sheet
of plywood or metal. Shov-
mix very well. Then add this mix- el the feed out from the
ture to approximately 5 kg of feed, center and then back, re-
peating the process until
mix well again, then add to the

Tumble Mixer

148
 the feed is completely mixed. Storing Feed
Repeat several times and
remember when shovelling to
the center always to allow Mixed feed should be stored
the shovelful of feed to fall
in a pest- and rodent-proof con-
on the tip of the cone that
is being created, which tainer raised off the floor. In
allows more even spread of
hot weather, try not to mix and
the nutrients.
l Tumble mixer--A clean oil store more than a week's supply at
drum, mounted eccentrically a time. Be especially careful
on a stand, makes an excel-
lent manual mixer. If fit- when the feed has a high fat con-
ted with ball bearings, it tent-- if it goes rancid, the flock
can handle up to 70 kg (150
will probably get sick or will
Ibis.).
l Powered mixer--If enough experience nutritional deficiencies.
local farmers are mixing When buying a premix, buy one with
feed manually, they may want
an antioxidant to help stop rancid-
to join to build or buy a
powered mixer. Agricultural ity. Clean the container before
extension agents should have
putting in a new supply of feed.
suggestions on designs or
sources. Bags of feed or ingredients
need a pest-tight room, where they
should be stacked on slatted plat-
Grinding Feed
forms raised at least 30 cm (1 ft.)
Grain for chicken feed should be above the floor, so cats or dogs
ground to a medium coarseness to be can patrol underneath. For other
mixed with the other ingredients. ideas on storing feed, obtain the
If it is too coarse, the birds will Peace Corps' Small Farm Grain Stor-
pick it out and leave the rest. If age Manual from the local Peace
it is too fine, it will sift through Corps office or from ICE (see inside
the rest to the bottom of the feeder. front cover).
Very finely ground grain can become
impacted in a bird's beak, and birds
will be reluctant to eat it.

149
 Vitamin A--Decreased growth
Nutritional in chicks, reduced egg pro-
duction in layers, along
Deficiencies with reduced quality of
eggs produced and paling of
egg yolks. (Symptoms could
be a result of many other
The definite diagnosis of nutri- causes.) Odorless substan-
ces in eyes and nasal pas-
tional deficiencies in chickens sages. Staggering walk and
nodules in the esophogus.
requires experienced technicians and
sophisticated pathology laboratory Vitamin E--Deficiency causes
poor growth, uncoordination,
facilities. This is because: stumbling, general muscular
o Deficiency symptoms are not uncoordination in chicks,
noticed until severe. usually beginning no earlier
than 3-4 weeks of age. It
0 Symptoms of any specific is frequently most severe
nutrient deficiency are simi- when accompanied by coccidi-
lar to symptoms of non-nutri- osis disease. Also causes
tional diseases and/or other death of chick embryo after
deficiencies. 3-4 days' incubation.
l Deficiency symptoms are not Riboflavin--Vitamin B2 defi-
easily diagnosed, even in a ciency causes poor growth,
laboratory. The fastest way low hatchability, curled
to diagnose deficiency of toes (although some chicks
amino acids is to calculate have curled toes at hatch-
the amino acid content of ing, which is probably a
the feed mix and if possible genetic problem and not a
have the feed analyzed by a deficiency symptom). If
laboratory for confirmation. many chicks develop curled
toes after hatching, it
could be a riboflavin
Vitamin Deficiencies deficiency.
Vitamin D--Deficiency
causes weak legs, soft or
Vitamin deficiencies in pro- brittle bones, poor growth,
perly balanced rations are caused by weak egg shells, enlarged
joints, low hatchability.
loss of'vitamin potency due to age
or storage conditions. Vitamin There are many more vitamins
deficiency symptoms include: and minerals which can cause poor

150
growth, paralysis, low hatchability, brans and polishings, peanut
meal, soybean meal.
increased mortality and so on. The
Biotin--Root tubers, alfalfa,
real answer is to know sJhat is in
grasses, whole grains.
the feed being given to the chickens
Cholic acid--Grasses, kale,
and avoid, as much as possible, the alfalfa, wheat by-products,
soybean meal.
possibility of deficiencies.
Ascorbic acid--Vitamin C defi-
In the case of country chickens
ciency has never been found
and in locations where artificial in domestic chickens.
vitamin supplements are not availa- Vitamin D3--Sunshine, fish
oils and concentrates, sun-
ble, inclusion of the following
cured grasses.
foods in the diet will substan-
Vitamin E--Found in all cer-
tially reduce the chance of vitamin eals and cereal brans, pol-
ishings, green foliage,
deficiencies:
alfalfa meal.
Vitamin A--Edible oils, grasses,
Vitamin K--Alfalfa, most
yellow maize, alfalfa, clover,
most green leafy material. green leafy vegetable matter,
plant oils, meat scraps, fish
Thiamin--(Vitamin Bl> Whole meal.
grain and grain by-products,
peanut meal, soybeans, grasses, EL2 --Bean and peanut oil
meals, dried cow manure, var-
and alfalfa.
ious fermentation products.
Riboflavin--Residues
- from fer-
mentation processes such as
brewery residues, alfalfa,
Other Deficiencies
grasses, some fish meals.
Pantothenic acid--Peanut meal,
cereal grain brans, alfalfa, Salt--Simply put enough salt
grasses, fermentation residues. in the ration. For country
chickens just add a pinch of
Pyrodoxine-- (B ) Rice bran,
salt to their feed mixture.
fish, wheat an Iz rice by-pro-
ducts, alfalfa. Anti-Gizzard Erosion Factor--
Niacin--Rice bran, wheat, pea- Kale, grasses, alfalfa,
nuts, meat, greens and fermen- wheat products, soybean meal.
tation residues from corn dis- Minerals--Other than calcium
tillers. and phosphorus, deficiencies
Choline--Whole grains, cereal are not likely if a variety

151
 of ingredients is used in feed. as human food.
In isolated cases, if there is
l If energy feed stuffs (or
a mineral deficiency in the
protein feed stuffs) are
soil on which plants and ani-
not available, it will prob-
mal ingredients are produced,
ably be easier and cheaper
there also will be a deficiency
to import a complete feed.
in the mixed feed.
6 It may be even cheaper to
A final word on nutrition for
import eggs or chicken meat.
those who don't have access to com-
l Processing methods used
mercial feeds or traditional ingre- will determine the energy
and protein and vitamin con-
dients. You must keep your eyes open
tent of various feed ingre-
for ideas on alternative feed ingre- dients. For example, note
the differences in the per-
dients. All types of insects and
cent of protein content of
weeds are potential feed ingredients. soybean meal in the Feed
Formulation Chart, Appendix D
Since little research has been done
(page 197).
on these, you must use caution dur-
l Remember that many plant
ing early stages of feeding these. origin foods are likely to
contain toxins--thus
If you find that some local research
restrict use of these sub-
has been done, use the results. Use stances in large quantities.
common sense. Some seaweeds are
high in protein and minerals, but
must be washed with fresh water,
dried and fed only to a limited
extent due to high salt content.

Points to Consider Before

Using Non-Traditional Ingredients

o Don't consider using an

ingredient that also serves

152
9. Poultry
Marketing and
Finances
Before farmers enter the poul- India, for instance, eggs are
try field or expand current flocks, thought of as heating foods and are
they must carefully consider what eaten in cool, rainy seasons.
they will do with the meat and eggs Any farmer who wants to market
their families don't eat. Forming poultry products must be sure that
a market plan means identifying they are fresh and of high quality
where and when birds and eggs will so that consumers continue to buy
be mid to receive the best prices. them. A reputation for good pro-
Suddenly putting large numbers of ducts is the farmer's greatest
broilers up for sale in a small com- asset.
munity may depress the price. Even Many small farmers are reluc-
small numbers of layers need advance tant or unable to keep records, yet
planning --a flock of 100 may produce good records are a key to success.
1,000 dozen eggs in a year, even at Without them, it is extremely diffi-
the low production rate of 50 per- cult to .spot problems and correct
cent. them; Wasteful practices can go
The plans of other farmers unnoticed, and the farmer may even
alSQ must be considered. If all operate at a loss and not know it.
expand their operations and have
good years, p rices almost inevitably
will fall. Seasonal considerations
enter into market plans as well; in

153
Marketing Country meat birds, although t;lere will be

Chickens some eggs for consumption or sale.

The worksheet below assumes that the
flock began with ten chicks hatched
If you are working with country and brooded by a hen.
I

chickens, consider them primarily as

Country Chickens --Expenses and Income

Expenses
Night shelter, if any .............
Feed supplement, if any ...........
Nest, if any .......................
Worming medication, if any .........
Other (vaccinations, etc.) .........
Total expenses ....................

Income
About 60 eggs per year x 3-4 hens
x price per egg (210 x --?
Sale of 4-5 males at 15 weeks
x average price (4.5 x -2
Sale of 3-4 hens at l-1/2 years
x average price (3.5 x i
Total income ...................................
Less expenses, if any . . . . . . ..*.................
Profit, (or loss) .............................. ==========I

154
 age weights and feed consumption
Marketing for a male meat bird (actual feed
Medium-Size consumption and weight gain may
Broilers vary widely, depending on quality
of breed, feed and care). Many far-
The older meat birds are, the mers, especially with medium-size
less weight they gain per unit of flocks, may find it helpful to
feed consumed. It is important to weigh feed before giving it to the
sell them as soon after eight weeks flock and to weigh a sample of
of age as possible if they are of birds at least once a week (see page
weight. The chart below lists aver- 158).

Feed Consumption--Male Broiler

Feed Added Weight Weight of Feed
Age in Weight Consumption Per Unit of To Produce 1 Unit
Weeks of Bird Per Week Feed per Week of Weight Gain*
kg
-- lbs. kis lbs.
1 0.09 0.21 0.11 0.25 1.19
2 0.20 0.44 0.15 0.33 0.69 1.43
3 0.39 0.86 0.29 0.64 0.66 1.52
4 0.59 1.30 0.37 0.82 0.54 1.86
5 0.82 1.81 0.48 1.06 0.48 2.08
6 1.07 2.36 0.54 1.19 0.46 2.16
7 1.33' 2.94 0.61 1.35 0.43 2.33
8 1.60 3.53 0.67 1.48 0.40 2.51
9 1.88 4.13 0.72 1.59 0.37 2.65
10 2.16 4.75 0.81 1.78 0.34 2.87

*Multiply this value by the price of feed per unit of weight. If the result
is near the estimated price per unit of weight the birds can be sold for,
continuing to feed them will be unprofitable. Figures in this chart are
not adjusted for‘mortality.

155
 Feed Consumption--Male Broiler (Cont.)
Feed Added Weight Weight of Feed
Age in Weight Consumption Per Unit of To Produce 1 Unit
Weeks of Bird Per Week Feed per Week of Weight Gain
& lbs. !s &.
11 2.42 5.32 0.90 1.98 0.29 3.47
12 2.70 5.94 1.00 2.21 0.28 3.56
13 2.95 6.50 1.09 2.39 0.23 4.27
14 3.21 7.06 1,27 2.80 0.20 5.00

Rare is the small farmer in Most countries have set stan-

the developing world who has access dards or commercial grades for meat
to refrigeration. Since meat spoils ‘birds, based on size, amount of meat
within a few hours unless kept cold, per bird, skin color and condition
most broilers are sold live, either and other factors. A small-scale
directly to consumers or through an farmer usually need not be con-
established marketing system. Chick- cerned with grading, but should pro-
ens can be transported to the market tect the farm's reputation by sending
in well-ventilated baskets or wooden only good quality birds to market
crates. Don't feed them on the day and either eating others or selling
of sale, but be sure they receive them locally.
plenty of water. If the trip to In the worksheet below, it is
the market takes eight hours or more, assumed that good management has kept
stop and supply water to the birds mortality and feed consumption down,
or they may die. In hot weather, while producing healthy, heavy birds.
it is good to transport birds at Actual feed consumption and weight at
night or in the early morning. sale may very considerably.

