EEET2465 Lecture 4 Analogue Communications Angle Modulation

EEET2465 Communication Engineering
Analogue Communications: Angle Modulation

- Phase Modulation (PM)
- Frequency Modulation (FM)
Lecturer: Dr W. F. Lee
Overview
• This lecture will start by looking at some of the basics behind

angle modulation.
• We will look at the main differences between frequency and
phase modulation and the considerations that need to be
taken into account when using these methods.
• The next part of the lecture will look at some of the practical
ways in which frequency and phase modulated signals can be
generated and detected.
• Lastly we will take a look at how FM stereo is achieved and
how the signal needs to be structured so a compatible receiver
can decode left and right audio channels.
RMIT University© 2014 EEET2465 – Communication Engineering 2

Angle Modulation: What is Angle?
• Angle modulation is the name given to modulation schemes that

use variations in carrier phase (or frequency) to encode a
baseband information signal.
• The word angle is used to describe a phase shift of a signal.
• Phase shift can be described using the polar coordinate system
where the phase shift between two signals can be represented
by the angle between two vectors on the polar plane (below).

Angle Modulation
• Modulation involves two signal components:

–A modulating signal, which is the message m(t ) or
baseband signal.
–And a carrier, which is a high frequency sinusoid.
–When modulated the carrier’s amplitude, frequency or
phase is then varied in proportion to the baseband signal m(t )
m(t )  Am cos(mt )
c(t )  Ac cos(ct )

Angle Modulation
• In AM, we saw that the information can be carried as a variation in

the amplitude of a high frequency carrier.
• Alternatively, the information could be carried as a variation in the
phase or frequency of a high frequency carrier.
• Phase variation of the carrier corresponding to information signal:
–Phase Modulation (PM)
• Frequency variation of the carrier corresponding to information
signal:
–Frequency Modulation (FM)
• Angle modulation techniques carry the information m(t ) by
modifying the angle of a carrier sinusoid with an original frequency
of c  2f c as follows:
y(t )  Ac cos[ (t )]  Ac cos[ct   (t )]
Instantaneous Frequency
• In angle modulation the instantaneous frequency f i (t ) of a

signal y(t ) at the time instant t is the frequency of the carrier
which represents the message at that time instant.
• The word “instantaneous” indicates that the frequency is time-
varying.
• Consider a general sinusoidal signal y(t ) given by:
y(t )  A cos[ (t )]
• where  (t ) is the generalised angle as a function of t . Then the
instantaneous frequency of this signal is given by:
i (t )  2fi (t )  d (t ) / dt

Example 4.1: Instantaneous Frequency
• Using the previous general case consider the angle modulated

signal:
y(t )  2 cos[2000t  sin(10t )]
• Find the time varying angle of this signal,  (t ) .

• Find the formula that describes the instantaneous frequency
of this signal at any time instant i (t ) .

Example 4.1: Instantaneous Frequency
• Using the previous general case let’s consider the function:
y(t )  A cos[ (t )]  2 cos[2000t  sin(10t )]
• In this case the time varying angle of the function is given as:
 (t )  2000t  sin(10t )
• To find the instantaneous frequency at any time instance we

can look at the change of the angle over time:
d (t ) d
i (t )   2000t  sin(10t )
dt dt
 2000  10 cos(10t )
Phase Modulation
• For Phase Modulation (PM), the

modulating phase  (t ) is directly
proportional to the modulating
signal (message) as follows:
 (t )  K p m(t )
where K p is a constant called the

phase sensitivity of the phase
modulator, with units of rad/volt.

Frequency Modulation
• For Frequency Modulation

(FM),  (t ) is directly proportional
to the integral of the modulating
signal (message) as follows:

t
 (t )  K  m(t )dt
0
K  2K f
where K  is a constant called

the frequency sensitivity of the
frequency modulator, with units
of (rad/sec)/volt.
Example 4.2: PM vs FM
• For a certain modulator the output signal is given below:

 cos24t , 0  t  1
y (t )  
cos16t , 1  t  2
1.5
1
Modulated Signal
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1.5
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Time, sec
• What would the message be if this modulator was a PM

modulator with K p  2 rad/volt and f c  10 Hz?
• What about if it was an FM modulator with
K  2 rad/sec /volt and f c  10 Hz ?
• For PM we know mathematically the output will be:

 
y(t )  Ac cos ct  K p m(t ) (Phase Modulation)
 cos20t  2mt 
• We know the instantaneous frequency at 0  t  1 sec is 12 Hz
and at 1  t  2 sec it is 8 Hz.
12, 0  t  1
f i t   20t  2mt  / 2  
d
dt  8, 1  t  2
12, 0  t  1  2, 0  t  1
 10  mt     mt   
d d