156
100 Male and Female Broilers, Sold at 9 or 12 weeks--Expenses and Income. _

Expenses
Feed: sold at 9 weeks
398 kg (875 lbs.) x
‘(feed price)
sold at 12 weeks
636 kg (1,400 lbs.) x
(feed price)
Housing* . . ..*.....e......................
Waterers, feeders, and other equipment*...
Heating and lighting .....................
Brooder and equipment* ..................
IlO-day-old chicks, plus transport .... ..
Interest on financing, if any ...........
Contingency for emergencies (medicine,
extra feed, etc.), add 10% . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vaccinations ............................
Containers and transport to rarket ......
Total expenses ...................

Income
100 broilers: sold at 9 weeks
190 kg (375 lbs.) x
(est. price)
sold at 12 weeks
241 kg (530 lbs.) x
(est. price)
Value of manure sold or used ............
.Total income ...... ...............................
Less total expenses ..............................
Profit, (or loss) . . . . . ..a........................ --------====
*If you think houslng and equinment will last three years, use 10 percent of
these expenses for each 14-week cycle (preparation, growth and sale). If
they will last four years, 6 percent, etc.

157
Weighing
Chickens

Keeping records of the weight

of a flock and the weight of feed it
eats helps the farmer in several
ways. With this information, losses
in body weight or decreases in
feed consumption, two major signs of
disease, can be spotted. In addi-
tion, the f.a,;mer can more easily see
when meat birds have reached uneco-
nomical rates of feed consumption.
The easiest way to weigh a*
live chicken is to place it head-
first in a sheet metal cone.
Adjust the scale for the weight of
the cone, or subtract its weight
from the scale reading.
It is not necessary to weigh
all the chickens. A sample of
five or ten percent of what appear
to be average-size birds will do.

Weighing a Chicken Using a

Sheet Metal Cone

158
Storing Eggs Cleaning
for Market hw

Prior to marketing, eggs must Eggs soiled by droppings or the

be kept as cool as possible, ideally contents of leaking or broken eggs
at 4.4 to 12.8' C (40 to 50" F). In not only spoil faster than clean
hot weather, this often isn't pos- ones, they fetch lower prices. An
sible, and the farmer should send egg has a natural protective coat-
the eggs to market at least every ing that resists the entrance of
third day. Don't leave eggs in bacteria and retains moisture inside.
direct sunshine, even for a few min- Washing eggs with water removes this
a
utes. protection, so save washing eggs as
One way to store eggs tempor- a last resort and eat washed eggs as
arily is to bury a clay pot to its soon as possible. A preferred
neck in a shaded area. Water the method of cleaning eggs is rubbing
ground around the pot, but don't them lightly with fine sandpaper,
leave puddles. Put straw or a mat emery cloth or steel wool.
in the pot to cushion the eggs and
keep them above any water in the
bottom of the pot. Put the eggs Et%
in the pot as soon as they are Grading
collected, and cover it with a
cloth and damp straw. The inside
of the pot probably will be about The main idea in grading eggs is
5.5' C (10' F) cooler than outside. to sort them so that only good qual-
Eggs absorb strong odors quick- ity eggs are sent to market, and
ly; don't store them near orions, ker- that they receive the best possible
osene, etc., or in mildewed areas. prices. The simplest and most

159
important method of sorting is to not be fertilized. These will stay
divide the eggs into three categories edible much longer in warm weather
--cracked, dirty and clean. The than will fertile ones.
cracked eggs are eaten by the family
or sold locally for immediate consump-
tion. The dirty ones are cleaned and Storing
sold locally for consumption within Eggs f&
three days, while the clean eggs are Home Consumption
sent quickly to the major marketing
outlet.
If people pay a premium for eggs A clean, unwashed and untracked
of certain colors or sizes, the far- egg, kept in shade, should remain
mer should sort for those qualities. edible for up to two weeks. There
Most countries have established egg are three ways of storing them
size standards. If none exist in longer without refrigeration. Store
your area, people may want to set only good eggs--use a candler, if
their own. possible, to determine their quality.
Suggested Egg Size Categories Oil--A thin film of oil on an
egg fills its pores, and reduces
Grams Ounces
evaporation and oxidation of the
Jumbo 64 - up 2-3/4 - up contents. With a wire basket,
Extra Large 57 - 63 dip the eggs into .slightly
2-l/4 - 2-l/2
heatk!d oil, about 11" C (20' F)
Large 50 - 56 2 - 2-l/4 warmer than the eggs. A light
Medium mineral oil is best, but almost
43 - 49 l-1/2 - l-3/4
any cooking oil (such as coco-
Small 35 - 42 l-1/2 or less nut) that doesn't turn rancid
rapidly will do. If you re-use
People in a few areas prefer fertile the oil, filter it and heat it
to 116" C (240" F) to sterilize
eggs. If you are in such an area, it. Oiled eggs will last for
you should allow for this by keeping at least three weeks--longer if
kept under 10' C (55" F).
roosters with the layers. But, for
Clay pot--Place eggs in clay pot
the most part, all eggs sold should buried in the ground. Cover the

160
pot tightly and be sure no
water gets into the pot. Size of
Water glass --For 100 eggs, use Flock
a 25-liter (6.5-gal.) pot or
jar. Mix 5.25 liters (5
quarts) of previously boiled,
cool water with 0.5 liter (l/2
quart) of water glass (sodium To take advantage of economies
silicate). Place the eggs in
the pot and cover them with of scale, this manual recommends
the water glass solution. that a laying flock contain at least
Cover the pot and keep it in
a cool, shaded place. The 50 to 100 birds. Many costs, such
eggs should keep for anywhere as housing and equipment, will be
from 1 to 6 months.
about the same as for smaller flocks,
Lime water --Mix 2.3 kg (5 lbs.)
as will be the time needed to care
of quick lime (finely powdered
lime) in 6 liters (6.3 quarts) for them. The following worksheet
of boiled and cooled water and
allow to stand overnight so assumes good stock, feed and care.
that the lime settles. Place
eggs and the clear lime solu-
tion in pot, cover aad keep
cool. The eggs should last
more than a month.
Packaging eggs--With a medium-
size laying flock, it may be
worthwhile to investigate pur-
chasing special cardboard egg
containers --100 layers may
produce 2,000 eggs or more a
month. Place the eggs small
end down in the containers to
reduce breakage.

161
100 .Layers--Expenses and Income

Expenses
Feed, to 24 weeks
White-egg breeds
1,136 kg (2,500 lbs.) x . .
(feed price)
Brown-egg breeds
1,418 kg (3,120 lbs.) x . .
(feed price)
Housing' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..O..................
Feeders, waterers, other equipment' . . . ..I.....
Litter .......................................
Heating and lighting, if any ..................
Brooder equipment ............................
Brooder fuel ................................. -.
115 day-old chicks2 ...........................
Transport of chicks ..........................

Interest on financing ........................

Contingency for emergencies (medicine,
etc.), add 10% .............................
Vaccine ......................................
Total initial investment .............................

Production Cycle--100 Layers

(adjusted for 1% per month mortality)
Feed, for 1 year
White-egg breeds
4,150 kg (9,125 lbs.) x
(feed price) .*
Brown-egg breeds
5,000 kg (11,000 lbs.) x
(feed price) '
Housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..c......
Feeders, waterers, other equipment' . . ..I......

162
 1
Roosts, if used ...........................
Additional litter ..........................
Cages, if used' ............................
Nesting boxes' ..............................
Heating and lighting, if any ...............
Collection and storage (baskets, pots,
etc.)1 ...................................
Egg containers, if used ....................
Transport of eggs and hens to market .......
Hired labor, if any ........................
Interest on financing ......................
Miscellaneous (worming medication, etc.),
add 1% ...................................
Vaccinations ...............................
Total production expenses ........... ..............

Income
Sale of eggs
White-egg breeds -- 24,000 eggs x
(price)
Brown-egg breeds -- 23,000 eggs x
<price)
Sale or use of manure as fertilizer ......
Total income . . . . . . ...*...............*..
Less initial and production expenses .....
Profit, (or loss) ....................... ===========

1. Prorate expenses over expected life of housing equipment.

2. If sexed chicks aren't available, buy about 225 chicks, adjust expenses
on equipment and feed, adjust income for sale of 100 broilers.

163
 for ways to cut them) and production
Records (seeking methods to increase it). A
good way to record egg produ,:tion is
Records should be kept to help to post a form similar to the otn-
in analyzing the operation and pin- on the next page inside the chicken
point problems. To be useful, house with a pencil on a string
records should be uncomplicated nearby. A full year's production
and accurately kept. A farmer should can be recorded on such a form.
keep track of all expenses (looking
 Egg Production Record
Farmer Eatch Date Date Housed Breed Source
------r-tl-t--l---rl-rl-~--l
1 --_.-
1 12 13 (4 15 {6 17 (8 19 ~~n~~~~~2~11~74~15~16~17~18~19~20~
1
No. Eggs
I
A.M. 1.~ -
A.M.
I
I
P.M.
I ?
P.M.
TOTAL I

Birds
Removed 1

Pounds
Mash
I 1
Other
Feeds I
Date 21 22 23124 25126 27 28 29 30 31 %%@ for NgirZg
A.M. I First of
Month
A.M. . Sold
P.M. 1 TOTAL
\
P.M. End of Month
--7--
TOTAL
Birds
Removed
Pounds
Mash
Other
Feeds
Month of 19

165
 If you are working in poultry
Increasing
extension, you will want more infor-
Poultrv
mation on expenses and production,
Profits’
including:
Breed, source, hatching date
and cost.
Number of birds at the start
and current number. Cutting costs, increasing pro-
Type of feed, daily or weekly duction, responding to market con-
consumption and cost.
ditions, and price fluctuations all
Cost of housing and equip-
can increase profits. Concentrate
ment.
on:
Feed supplement used, if any,
and cost. Feed wastage--Well-designed,
durable feeders are worth the
Type of medicine or vaccine
expense, for ttey reduce wast-
administered and cost.
age. Fill them one-third full
Disease or parasite problems for minimum wastage.
present.
Space utilization--Try for a
Type of litter used, if any, full but not crowded house, to
and cost. keep per-bird house expense as
low as possible. An exper-
Average weekly egg production.
ienced farmer can raise a mixed-
Weather (hot, cold, sudden sex flock to ten weeks, filling
change). the house, sell the males as
broilers, and let the females
Number of birds culled and
grow to laying size, filling
reasons.
the house again.
Receipts from sale of eggs
Maintaining production--A 2-kg
and meat.
(4.4-lb.) hen eats about 27 kg
Family consumption of eggs (60 lbs.) of feed a year just
and meat. to maintain her weight. She
uses about another 6.8 kg (15
lbs.) to produce her first 100
eggs, about 5.9 kg (13 lbs.)
for the second 100, and 6.4 kg
(14 lbs.) for the third 100.
Good management and culling of
of non-layers are essential for
profits.

166
 Feed quality --An inexpensive mers have a very good record of
feed that is not well-balanced repaying loans. Drawing up a speci-
does not save money--it reduces
production. fit management and repayment sche-
Breed source--Breeds that pro- dule may help to overcome lender
duce best usually cost more, Lenders also may avoid
reluctance.
but make up for it through
increasing sales. making loans to small farmers for
Broken or soiled eggs--Good fear that they will misuse the money.
management and frequent collec-
One way around this is to have pur-
tion will minimize losses from
broken or soiled eggs. chases for the flock made through
Deep litter --Chickens lay up to the lender. Some funding sources
five percent more eggs when are:
kept on deep litter, in addition
to producing more valuable fer- Government agencies--Most devel-
tilizer. oping countries have agricul-
tural loan programs channeled
Timing--Try to bring eggs and
through administrative or agri-
meat to market when prices will
cultural extension networks.
be highest.
Private lenders--Banks, tradi-
tional local money lenders, and
marketing middlemen are possi-
ble private lenders. Of course,
Sources of some may be better than others,
and all possible sources should
Finance be investigated thoroughiy.
International agencies--The
World Bank, Oxfam, U.S./A.I.D.,
Many small farmers don't have CARE, UNICEF and others sponsor
rural development in some coun-
the cash needed to start raising Often such programs are
tries.
medium-size poultry flocks, and administered by the host govern-
ment. Information on these
loans are hard to get because poul-
groups and others may be avail-
try raising is often viewed as a able through your local Peace
Corps office or through the
high-risk business. It is true
Peace Corps Resources Manual.
that with inexperienced farmers,
Others--Cooperatives, credit__ -
failures may exceed successes, but unions, women's groups, chick
suppliers, feed manufacturers
studies have shown that small far-

167
 and others may be good credit government, which also monitors its
sourcesu
operation.
A good loan application would
Co-ops can cut costs through
include, but of course isn't limited
bulk purchases of feed, chicks and
to, the following information:
equipment. They also may buy mix-
e A description of the current
ers and prepare their own feed,
operation and past successes.
breed and rear chicks to distribute
l A current balance sheet.
to members and provide extension
e A projected income and
expense statement. advice. In addition, they may pro-
o A chronological management vide low-cost financing.
plan.
On the marketing side, they can
a A schedule of visits by exten-
sion personnel. cut transport costs by pooling ship-
ments, inspect and grade products,
Q, A market plan, including
names of potential buyers negotiate large-scale contracts and
with allowances for losses
during transport. purchase refrigeration equipment to
store products during low-price sea-
l A repayment plan: 10 to 12
weeks later for meat breeds, sons.
beginning in seven months
for layers. Farmers also may profit by help-
ing to finance the co-op, by working
for it and by sharing experience with
other members.
Poultry and
Egg Cooperatives

Joining or helping to create a

cooperative can reduce a farmer's
costs and increase income, if the co-
op is well run. The formation of a
co-op usually is regulated by the

168
10. Poultry
Extension
Good agricultural extension is nizing extension personnel that has
a two-way system. From scientists helped several countries consider-
and administrators come research ably and is spreading to others.
results and suggestions to the farm- Some of their ideas can be adapted
er; from the farmer come questions to any local extension situation.
and reports of actual results. The The key to the system is the
agricultural extension agent is the village extension worker (VEW), who
person in the middle, channeling has a set schedule of visiting cer-
the flow of information in both tain contact farmers in the area,
directions. In addition, the exten- has no duties other than extension
sion agent acts as a relay between and receives regular in-service
different farmers and learns of good training. The VEW concentrates on
ideas from one farmer and transfers supplying the latest, most easily
this information to others. adapted agricultural research recom-
mendations in small, well-timed
units, or digestible morsels. Far-
Training and mers welcome this service because
Visit System they krzow where the VEW will be at
what time and that the VEW will
In May, 1977 the World Bank pub- offer practical, current advice.
lished Agricultural Extension: The The VEW focuses on selected
Training and Visit System by Daniel contact farmers, not to favor a few,
Benor and James Q. Harrison. The but to make the widest possible
booklet describes a system of orga- immediate impact. Contact farmers

169
should not be the community's most reducing the farmer's risk and pro-
progressive farmers, those viewed as viding a comparison with traditional
exceptional. But neither should methods. In addition, the VEW pro-
they be the least progressive, those vides advice on availability and price
unwilling to try something new. Con- of supplies and credit and informs
tact farmers should have the respect suppliers and lenders of estimated
of their peers -- the local community demand.
should help to select contact farmers. Most important, the VEW concen-
Each contact farmer is asked to trates on obvious production gaps,
share recommendations as they are filling them first for immediate,
received with several neighbors, thus observable results. This is best
spreading discussion of them immedi- done by having all VEWs in an area
ately. Contact farmers also serve as attend weekly or bi-weekly (fort-
examples for those who watch what they nightly) training sessions to confer
do and see the results. with supervisors, technical experts
The VEW emphasizes the use of and perhaps lenders or suppliers, on
available resources and improved the best recommendations for the
managing techniques, rather than use following two weeks.
of increased purchases of inputs,
concentrating on the kind of advice
desired by the majority of farmers in
Contact
the area at the time. The VEW rigidly Poultry
adheres to the schedule of visits with
Farmers
contact farmers (the same time of the Depending on local circumstan-
same day every one or two weeks) and ces, you can apply this system,
encourages the contact farmer to either formally or informally,
invite others to attend. With some to your situation. As you begin
crops, the VEW recommends that the forming a good picture of local
farmer limit using recommendations poultry practices and the most
to a small portion of his field, thus obvious production gaps, you can

170
consult with others and identify Timing of Suggestions
contact farmers. They may be:
Inexperienced with poultry--
While the farmer's potential
risk and your responsibili- Once you have identified a con-
ties may be greater, you
tact farmer or farmers and they and
won't have to overcome tra-
ditional but inefficient you have arrived at a mutually
management practices.
agreed upon general plan, it is
Experienced with poultry--
important to discuss specific man-
With experienced farmers,
you should know their his- agement techniques to receive atten-
tory and the current con-
tion during the next two weeks. If
dition of their flock and
review with them how they can a farmer expects a shipment of chicks
improve. If, for example,
in a week, talk about brooding, not
the farmer has lost between
one and two percent of the egg storage. If the flock shows
flock per month, there may
signs of severe coccidiosis infesta-
have been a feed, disease or
other problem, but the flock tion, talk about treatment, not
may ha-Te potential. If mor-
about improved feeds. If local cus-
tality has been much higher,
the flock may have less poten- tom permits, try to involve all fam-
tial for recovery, especially
ily members who actually work with
as layers. If there are only
a few runts (distinctl/y smal- the flock.
ler than hatching mates) in
the flock, the farmer can
remove the runts and,work
with the rest of the flock. Training
If 20 percent or more are
runts, the flock probably
will not be a good one to In many countries, veterinar-
work with. In selecting con-
ians and laboratories are more con-
tact farmers, it may be help-
ful to review with them from cerned with other livestock than
a form similar to the Farmer
with poultry. Even poultry special-
Specific Assessment Criteria
sheet (see Appendix C). ists may have so many other duties
that they have very little time for
field work. A good poultry

171
extensionist can help take their experience in:
place in the field by consulting recognizing sick chickens
with them and calling for their ser- coccidiosis and other dis-
ease control
vices only when most needed.
culling of layers
For instance, extensionists in
performing a post mortem
an area may agree that coccidiosis
examination
is a severe local problem that
debeaking
should be emphasized in the coming
forced molting, when appro-
weeks. That is the time for them priate.
to invite or go to an expert for a
short course on treatment of the
disease. In the next two weeks,
Special
the extensionists work with farmers
POUlQ
on the coccidiosis problem, thus
Projects
learning practical applications of
the theory thoroughly. The farmers
should see immediate improvement If your primary assignment is
and the specialists can tackle something other than poultry exten-
other areas or problems. sion, you still can be helpful in
If there are no other poultry increasing local interest and
extensionists in your area, and involvement in poultry production.
information sources are far away, Teachers may have much to offer,
you can create your own in-service both to their students and the com-
training program, reading as much as munity. 'Biology teachers can use
you can, writing to people who may old hens for dissection studies,
have answers to local problems and explaining how the various organs
visiting successful poultry opera- work and how embryos develop within
tions. If you have no previous the eggs. If a thermostat is avail-
poultry experience, you should seek able, the class can make and use an
out places where you can gain actual incubator and a candler, obtain

172
fertile eggs (perhaps from the stu- different rations and feeding them
dents' family flocks), keep records to separate small groups of birds
of temperatures and turning, and, if starting with day-olds. The effects
accepted by local custom, open an of various qualities of rations
egg or two every few days to see should become evident in two or
various stages of embryo growth. three weeks. It may even be pos-
Math and economics teachers can use sible to obtain some started pullets
poultry examples in their exercises and conduct studies in egg produc-
with students. Home economics and tion, either to supplement the stu-
nutriton agents and teachers can dents' diets or for sale.
explain and demonstrate ways of Those working in small business
preparing eggs and poultry meat. development in poultry raising areas
Chemistry teachers can perform may find the situation is ripe for
simple analysis of feed ingre- developing or assisting a poultry or
dients with their students if a egg cooperative, or helping groups
laboratory is available. The pos- of farmers with their accounting and
sibilities are almost limitless. marketing problems.
A school flock of broilers People, such as Peace Corps Vol-
could be an excellent 8-12 week pro- unteers with training in chemistry
ject. If properly managed, the stu- and nutrition, can help analyze
dents should be impressed by the feeds being used and devise low-cost
birds' growth, and carry some ideas improvements.
back to their parents. The project Anyone with ingenuity, organi-
could be culminate:1 by a school and/ zational ability and perseverance,
or community dinner, by students no matter what his or her background,
taking chickens hone or by selling can become involved in projects such
the birds in the m.srket. as:
A variation of the school flock e Market promotion --To help
deal with seasonal surpluses.
project would be to conduct nutri-
Example: a Volunteer in
tion studies, having students mix India helped a youth club

173
open a successful shop selling in the design and construc-
omelets and cold drinks during tion of the actual item and
the hot season when many peo- also serve as excellent
ple otherwise could not eat visual aids for extension.
e&F ' Information needed for many of
Pest eradication--To improve
the above projects is contained in
conditions for everyone, not
just poultry farmers. Study Peace Corps' Information and Collec-
local traditions before you
start such a project. tion Exchange publications, available
in your local Peace Corps office or
Grain storage--This also could
benefit everyone, not just through ICE. You can help small far-
poultry farmers.
mers benefit from that information
Feed production--Helping grow
and provide feedback on the accuracy
and process grain and other
agricultural products while and usefulness of materials. Some-
keeping in mind the use of
times the most valuable contribution
by-products as chicken feed.
a Peace Corps Volunteer can make is
Use of manure--In some areas,
chicken manure is wasted. to make farmers aware of the broad
Help compost it and use it on
network of resources available to
a demonstration garden, build
a model methane gas generator them.
or use the manure to fertil-
ize fish ponds.
Extension publications--Con-
cise publications in the
local language that explain
how farmers can improve the
management areas under their
control can be very helpful.
Often feed suppliers, breed-
ing companies or others will
help pay for such publica-
tions, either through'com-
plete sponsorship or by
advertising in them.
Model equipment--Small-scale
cardboard or paper models of
houses, feeders, waterers,
etc., can help you or others

174
Appendix A:
Housing Designs
It is unlikely that any two farm- for poultry houses where the bottom
ers will h;lve night shelters or any of the window isn't more than four
other poultry structures which look or five feqt below the point where
exactly alike. In building construc- the roof meets the wall. In hot
tion there must be sufficient over- climates, the overhang helps shade
hang to prevent rain from entering the interior of the building. The
the building even in windy weather. window can go right up to the point
But the overhang must not interfere where the wall and the roof meet if
too much with ventilation. Usually the local climate is not very windy
a three foot overhang is about right (15 - 20 miles per hour). The total
I

I I
I I
I 14-5 ft. window
I
I Gf-------.
I
r6-8 ft.
\k ---- -_- --"
k--------.-.-.--------- ---- -----..-----3

30 foot
maximum

175
height will be determined by the especially high winds accompanied
width of the building. The wider by rain, buildings may have a hinged
the building, the higher the wall attachment which can be swung down.
must be to allow increased ventila- It can be a permanent part of the
tion area. A building 15 to 20 building or a weighted bamboo mat
feet wide should have windows at attached to the roof structure.
least three feet high for most loca- An alternative to this is a woven
tions. A building 25 to 30 feet mat tied securely to the lower part
wide should have windows five feet of the window area.
high. Windows should extend These fixtures also can be used
the full length of the poultry to permanently correct improperly de-
house. signed buildings where there are
For severe weather conditions, consistently strong winds.

woven bamboo -hinged attachment

mat

176
End of building -- In order to avoid except for a screened vent just
rain entering the building, it is under the roof gable.
best to have the entire end closed,

177
 The vents serve to allow hot high. The overhang over the vents
air to rise and escape and should must be adequate so that rain does
be about one foot wide and two feet not enter.

i I
I
I
I vent
i I

---~ T
I I ---
\\
'2 ft.
overhang
11 window area 1

178
/,/

in
 Raised Floor House layers. For use in hot, humid cli-
mates. Cover floor with bamboo or
Interior structure of raised wood slats and enclose house with
floor house for 59 broilers or 25 wire mesh, or wooden or .bamboo slats.

\
1.2
(4 ft.)
I
m

I
3
0.9 nl
(3 ft.)

3.7 m (12 ft.)

Deep Litter House in wire mesh or wooden or bamboo
slats. This house can hold 200
Cut-away view of deep-litter broilers or 100 layers.
house for warm climates. Enclose

m (4 ft.)

0.9 m
(3 ft.)

181
Pole-type House or any available local substitute.
Leave small slot openings between
Fole-type laying house for 50
rafters at both the front and rear
to 75 layers. The roof framing can
eaves for ventilation.
be assembled in two sections, Cover windows
with plastic, mats, burlap, etc
raised into position and secured to l ,

during cold weather.

the poles. Sheeting may be plywood

.2 m
ft.)

152
Kerosene-Heated Incubator

front door side view

Key
A. Kerosene lamp, 200 watt light I. Rod connects therlnostat and arm.
bulb or other heat source.
J. Chamber, sheet metal bottom,
B. Tin can, about 30 cm (12 in.) sealed and venter'.
in diameter.
K. Dry Bulb thermometc?r, accurate
c. Exhaust, about 10 cm (4 in.) in 35' C (9.5" F) to 40.5' C
in diameter. (105' F) range; bulb of thermo-
D. Damper fits snugly over exhaust meter about 1.25 cm (l/2 in.)
hole. above eggs.
L. Egg tray, 60 x 60 cm (2 x 2 ft.)
E. Heat inlet, about 7.5 cm (3 in.)
for 100 eggs; 43 x 43 cm
in diameter.
(17 x 17 in.) for 50; made of
F. Weight: slide towards heat sheet metal, or wood with fine
source to increase internal wire mesh bottom.
temperature; away to decrease.
M. Water pan, sheet metal.
G. Hinged arm suspends and moves
N. Thermostat, liquid or gas-
damper.
filled disc that expands with
H. Set screw joins arm and rod rising heat, contracts with
from thermostat. falling -- usually purchased.

133
0. Insulation -- optional, depending
on cabinet materials.
P. Cabinet, of soft wood (for
insulation value) or two sheets
of veneer c;r metal filled with
sawdust, r:'.ce hulls or other
insulation!
Q- Vents, in front and back of
cabinet, help adjust internal
temperature and humidity.
R. Latch, holds door closed.
S. Window of glass -- optional.
T. Door, wood or insulated sheet
metal.
U. Door hinges.
v. Wet Bulb thermometer, to measure
humidity.

184
! Appendix Br
Other Poultry

:
Ducks domestic breeds.
Due to the strong taste of duck 1
eggs, local acceptance varies widel.y
from area to area. Duck eggs are
Domestic ducks often are much larger than chicken eggs and spoil
easier to care for than chickens,for more quickly (in about a week).
they are hardy, disease-resistant Muscovies seldom produce more than
foragers. There are three principal 60 to 90 eggs per year, depending
breeds: Khaki Campbell for eggs on their age.
(lays 300 to 350 per year for three Ducks can be raised using the
or four years under good management); same equipment as chickens. Waterers
and Aylesbury or White Pekin for meat, should be deep enough for them to
reaching 3 kg (7 lbs.) or more at submerge their heads (the same is
seven weeks of age. Muscovy ducks, true for geese). Ducks are very
the most common birds in villages, messy; great care should be taken
are larger than true ducks (some- . if they are raised on deep litter.
times Muscovies are classified with Ducks are more resistant to coccidio-
geese). Older Muscovies have en- sis than chickens and tolerant to
larged, unfeathered skin on their cholera. (Cholera can be transmitted
faces. Mallards (male has green by ducks to chickens, however.)
head), normally found wild, also Farmers usually keep one drake
are raised, but are smaller than (male) for every two females. Duck

185
eggs take 28 days to hatch; Muscovies any discomfort to them.
take 35. Opinion is divided on Ducks are difficult to pluck, but
whether ducks make good mothers their feathers often are valuable;
(Muscovies do), so many people use melted wax helps in plucking (see geese).
broody hens to raise ducklings.
As in the case of a broody hen
hatching chicks, keep water near
the hen. Geese
If you use a brooder for duck-
lings, set it at 32.2' C (90' F)
for the first week, and reduce it Domestic geese are raised for
by 2.8' C (5' F) each following their meat, large eggs, feathers,
week. During their first four and sometimes their ability to weed
weeks, ducklings should be kept crops or act as watch dogs. They
warm and dry. In their early weeks are large, hardy, aggressive, noisy
the ideal feed is starter pellets, birds that need little attention
although moistened mash, whole when mature and may live for 30 years.
grain and/or fresh greens will do. There are at least nine recognized
Once outside, ducks do well breeds of domestic geese. Of them,
on grasses and insects, and will the Chinese and African do best in
keep a mature garden free of snails the tropics.
and slugs. Don't let them in a African -- distinctive black
knob on the head; black bill;
growing garden -- they wili devour
light brown head; ash brown
it. They need no supplemental feed, wings and neck. Good layer,
but dark pinfeathers make it
but a few handfuls of grain scattered
an unattractive meat bird.
or placed in a trough in the evening They produce about 45 - 90
eggs per year.
wili keep them nearer the house.
Chinese -- two varieties --
When catching ducks or Muscovies,
brown and white; smaller, more
hold them by the wings, not the legs. swan-like than other breeds.
Good layers -- 40 to 65 eggs
Ducks can be held by the neck without
per bird per year.

186
 Geese Weights
Breed Weight - 1 year old male Weight - l-year old female
African 9 kg 20 lbs. 8 kg 18 lbs.
Chinese 5.5 " 12 " 4.5 " 10 "
i
Toulouse 12 " 26 " 9 " 20 "
Emden 12 " 26 " 9 " 20 "

Toulouse --loose-feathered; dry for the first few weeks. If

Load, deep body; pale orange
housed, allow 0.09 sq. m (1 sq. ft.)
beak, dark grey back shading
to white breast, deep orange per bird by two weeks of age on
shank and toes. They produce
deep litter. Larger feeders and
about 35 to 50 eggs per year.
waterers are needed for goslings
-.Fmden -- tipht feathered: white
body. Egg production averages than for young chickens. Goslings
30 to 40 per year under good
do not need housing after six weeks.
management.
Ideally, feed geese a 20 to 22
Geese mate selectively and for percent protein starter feed in
life. Flocks should have at least pellet form. They can go on range
one gander (male) for every two from two to six weeks of age. A
females. 1 m (3 ft.) fence will confine them.
Geese like swimming, but do not If pasture is plentiful, geese do
need to do so to breed. Eggs can be not need more than. 0.5 - 1 kg
hatches by the mother, or by a female (1 - 2 lbs.) supplemental feed per
chicken which can care for up to bird per week, and then only until
six goslings (chicks). Keep eggs they arc 12 weeks old. Provide grit
under a hen moist, and mark them and through growing period.
turn them each day, as they are too Geese are selective grazers;
big for a hen to turn. they will not eat tough, dry grasses
No brooder is needed for goslings, and some other plants. Thus, they
but they should be kept warm and can be confined in orchards, vine-
yards and in fields of strawberries and Romans raised them as meat birds,
(until blossom time), sugar beets, and today they are prized by some
maize (once shoots have toughened), people for their tasty meat, which
cotton and some other crops. Start competes favorably with wild game
with g-week-old goslings, provide birds in price.
shade and water and give them a There are three varieties of
1:ttle grain in the evening if weeds domestic guinea fowl: pearl guinea
and grass aren't abundant. (purplish grey with white flecks);
Most geese are marketed when lavender guinea (light grey or lav-
they are five to six months old and ender with white flecks); and white
weigh 5 to 7 kg (11 to 15 lbs.), guinea (all white). The most common
depending on breed. Geese are is the pearl guinea.
difficult to pluck; often they are Guinea fowl are more difficult
dipped in melted wax, the wax allowed to raise profitably than chickens
to harden and the feathers and wax because they are wilder -- they hide
Temoved together. Remelt and re- their eggs and do not take contain-
;:laim wax, wash feathers in solution ment well, They may mate with
'of detergent or borax and washing chickens, but the offspring are
soda (sodium carbonate). In some sterile.
areas, goose down (small feathers) It is diff'icult to distinguish
fetches a good price in the market. male frOri. female guineas. Males
have a slightly larger helmet
(comb) and wattles, and a coarser
head, but this is hard to see.
Guinea Fowl Most people listen to their voices:
the female call sounds like "buck-
wheat, buckwheat"; the male has
Guinea fowl originated in Africa a one-syllable shriek -- but since
where there are a number of wild the flock usually all call at once,
species. In ancient times, Greeks sex differentiation still is diffi-
tlr. In the wild, guineas mate in chicken eggs, averaging 40 g (1.4 oz.).
Lirs. In controlled flocks one A well-managed hen may lay 100 eggs
lie usually is kept for every four a year. Collect all but two or three
* five females. from a nest when you find it, so that
Guinea keets (chicks) may be the hen feels safe in returning to
tised by their mothers, but a it, and don't disturb her while she
'oody hen usually does a better job, is laying.
laying on the! eggs until most are Guineas usually are 16 to 18
Ltched (about 28 days), keeping the weeks old when sold for meat. At
Lets out of wet grass, and perhaps that age they weigh 1.25 to 1.5 kg
caching them to enter the chicken (2-3/4 to 3-l/2 lbs.).
lelter in the evening. Eggs also
:y be artificially incubated at
1.4' C (103' F) in a still-air (no
m) incubator for the first three Turkeys
!eks, and 40' C ( 104' F) for the
1st week. If you use a brooder,
!ep the temperature at 37.8' C Originally a hardy bird of the
.OO" F) for the first week, and North American forests, turkeys have
educe by 2.8O C (5' F) each week been developed into many meaty but
leresfter. difficult-to-breed varieties, mainly
Ideally, keets should have a the Bronze and the White. You can
1 percent protein starter mash until still order turkeys that are closer
.x weeks of age and then should be to the wild cousin -- they have much
ritched to a 15 percent grower mash less breast size and thus, can breed
lpplementing the feed they find on more easily. The new breeds are stupid
nge. Feed in the late afternoon birds, prone to panic and stampede
they return to the shelter at at the slightest actual or imagined
.ght. provocation. They can run into walls
Guinea eggs are smaller than or fences and break their necks or

189
pile into corners and smother. must be hand turned. Poults need
Poults (chicks) may starve to death a 28 percent protein starter feed
unless they are taught to eat and and larger equipment than chickens.
drink. Very large turkeys often All-in-all, it is better, if possible,
are too felt to mate and must be to buy poults when they are six to
inseminated artificially. eight weeks old.
Turkeys also are more suscep- Growing turkeys need exercise
tible to disease than chickens. on range and plenty of grass, supple-
'l'hey catch cold easily and are mented with grain and protein. When
subject co coccidiosis, fowl pox and confined, they may eat up to 45 kg
parasites, but their most dangerous (100 lbs.) of well-balanced feed by
disease is blackhead (lethargy, loss 24 weeks of age when they will weigh
of appetite, yellow diarrhea, head 4.5 to 8.2 kg (10 to 18 lbs.).
darkens, death). Turkeys should be
raised well away from chickens un-
less the farmer has much experience
with both species. Pigeons
In turkey flocks, one gobbler
(male) is needed to breed with each
ten hens. Eggs take 26 to 28 days Once a flock of pigeons is estab-
to hatch. Watch the gobblers -- they lished, they can be practically
often try to break the eggs. self-sustaining. The common Rock
Hatching and brooding turkeys pigeon, the one that throngs city
artificially is a difficult business. parks, can be kept, but better,
A broody chicken will do a good job, larger breeds are the White King
but that increases the chance of and Giant Homer.
disease. Turkeys are susceptible to Any waterproof, easily cleaned
two protozoan diseases: coccidiosis house will do, as will an unused
and blackhead; the chicken only to portion of a shed. In dark corners
coccidiosis. Eggs under chickens of the house, place nesting shelves

190
I
with lips so that the eggs don't
roll off. Cats, dogs, snakes and
rats eat pigeons, so place the
house on legs or poles.
Pigeons stay close to home,
so they don't need containment. If
they are contained, give them well-
balanced chicken feed. Treat them
for parasites and coccidiosis as
you would treat chickens.
A breeding pair will produce
ten or more squab (young pigeons)
each year, two at a time. Squabs
usually are eaten when they are
25 to 30 days old, when they are
completely feathered but have not
begun to fly. At that age they
weigh 400 to 680 g (14 to 24 oz.).
A mature pigeon may live 12 years
or more and may weigh 800 g (l-3/4
lbs.).

191
Appendix C:
Farmer Specific
Assessment
riteria
Date:
1. Farmer name:
2. Location:
3. Number of birds:
4. Age of birds:
5. Breed source: Meat: Eggs:
6. Feed source:
7. System of operation:
8. History of prior advisory assistance received:
9. Visual appearance of birds:
10. Number of years farmer has kept chickens:
11. Other:
12. Other:

# SUBJECT Existing Potential, Gap/Comments Ref. Page #

-7
13, Breed Sauce
Egg production
Meat production
Body weight avg.

14. Feeding/Nutrition
a. Nutrition
b. Feeding equip.
c. Water equip.
d. Layout
e. Grit/shells
f. Feed storage
g. Feed sources

193
 SUBJECT Existing Potential

15. Disease 6 Control

a. Vaccinations
- Newcastle
- Fowl pox
- Marek's
- Inf. branch.
- Other
b. Coccidiosis
c. Other disease
d. Antibiotics

16. Parasite Control

a. Internal
b. External

17. Cannibalism

i8. Rodents, Wild

Birds & Predators

19. Nesting Prov.

a. Space
B. Mgt.

20 Brooding/Rearing
a. 1 day to 8 wks.
b. 8 to 20 wks.

21 Mgt. Systems
a. Range
b. Deep litter
c. Cage
d. Slatted floor

22 Layer mgt.
a. Stress
b. Other

23 Housing
a. Range
b. Deep litter
c. Slatted floor
d. Cage

194
 SUBJECT Potential Gap/Comments- Ref. Page #
-1
General Mgt.
a. TLC
- Interest
- Routine
b. Sanitation
- All out/in
- Cleaning
- Isolation
- Hygiene
- Dis. dip.
I - Feed storage
II c. Daily sanitation
- Waterers
1 - Feeders
- Litter/droppings
d. Cost reduct-lon
- Egg collection
- Feed wastage
- Space use
- Culling
- Upkeep
- Keeping males
- Joint efforts

Sex Separation

. Stress Reduction
- Disturbances
- Feed changes
- Caretaker changes
- Routine changes
- Violent weather
- Moving birds
- Dampness
- Ventilation contr

Lighting

Marketing
- Prices
- Seasonal consid.
- Yolk/shell color

195
SUBJECT Existin Potential Gap/Comments Ref. Page #

- Egg cleanliness
- Meat qualities
- Egg grading
- Meat grading :
- Handling & storage

Other
a. Incubation
- Natural
- Artificial I
b. Country chicken
- Breed improve,
- Debeaking
- Night protect.
- Feeding
c. Forced molting
- Methods
- Economics of
d. Progress gauge
- Body weight gai4
- Egg production durve
- Uniformity of growth
- Feed consumptio
- Mortality rate
Appendix D:
Feed
Formulation

197
rngredient Pounds Protein / FatTI‘-?--‘Fi~r------~~t. Energy JCalcium--rPhosphorus
, Amt. iKcal/lb IAmt. Amt. 1 Amt
in Mix I Amt.1 I Amt. I I I
.027 .260 490 I.015 .002 )
.Ol .Ol i 1400 .O03
^_ ^ a-,. 4 ?.A,. .OOl
- .UlY ) . u3u ) 1 lLU3
I I
- .06 1 .12 ,002
--- ^^^
1.035 I .ooo
I.023 1 .040 1 1475
_- .002
1.012 I .llO I 910 I
-002
1.016 i I .llO 1000 IO02 .Oll
-1.001 i 1 .008 1010 .002 .014
10 Feather meal 1850 I.030 .OlO 1078 ,002 .008 -
11 Fish meal, anchovie 1650 I.038 .OOl 1020 .045 .028 j
1.2 Fish meal, herring 1706 I.075 .OOl 1350 .0:29 .022 1
13 Fish meal, menhaden 1600 -~~ I.075
~~ 1 1 .OOl 1 1200 .050 .028
14 Fish meal, sardine 1650 I.040 1 1 .OOl 1 1300 .045 .027
15 Limestone flour I I I .178 I
16 Meat meal w/bone:45% ,450 '.080 .025 1 780 1 .llO/ -I--oso+--
17 Meat meal w/bone:50Z 1506 -
.095 .020 I I 870 1 . 1061 I
I .051 I
18 Meat meal: 55% 1550 .080 .025 910 I nnnl I fun I
I nca I I i2n

1
-iinn

1000
;-r--.7z!&jq-
1500 I

.070 nl-2
a-L-----
- .028 .003
- .035 .065 1100 -0021
,002 --l-x%-
.005 .070 _ 1020 --t-x nnh
u..v
I
27 1 Soybean meal: 5C I% I 1soo- - .nn5
--- . 030 1150 .002 i .007
28 IWheat bran I (150 _.030 1 1120 510 .OOl .OlO
29 [Brewers' dried yeast1 [446 ,011 .030 840 ,001 .014
-30 \Dicalcium phosphate 1 .270 i ,191
,.-A 1 r..Yh , n-l nnr-l I 7 -I/
31 [Bone meal. straight 1

.OOl .OOl 1597 l OOl .002

t i -
T TOTALS -+---
V VALUES FOR RATION I
AV ADJUSTED VALUES
AR ~ALL~WANCES 0~ REQUIR!
* This means that in every pound of alfalfa meal there is 0.170 pounds of protein, and in every
kilogram of alfalfa meal there is 0.170 kilograms of protein, and so on.
 1 I 1 ’

! / I ~
- -

2
.
- - - -
E:
0
1
3 23 . ..
-
z>
.
0
r,E -lt’l-i’
30
--I--
? 10, 1
.I
-1

- - - - -- - I-
i I
1
I
-

- - - - -- - J/ I
r -
s!
0 3
5 - 2
0
2
3. T;3. 2
3. ;I*I
t
::
C
;
>.
. . .

- - - - -- - I 1
I -
I
I-

- - - -- - - I - -
I
-
-3 n iD 3 it? 2 u -1
3* ;>.
n
3
G
$
.
x 0
0
.
g. 0
.
c
C 1. 2
.
t
G

- - - - - - - i
-!
1
I-- -
t

- - - - - - _-- i
- - -
t
u-
s
r
c-.
e
z z : z2 C
i
-I
2.
n
.
c
c
c
; 3
.
C G
.
0
.
0
4
0
.
C
. 3
.

- - - - - - - - -

- - -
I-
- - - - - - -
co d - r- d ?. .
? c
h; d r r; I-
.
- - - - - -
c

- - - - - - - - -

cc U C 2-l I.
C u u , 3 .
.

- - - - -

e - - - -

If -3 P 1 c
.
u. N
.
C

- - -

- - - - -

U -3 .

r w I (
I
- - - -

c r P a U> I
r
.- cc I I
N I (
I
 IKey I. Leucine Leucine )xe 1 Methionine 1 P. Alanine (Threonine ( Tryptopimo.sine I- Valine
I
1 1
Ilb/lb
1 ,009 1
I Amt.Ilb/lb
1 ,013 1
1 Amt. 1 lb/lb
1 ,010
1 Amt.1 lb/lb
1 1 .003 I
1 Amt.] lb/lb
1 .008 1
1 Amt.Jlb/lb
1 .007 I
1 Amt.] lb/lb
1 .002 I
1 Amt.1 lb//b
I
bt.1
.008 1 I
lb/lb
.OlO 1
! Amt,
_
I 2! ! I .069 .009 I fI I 1I .UIIn'l'l I I I
3 .006 1 .009 .006 .002 .007 .004 J ;002 .004 .007
4 .005 .003 .002
5 .005 ,011 ,002 .OOl ,005 .004 .OOl .005 . 001 ‘.-
6 .023 .076 .008
--- .c)lfI
--- I ,029 .014 .002 .OlO .022
I - i -,,, i
1
ii26 1I ] .
,018 1 .
1 .007 1
I
I nq/. I I n-l-r I I fin< I I

I iii9 .016
.021
. UlY I .-030
----ULLt I iI -0'19
.UI/
. --_ I1 I .uuo
.008
. --- 1I 1I .022
-028
.024
_ --- I ,014
.015
.n14
. --_ I .005
-Xl5
. --- i I .012
-.013
-015
--- I .020
-025
.022
- ---
I ..,.- i -ill, ; e-n I ^. - I ^^_ I ^^^ ^ . ^ I ^^_ 1 ^^, I m-v
1’; ,030 I1
.um 1t .a501
.u/4 1 1t .060
au13 ]1 I1 ,020
.uu3 I1 1 .023 1
.UZB 1( .u4u
.023 1 11 .008
.UUb 1) I/ .uz4
.018 11 .,029
Ub3 I(
.^
12 . UJL . UJI .VJ/ . ULU . ULD . ULO , uuu . ULl .UJsi ’
1 I
13 .030 .052 .052 1 .020 ,023 .023 .007 .019 .030
14 ,031 .052 .052 1 ,020 .023 .023 .005 .018 ,026
15 I
16 ,015 .028 ,031 1 ,006 .015 .015 .002 .015 .oi3
17 -017 I -031
_--- -035
_ --- I -007 I .018 I -018 I -002
---~ s -017 -014
18 ,025 1 IO07 ’ .005
2 19 .017 .004 .006
’ 20 I .003 .002 .OOl
91 I I I I I . nnc
““” I I . nn3
““L I f I I I nnn
.UUL
I
I
I I
I
I I
;; .005 1 .002 ,001
23 .012 1 .015 .008 I
24 .006 t .016 .002 1I .002 .005 .003 .OOl ,004 .006 I
25 .021 .033 .027 .006 1 .021 ,016 .006
26 .025 .029 ,029 .006 1 .022 .017 .007 ’ ::;: 1 T
127 .028 .037 .032 .007 1 .024 .019 .008 .015 1 .056-l
,-ICI I An7 I
.UUI
I
I
*1-l II
_ ---
.1,11
I
L
nn7 II
.---_
UL, I
I
I
r&n,. II
_--.
. llllf-b I
nnrr II
_---
. ill,” I
nnc I
._---
111, 1 I
nAl I
. vu3
f-l*, I
. UULt
I nno :
. UlJO
I
I
I ncl?I I n-J* 1 I nn-r I I n-lo I I A97 I
;; .021 . U3L . UJU .UU/ . VI0 . ULI .005 .015 ,023
30
31
32 -~-~
33
T -.
v
AV
AR
Key Manganese Sodium II_
mg/lb 1Amt. lb/lb (Amt mg/
1 -2na I nn3 I 1 a1 I 7 7 I n3n I

.05 .015 2633 -___-

---
.48 .005 863 95.6
.48 .005 863 95.6 --
I I .48 II I .005 I 863 I I 95.6 t
I :nn; .48 .005..s.s-i- 863 95.6
i- 1680 ,001 5221
n 7 I cn I nntz ci2n I i7n 3

--- I .59
.J7 I 1 .006
. "VU 1 I1 5130
,A.>" I, 1170.2
,II".L t1 I
I 254 1 .51 .006 I 852 t, II 97.4 1 -- I
.016 72 .005 1 432 1
nn 3 11 1.8 .02 .006 -- 439
;; -2:: .""_ 3 88
73 *--- .021
.008 511
I
Trace
23 10.9 --- 1 11 I .022 1304 68.8
24 6.6 ,000 22 7.2 .Ol .004 998
25 12.5 ,003 59 16.6 .06 ,020 1226
26 13.0 .003 61 17.1 .06 .021 1233
27 13.9 .004 64 18.0 .07 .024 1264 1
90 f.L 7I
-t”.
I . nn3
““L
f. f. I Q r;
V.2
I .“”
nn ni 2
. “I-l
I 321c;
L2.I.J I
I I

;; 2.6 _ .OOl ;;3 15.0 .oo .017 1 1044 I1 I/.U

17 L 1I I
30 12L8L
-L_17”7 , 2.3 1
"-3 -Ia
13.u
n nnr
. vu3
I -l-b-
JUl
7
I.4
I *E&7-
. UUL I 2946 193.0
I

;;

33
T
v
Appendix
n 4 E:
Peed
Requirements
Energy Requirements

O-8 8-20 20 weeks

weeks weeks and on
Metabolizable energy (ME)
calories per lb. 1,250 1,280 1,335
calories per kg 2,750 2,815 2,950

Vitamin Requirements

O-8 9-20 20 weeks Breeding

weeks weeks and on Chickens
(units per kg /lb.)
Vitamin Al 2,640/1,200 2,640/1,200 4,400/2,000 4,400/2,000
Viatmin D32 200/90 200/90 500/225 500/225
(amount in mg per kg /lb.)
Vitamin K 0.5/0.24
Thiamin 1.7/0.8
Riboflavin3 2.4b.3 1.7/0.8 2.211 3.711.7
Panthothenic acid4 9.2/4.2 9.214.2 4.612.1 9.214.2
Naicin 26/12
Pyridoxin 2.911.3 2.9D.3 2.911.3

203
 O-8 9-20 20 weeks Breeding
weeks weeks and on Chickens
Biotin 0.09/0.04
Choline 1,320/600
Vitamin E--Needed in feeds, but requirements unknown.
-
Notes--l. International Units (IU).
2. International Chick Units (ICU).
3. Feeds only containing grain may not have enough riboflavin.
4. Feeds that have enough riboflavin usually have enough pan-
tothenic acid.

Protein and Amino Acid Requirements

(percentage of total feed)
O-8 9-20 20 weeks Broilers - 0
weeks weeks and on weeks to sale
Crude protein 20 16 16-18 22
Amino acids
2
Arginine* 1.20 unknown 0.80 1.20
2
Lysine* 1.10 0.70 0.50 1.10
2
Methionine* (minimum) 0.45 0.35 0.28 0.45
1
Cystine* 0.35 0.30 0.25 0.35
2
Tryptophan" 0.20 0.18 0.15 0.20
Glycine 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
2
Histidine 0.15 unknown 0.30 0.15
2
Isoleucine 0.60 II 0.80 0.80
2
Leucine 1.40 II 1.20 1.40
* Many feeds do not have enough of these acids.

Notes--l. Remember cystine is synthesized from methionine and is not essen-

tial unless methionine is limited.
2. The essential amino acids.
3. Tyrosine is synthesized from phenylalanine and is not essential
unless phenylalanine is limited.

204
 O-8 9-20 20 weeks Broilers - 0
weeks weeks
-_ and on weeks to sale
'henylalaline
(minimum) 0.90 unknown 0.70 0.90
lyrosine 0.70 II 1.00 0.70
'hreonine 0.60 II 0.55 0.60
raline 0.80 11 0.80 0.80

Mineral Requirements

(percentage of total feed)

O-8 9-20 20 weeks Breeding
weeks weeks and on --chickens
.cium 1 1 2.75 . 2.75
jsphorus 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60
.t 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50
:assium 0.20 0.16
(amount in mg per kg /b.)
lganese 55/25 33115
line l-1/0.5 - 0.4/0.2 l.UO.5
gnesium 490/220

:e--Mineral contents of a feed should not greatly exceed these levels;

overuse of one may block utilization or digestion of another.

Maximum Limits of Feed Ingredient Use

Percentage of
# Source total feed weight
1. Alfalfa meal 5-10
2. Blood meal 4-5

205
 Percentage of
# Source total feed weight
3. Barley 20

4. Coconut oil meal (copra meal) 15-40 (depending on

15 fiber content)
6. Maize (corn) gluten meal
7-9. Cottonseed meal 10-15
10. Feather meal 5-7

11-14. Fish meal 10-15

15. Limestone flour 4

6-18, 31. Meat and bone meals 10

19. Groundnut (peanut) meal 35

20. Rice, broken 30

21. Rice bran lo-15 (30% of high

quality and
22. Rice polish 50
low in fiber)
23. Sesame seed meal 30

25-27. Soybean meal 30

28. Wheat bran 15

29. Brewer's yeast 5-10

32. Cassava (yucca, maniac) meal chicks - 10

layers - 20
Sweet potato meal 20

Wheat 50

Salt 0.5

Straw and rice hulls 0

206
Appendix F:
Bibliography
and Resources
Resources 1, 433, Murray Hill Station, New York,
New York 10016, U.S.A. Enclosing
Peace Corps Publications Payment 9 especially for orders of
Several other Peace Corps manuals com- $15.00 or less, saves postage and
plement the material in this one. handling charges. In some cases ICE will
They may be obtained through the provide them free of charge, to Peace
Peace Corps staff in your country, Corps in-country resource centers or to
or by writing to Information Collec- Volunteers.
tion and Exchange, Peace Corps, Wash-
ington, D.C. 20525, U.S.A. The-Y Bibliography
include:
Self-Help Construction of Note on ordering--Most publishers
One-Story Buildings, Manual
listed below do not normally send
Number M6 (Peace Corps).
books overseas by mail. It is a
Farm Grain
Small Storage Manual,
Manual NumberM2 (Peace Corps/VITA). good idea to have someone in the U.S.
E'AO Pubaications order the books for you and forward
The United Nations Food and Agricul- them by mail. Otherwise, generously
tural Organization offers a number of estimate the airmail postage and
helpful publications, some of which include it with your order. Prices
are listed below. They might be are subject to change. In some cases
obtained through the FAO office in you can order through your local
your country, or write: Unipub, Box Peace Corps office or through ICE.

207
 Chicken Husbandry The International Trade Development
ABC of Poultry Raising, J. H. Florea. Board of the Poultry and Egg Insti-
Dover Publications, Inc., 180 Varick tute of America, 1815 N. Lynn Street,
St., New York, New York 10014, U.S.A., Arlington, Virginia 22209, U.S.A.,
1977, 142 pp. Although directed to which cooperates with the Foreign
farmers in northern temperate zones Agricultural Service of the U.S.
in industrialized nations, this book Department of Agriculture, will try
contains basic information needed to to help you find layer chick suppli-
raise small- ers with experience in breed require-
and medium-scale
chicken flocks successfully. ments and import regulations in your
USS4.00. country. They ask that you be as
specific as possible about the objec-
Poultry Husbandry II: Notes for stu- tives of your project, including the
dents of animal husbandry, G. J. number of birds you desire, the hous-
Price and J. E. Reed. FAO, 1971, ing plan, temperature conditions and
91 PP= Describes poultry management medical and technical assistance
systems, housing and equipment. available. Through their affiliation
uss2.00. with the World Poultry Science Asso-
Poultry Keeping in Tropical Areas, ciation, they also may be able to
provide advice on unusual technical
W. Thomann. FAO, 1968, 56 pp.
problems. Again, the more specific
Manual intended for agricultural
leaders in applied nutrition pro- and detailed your request, the bet-
jects, and for rural poultry pro- ter they will be able to serve you.
ducers. uss3.00. Breeding
Poultry Science, M. E. Ensminger. The Practical Poultry Breeding, D. C.
Interstate Printers and Publishers, Warren. MacMillan Company, U.S.A.,
Danville, Illinois, 1971, 276 pp. 1966. A good book on basic poultry
This is one of several good text- breeding principles.
books covering all aspects of poul-
try husbandry with a United States The Genetic Basis of Selection, Ler-
perspective. ner I. Michael. John Wiley and Sons,
New York, New York, U.S.A., 1965.
Breed Source Another good breeding reference for
those needing more detailed genetic
1979-1980 Who's Who International in
information.
the Egg and Poultry Industries. Watt
Publishing Company, Mount Morris, Nutrition
Illinois 61504, U.S.A., 204 pp. Con-
tains breeder performance character- Amino-acid Content of Foods and Bio-
istics, world poultry production out- logical Data on Protein. FAO Nutri-
look, and an international buyers' tritional Studies No. 24, 1970, 285
guide in English, German, French, PP. Tables show amino acid levels
Italian and Spanish for poultry and in 384 foods, plus data on biological
products in 73 countries. us$10.00. value, digestibility, net protein

208
utilization and protein efficiency The Morrison Publishing Company,
rate. Intended for use in human Ithaca, New York 14850, U.S.A., 1956,
nutrition, but valuable for poultry 1165 pp. An excellent source of
as well. US$15.00. information on feedstuffs, feed mix-
ing and nutrition pr-nci?le=. Found
Poultry Feeding in Tropical and Sub-
in most agricultural libraries around
tropical Countries. FAO Agricul-
the world.
tural Development Paper No. 82, 1965,
96 PP* Discusses special problems Cooperatives
of feeding poultry in tropical coun-
Training and Extension in the Cooner-
tries and lists sample rations used
ative Movement, A. F. Laidlaw. FAO
in 36 nations. uss4.50.
Agricultural Development Paper No.
Marketing 74, 1962, 78 pp. The author de-
scribes training and extension exper-
Marketing Eggs and Poultry, G. F.
ience in India, concentrating on
Stewart and J. C. Abbott. FAO Mar-
teaching methods.
keting Guides No. 4, 1961, 194 pp.
Reviews organizations, methods and Extension
services of marketing, with detailed
Agricultural Extension: The Train-
information on quality standards,
ing and Visit System, Daniel Benor
handling methods, packing and con-
and James Q. Harrison. Publications
tainer specifications.
Unit, World Bank, 1818 H Street, N.W.,
Feeds and Feeding Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A., 1977,
The Scientific Feeding of Chickens, 57 PP* No charge for single copies.
Probably the best booklet on exten-
Titus and Fritz. Fourth Edition.
sion.
The Interstate Printers and Publi-
shers, Danville, Illinois, U.S.A., Guide to Extension Training, D. J.
1972, 247 pp. An excellent source Bradfield. FAr? Economic and Social
of information on priciples of feed Development Series No. 6, 1966, 176
mixing and nutrition of poultry. PP* Deals with teaching methods,
It is found in most agricultural social and cultural factors, evalua-
libraries around the world. tion, etc. USS6.50.
Poultry Feed Mixing Manual, Pran Diseases
Vohra. U.S. Agency for Interna-
Salsbury's Manual of Poultry Diseases,
tional Development, New Delhi, India,
Dr. Salsbury's Laboratories, Charles
1962. This, and an edition revised
City, Iowa, U.S.A. This is a super-
by Peace Corps Volunteer Keith Pheu-
ior manual and one of a kind in qual-
ler, is by far one of the best
ity in terms of functional value to
introductions to practical feed mix-
the poultry extensionist. It is
ing. Copies are available in the
almost mandatory. This manual is
ACTION library.
condensed, filled with color photo-
graphs and covers most disease infor-
Feeds and Feeding, Frank B. Morrison. mation essential to poultry work. Do

209
Glossary

Uroiler -- Chicken grown for meat.

Breeder -- Sexually mature chicken
used to produce fertile
eggs.
Capon -- Castrated male chicken.
Cockerel -- Male chicken less than
one year old.
Fryer -- Young broiler, usually
less than one year old.
Grower -- Intermediate stage between
chick and adult.
Hen -- Female chicken over one
year old.
Layer -- Female chicken, usually
21 weeks or older, kept
for eggs.
Pullet -- Female chicken less th8n
one year old.
Roaster -- Fat, heavy broiler, usu-
ally more than ten weeks
old.
Rooster -- Male chicken more than
one year old. Also
called cock.

21.1
Index

Advantages , poultry keeping, 3

Aflatoxins, 115
Air, 25, 89
Air cell, 22, 53-55
Amino acids and requirements, 131, 137, 204, 205
Anatomy, external, 23, 24, 128-130
Anatomy, internal, 25-27
Antibiotics, 139
Assessment
-- checklist, (Appendix C, 193-196), ii, 3-6, 9-20, 32-35
-- information sources, 18, 19, 26, 33, 166 (Appendix F, 207-210)
-- observation, 16, 17
-- country fowl, 33-35
"Automatic" waterers, 103, 104

Basket brooder, 60
Battery cages, 15
Blood, 24, 25
Blood spots (eggs), see Candling
Body weight, 2, 43-45, 155, 156, 193
Breathing, 25, 89 (see also Diseases)
Breeds, dual purpose, 44, 45
Breeds (meat types), 44
Breeds, layer types, 43,44
Breeds and breeding/sources
-- choosing a breed, 37-42, 44-46
-- classification, 2, 3, 43-45
-- country fowl, 37-39
-- improvement breeding, 37-39, 48, 49
-- dual purpose, 44, 45
-- layers types, 43, 44
-- meat types, 44
Broilers, see Meat Chickens

213
Broiler management schedule, 56-65
Bronchial tubes, 25 (see also Diseases and Post Mortem)
Bronchitis, 120,121
Brood hens, 12, 47
Brooder designs, 58-61
Brooder guard, 60
Brooding, operation and management, 56-65
-- preparation, 56
-- hovers, 58-60
-- temperatures, 60, 61
-- feeders, 61
-- waterers, 18, 62, 76, 77, 100-104, 139
-- layout, 63
-- houses, 86, 87
-- country fowl, 36
Broodiness, 12, 47
Budgets, 18, 33, 153-157, 161-168
-- layers, 162, 163
-- meat type, 157
Buildings (see Housing)
Cages
-- vs floor layers, 15, 66
-- design and construction, 94-100
Calcium, 66, 110, 138
Candler, 52
Candling, 54, 55
Cannibalism, 75-79, 87, 94
Caponizing, 37, 136
Carbohydrates, 37, 136
Castration, 2
Catching chickens, 28, 29
Ceca, 25, 122, 123, 130
Cecal coccidiosis, 122, 123, 130
Cecal worms, 5, 65
Chickens
-- external anatomy, 21-24
-- general information, l-8
-- getting to know, 21-29
-- internal anatomy, 25-27
Chick guard, 60
Chicks
-- buying of and cost, 42, 45, 157, 162
-- color of, 21-24
-- country type, care of, 36, 55
214
 -- debeaking, 77-79
-- feeding, 36, 61, 63, 104-108, 134, 137, 143, 155
-- hatching of, 46
-- improved breed management schedule, 56-65
-- sexed vs unsexed, 45
-- watering, 62, loo-104
Chlorine, 50
Cholera, 83, 116
Claw, 22
Coccidiosis, 64, 116, 122-124
Cocks, cockerals, 22, 37, 76
Colds, 116, 124, 125
Colony brooders, 59
Colony cages, 98
Colony nests, 112
Comb, 22
Confinement and range rearing, 35-36, 81-99
Control concept in managment, of environment, 17
Cooperatives, 19, 168, 173
Coryza, 116, 124, 125
Country fowl, 2, 3, 10, 11, 31-39
Costs, 16
-- broilers, 157, 166
-- country chickens, 33, 154
-- layers, 162, 163, 166
Crop, 25
Crop, impacted or bound, 57
Crowding, effects of, 87-89
Culling, 66, 72-74, 86
Cultural beliefs, 5, 32

Day length, 65-71, 76

Dead chickens, 66
-- disposal of, 76, 128-130
Debeaking,' 77-79, 94
Deep litter, 14, 56, 57, 75, 83, 84
Diagnosis of diseases, 65, 118, 128-130
Diarrhea (see Coccidiosis)
Digestive system, 25 (see also Nutrition)
Dipping, matching eggs, 50
Dirty eggs, 48, 111, 159, 160
Disadvantages , poultry raising, 3, 4.
Diseases, 115-130
-- diagnosis, 65, 118, 128

215
 -- mortality rates, 76, 116
-- nutritional deficiencies, 150-153
-- prevention, 92, 115-130
-- resistance, 2, 3, 39
-- vaccinations, 116-121
Disinfectants, 52, 56
Disinfectant dip, 92
Down, 22
Drowning, 36
Dual purpose chickens, 2, 3, 44, 45
Ducks, 185, 186
Dust, 87

Ear lobes, 23
Economics (see Records, Finance, Marketing)
Eggs, 16, 17, 21, 26, 33, 38, 66
-- breakage prevention/handling, 111, 112, 159
-- candling, 52, 55
-- cleaning, 48, 111, 159
-- color of, 2, 43, 44, 66, 67
-- dipping, 50
-- grading, 159, 160
-- hatching, 47-50
-- production, 39, 67, 166, 167
-- quality, 52-55
-- stoiage, 159, 160
-- thin-shelled, 66, 71, 77, 110, 138
J%gs 9 marketing of, 2, 6, 19, 20, 153, 154, 159-163
-- eggs vs meat, 41, 42, 88, 89
-- planning for, 6, 19, 20 34, 153
-- seasonal considerations, 34, 167
Egg breeds, 2, 3
-- buying and starting, 42-46, 56-65
-- starting time, 34, 167
Egg shell hopper, 110
Embryo, 48
Energy in feed, 136, 137, 203
Energy, for equipment
-- electric brooder, 58
-- kerosene brooder, 59
-- kerosene incubator, 183
-- lighting, 65-71
-- solar, 59
-- wood, 59

216
Energy, from litter/methane gas, 37, 174
Environment, 2, 22, 32, 75-79
-- control, 17
Equipment/materials, 81-114, 183, 184
-- brooding and rearing, 58-63
-- brooder,
-- cages, 85, 94-100
-- catching,
-- cleaning, 56
-- country chickens, 31, 35, 36
-- debeaking, 77-79
-- disinfectant dip, 92, 93
-- egg candling, 54, 55
-- feeders, 104-108
-- feed mixings, 148, 149
-- floor space, 87-89
-- grit hoppers, 109, 110
-- incubation, 48, 51
-- layers, 65-67, 88, 89
-- lighting, 67-70
-- litter, 56, 57
-- meat breeds, 65, 88, 89
-- nests, 111, 113
-- planning for, 18, 19, 193
-- pullets, newly housed, 46, 66 (see Lighting)
-- rat control, 79
-- records, 164-166
-- roosts, 113
-- vaccination, 117, 118
-- waterers, loo-104
Erosion, gizzard, 84
Esophagus, 25
Examination ,
-- external., 22-24, 27-29
-- internal, 25-27
-- post mortem, 119, 128-130
Extension, 169-174, 193-196
--special projects, 172-174
Eyes, 23 (see also Diseases)

Farmer assessment (see Assessment)

Farm location, 87
Fats, 136
Feathers, 22, 23

217
Feather mites, 126, 127
Feather pulling (see Cannibalism)
Feces, 25 (see Deep litter)
Feed (see also Nutrition)
-- concentrates, 147
-- consumption, layers, 66, 106
-- conversion, broilers, 155, 156
-- country chickens, 36, 37
-- deficiencies, 150-152
-- feeding, 61
-- formulation, 140-146
-- grinding, 149
-- ingredients, 131-152
-- mixing, 148
-- nutrients, 136-140
-- storage, 149
-- wastage, 77, 84, 104, 105
Females vs males, 2, 22, 24, 26, 37
Fertilized vs unfertilized eggs, 5, 22, 26
Fertilizer, 3 (see also Deep litter)
Finances, 18, 33, 153-157, 161-168 (see also Marketing)
--increasing profits, 104, 105, 166, 167
--sources of finance, 167, 168
Flock
-- sizes, 3, 4, 132, 161
-- upgrading, 37-39
Floor, flooring, 87-89, 92-97
-- deep litter, 15, 83
-- raised, 15, 84
-- cage, battery, 15, 85
Fly control, 58
Food poisoning, 57, 128
Foot, 22
Forced molting, 71, 72
Fowl cholera, 83, 120, 121
Fowl pox, 64, 65, 115, 120
Free range, 10-12, 81
Fryer, 2
Fumel, 26

Gall bladder, 26
Gap (existing vs potential), 16, 17, 33, 34 (see Assessment)
Geese, 186-188
Gizzard, 25, 109

218
ssary, 211
in 134 (see also Feed)
en feed, 31, 131, 134
t, 104, 110, 139
uer mash, 134
wth rates, 155, 156, 158
nea fowl, 188, 189
dling
-- eggs, 111, 112
-- chickens, 27-29
thing, 22, 46-55 (see also Incubation and Eggs)
lth (see Diseases)
t stroke, 76
ting sources (see Brooding, Incubation)
s (see Layers)
sing, 81-94, 175-182
-- cages, 85, 86, 94-100
-- construction, 86-94
-- contained systems, 83
-- country fowl, 35, 36
-- deep litter, 83-85, 92, 93
-- floor space requirements, 89
-- free-range, 11, 12, 81
-- limited range, 13, 81, 82, 83
-- principles, 86-89
-- raised floor/slatted floors, 84, 93, 94
-- ventilation, 89
weather, 75, 76, 87, 89
'ers, 58-61
idity, 52, 84, 86
acted crop, 57
ome
-- eggs, 154, 162-167
-- meat, 154, 157
ubation
-- artificial, 22, 49-55
-- broody hen/natural, 22, 47, 48
-- egg selection for, 47-50
-- equipment, 183, 184
ia poultry, 7, 8
ectious bronchitis, 120, 121
ectious coryza, 116, 124, 125

1 219
Information sources and gathering, 18, 19, 26, 33, 166, 207-210
Ingredients, feed, 198-202
Ingredient use limits, 139, 205
Intestine, 25
Intestinal coccidiosis, 64, 116, 122-124
Intestinal worms, 5, 65, 125
Investment, 16, 33 c
-- layers, 154, 162, 163
-- meat-type, 154, 157
-- return on, 166
Isolation pen, 76

KeeL bone, 71-74

Kerosene brooder, 59
Kidneys, 26, 130
Killing chickens, 128

Larynx, 25, 129

Laryngotracheitis, 121
Layers, 2, 22, 37-39
--
breed source, 43-46
--
costs, returns and profits, 154, 162, 167
--
culling nonlayers, 72-74
--
equipment (see Equipment)
--
feed consumption, 66, 106
--
floor space, 89
--
forced molting, 71, 72
--
housing (see Housing)
--
lighting, 67-71
--
management principles, 65-71
--
production, eggs, 39, 67, 166, 167
--
records, 164, 165
--
replacement flocks, 42, 44-46, 63-66
--
second year, 71, 72
--
start of lay ages, 66, 67
--
stress, 2, 75-79
we
upgrading through breeding, 37-39, 48, 49
--
vs meat/broiler operations, 41, 42, 65, 84, 88, 89
Lice, 47, 126
Lighting, 65-71
-- step-up vs step-down, 70
-- in forced molting, 71, 72
Lime on litter, 58
Limited range, 13, 81, 82

220
Litter (see also Deep litter)
-- built-up, 58
-- changing, 56
-- depth, 57
-- eating, 57
-- fertilizer vaiue, 3, 83, 84
-- hot weather and humidity, 58, 83, 84
-- management, 56-58
-- types of, 56, 57
Liver, 26, 130
Location of poultry houses, 87
Lungs, 25

Males vs females, 2, 22, 24, 26, 37, 76

Management schedules
-- broilers, 63-65
-- layer flock replacements, 63-66
-- layer flocks, 66-70
Marek's Disease, 121
Manure, 3, 83, 84
Marketing, 32, 34
-- eggs, 2, 6, 19, 20, 153, 159-163
-- meat, 2, 6, 19, 20, 155-157
-- planning, 6, 19, 20, 34, 153
-- seasonal considerations, 34, 167
-- weight, broilers, 155-160
Mash and grain feeding, 134, 135
Meat vs eggs, 41, 42, 65, 84, 88, 89
Meat breeds, 44, 65
-- growth rates, 155, 156
-- marketing, 155-157
Medications, 139
-- coccidiosis control, 122-125
-- worms, 125, 126
Methane, 37, 174
Minerals, 138, 151, 205
Mites, 126, 127
Molt, forced, 71, 72
Mortality rates, 76, 116
Moving, 75

Nests, 36, 111, 112

New Hampshires, 43
Newcastle Disease, 63, 64, 116, 118, 119
Night protection, 35
Nitrogen-free extract, 136
Noise, 75
Non-Layers, 72-74
Nose (nostrils/beak), 25
Nutrient requirements of poultry, 136-139, 203-206
-- energy, 136, 203
-- minerals, 138, 205
-- protein/amino acids, 131, 137, 204, 205
-- vitamins, 138, 203, 204
-- other, 139
Nutrition, 18, 66, 131-152
-- country fowl, 36, 37
-- commercial feed, 133, 134
-- feeding methods, 134, 135
-- home-mixed feed, 135
-- mixing and formulation, 140-148

Oats (for cannibalism), 77

Other poultry, 185-191
Ovary, 26
Oviduct, 26
Oyster shells, 110 (see Calcium)

Parasites
-- external, 65, 84, 126
-- internal, 65, 84, 125, 126
Peanut shells (see Deep litter)
Peat moss (see Deep litter)
Pecking (see Cannibalism)
Phosphorus, 138
Pigeon pox (see Fowl pox)
Pigeons, 190, 191
Piperazine, 65, 66
Pipping, 22
Pits, disposal, 76, 128-130
Post mortem examination, 119, 128-130
Poultry keeping
-- advantages, 3
-- disadvantages, 3, 4
-- methods and systems, 81-86
-- prerequisites, 4-6
-- products, demand for (see Marketing)
Pox (see Fowl pox)

222
Predators, 10, 35, 75
Production
-- eggs, 16, 17, 21, 33, 38
-- meat, 16, 17, 33, 38, 155, 156
Profits (see Finance)
Protein/amino acids, 131, 137, 204, 205
Proventriculus, 25
Pubic bones, 71-74
Pullets, 22, 46
Pullorum, 122

Quarternaryammonia, 50

Raised floor, 84, 93, 94

Range
-- free, 11, 12, 81
-- limited, 13, 81-83
Rats, 35, 75, 79
Rearing (brooding), 56, 65
Records, 153-157, 164-166
Reproductive system, 25
Returns on investment (see Finances and Marketing)
Rhode Island Red, 43
Rice hulls (see Deep litter)
Roaster, 2
Roosters, 37-39
Roosts, 66, 113
Routine, 75

Salmonella pullorum, 45, 122

Salt, 151 (see also Cannibalism)
Sanitation (see Diseases)
-- cleaning between flocks, 52, 56
-- disinfectant dip, 92
Sexed or unsexed chicks, 45
Sexual maturity
-- female pullets, 21, 22
-- males, 22
Shank, 22
Shavings, 56
Shells,
-- hoppers, 110
-- starting chicks, 66
-- thin eggs, 138

223
Water, 139
-- hot climates, 101
-- cleanliness, 37
-- consumption, 100
-- in incubation, 51, 52, 53
-- requirements of iayers, 47
-- requirements of starting chicks, 36, 56, 62
-- space requirements/length/volume, 100
Waterers, loo-104
Weather, 3, 4, 75, 76
Weight, 2, 155-157
White Leghorns, 43
Whole grain, 134
Windows, 91
Wing, 22
Wire cages, 94-100
Worms, treatment and control, 5, 65, 66, 125

Yolk, sac, 22

GPO tl83-307

225
Since 1961 uhtn the Peace Corps wan created, more than 80,000 U.S. citizens have rerved
aa Volunterrm in developing countries, living and working among the people of the Third
World aa colleagues and co-workero. Today 6000 PCVs art involved in programs deaigncd
to help l trangthen local capacity to l ddrer@ much fundamental concerns as food
production, water l upply, energy devclopncnt, nutrition and health education and
refnrertation.

Peace Corps over8eaa offices:

BELIZE FIJI HALAYSIA SEYCHELLES

P.O. Box 407 p.0. Box 109: 177 Jalan Baja Huda Box564
Belize City Suva Kuala Lunpur Victor ia

BEh’Ih’ GABON HAL1 SIERRA LEONE

BP1 -98 BP5 Privrtc? Bag
Cotcnou Librtvllle Banako Frtttown

BOTSWAKA GAMBIA, The MAURITANIA SOLOHDKISLANDS

P.O. Box 93 p.0. Box 582 BP 222 P.O. Box 547
Clborone Banjul Nouakchott lioniara

CAEROOK GHANA HCRONESIA SWAZILAND

BP 817 P.O. Box 5796 P.O. Box 336 P.0, Box -362
Yaounde kcra (North) Saipan, U8riana Hbabane
Islands

CEWTSIRAL
AFRICAN GUATEHALA K)ROCCO TANZANIA
REPUBLIC 6s Avtnlda l-46 1, Rue Btnztrre Box 9123
3iTimr Zona 2 Rabat Dar t6 Salem
tingul Guatemala

CHILE HONDURAS NEPAL THAILAND

-1. 27-D Apartedo Postal P.O. Box 613 12 Soi Somprasong 2
Santiago c-5 1 Katfrmandu Petchburl Road
Ttgucfgalpa Bangkok 4

COLOKBIA IVORY COAST NIGER TOGO

Carrera 9 #86-26 BP 1127 BP 10537 BP1 94
Bogota Abid j&n Nianey

COSTA RICA JAMAICA OMAK TONGA

Apartrdo Postal 9 Musgrove Avenue p.0. Box 966 BP7
1266 Kingston 10 Muscat Nuku'Alofa
San Jose

DOMINICAK REPUBLIC KENYA PAPUA NEW GUINEA TUNISIA

Apartado Postal p.o.Box 30518 c/o htrican Embassy 8. Ave. Louis
1414 Nairobi Port brtsby Braille
Santa Domingo Tbnis

EASTERN CARRIBBEAN KOREA PARAGUAY UPPER VOLTA

Incl&ling: Ibtigua Gwang Wha tloon c/o Ibrtrican Embassy BP 537~!Samandln
Barbados, CrcGda, P.O.Box 521 Asuncion Ouagadoug ou
kmtrcrrat, Seoul
St. Kitt8-Ntvi6,
St .Iucia,St. LESOTHO PHILIPPINES WESTERNSAMA
Vincent, Dominica P.O. Box 554 P.O. Box 7013 P.O. Box 880
“Erln COurt” Cereru M8nlla Apia
Birhops Court Hill
P.O. Box 696-C LIBERIA RWANDA YEEN
BrIdgetown, Rarbados Box ‘-erican tibaasy P.O. Box 1151
Honrovia Kigal f Smo'a

ECUADOR !ExL SENEGAL ZAIRE

~&ill. 635-A Box 208 BP 254 BP 697
Quito Lllongwe Ihkfar Kln6hasa