dt  8, 1  t  2 dt  2, 1  t  2
 2dt ,
mt     0  t 1  2t , 0  t  1
  mt   

  2dt , 1  t  2  2t , 1  t  2

• For FM we know mathematically the output will be:

 t

y (t )  Ac cos ct  K  m(t )dt 
 (Frequency Modulation)
 0 
 t

 cos 20t  2  mt dt 
 0 
• Again we know the instantaneous frequency at 0  t  1 sec is 12
Hz and at 1  t  2 sec it is 8 Hz.
d  12, 0  t  1
t
f i t    20t  2  mt dt  / 2  
 
dt  0   8, 1  t  2
12, 0  t  1  2, 0  t  1
 10  mt      mt   

 8, 1  t  2  2, 1  t  2
• Shown to the right are the two 2.5
message signals which would 2
produce this output for:
mPM(t)
1.5
• Phase Modulation: 1
0.5
 2t , 0  t  1
mt   
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
 2t , 1  t  2
Time, sec
• Frequency Modulation: 1
mFM(t)
0
 2, 0  t  1
mt   
-1
 2, 1  t  2 -2
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Time, sec

Frequency Deviation
• Frequency deviation (  ) is the amount of possible ‘swing’

from the carrier centre frequency in an angle modulated signal.
• It is dependent on maximum/minimum amplitudes of a message
and the frequency sensitivity of the angle modulator, K  .
• For an FM signal the peak frequency deviation is:
m(t ) max  m(t ) min

 max  K  K m(t ) max rad/sec
2
• Where:
m(t ) max is the maximum message amplitude
m(t )min is the minimum message amplitude

Frequency Deviation
• For a PM signal the peak frequency deviation is:

m' (t ) max  m' (t ) min
 max  Kp  K p m' (t ) max rad/sec
2
• Where:
m' (t ) max is the maximum value of the first derivative of the message
m' (t ) min is the minimum value of the first derivative of the message

Bandwidth of Angle Modulated Signals
• The frequency deviation will also impact on the bandwidth of

angle modulated signals.
• A large value of   implies more frequency components make
up the modulated signal, hence greater bandwidth usage.
• For all angle modulated signals the bandwidth is given by
Carson’s rule:
W  2 f  B 
Contains nearly 98% of the
total signal power
• where
B  Bandwidth of m(t )

f 
2
Modulation Index
• The Modulation Index for FM is defined as follows:
 max  f max K f mt max

  
2B B B
• For the case of FM signals this formula will allow for Carson’s
rule to be expressed in terms of  :
W  2B  1
• For PM signals the modulation index is defined as:
  K p mt max

Tone-Modulated FM Signals
• Analysing tone-modulated FM is a relatively simple way of

discovering the behaviour of FM.
• Tone-modulated FM just means the modulating message in
this case is a sinusoid, or tone.
• This type of modulation is what you will be looking at in the FM
lab.
• Let’s consider the case where the message being modulated is
given as:
m(t )  Am cos(mt ) hence mt max  Am and B  m / 2 Hz

m(t )  Am cos(mt ) y(t )  Ac cos[ct   (t )]

FM Modulator
c(t )  Ac cos(ct )
t
 (t )  K  Am cos(mt )dt  K Am sin(mt ) / m   sin(mt )
0
• The tone-modulated FM signal will be as follows:
y(t )  Ac cos[ct   sin(mt )]

which is periodic, with a period equal to that of the modulating
signal
The instantaneous frequency of the FM signal:

f i (t )  f c  K f m(t )  f c  K f Am cos(mt )  f c  f m cos(mt )
• As the FM signal,
Jo( )
1
is periodic and even, it can be
represented by the Fourier
J1( )
series as follows: J ( )
Jn( ) 2 J3( )
J4( ) J ( )
5 J6( )

y (t )  Ac J
k  
k (  ) cos[(c  km )t ]
0 
0 1 2 3 10
where J k (  ) is the k th-order

Bessel function of the first
kind with argument 

Example 4.3: Tone-Modulated FM Signals
8
• Consider the FM spectra to 6
|Y(f)|
the right. 4
2
• From the Bessel functions 0
4 6 8 10 12 14
below estimate the Frequency, Hz
corresponding values of  . 8
1 6
J0()
|Y(f)|
which is periodic with a period equal to that of the modulating signal,
4
J1() 2
J2()
0.5 J3() 0
J4() 4 6 8 10 12 14
Frequency, Hz
Jn()
6
0
|Y(f)|
0
4 6 8 10 12 14
-0.5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Frequency, Hz


Example 4.3: Tone-Modulated FM Signals
8
  0.5
6
|Y(f)|
4
1
J0()
2
0
J1() 4 6 8 10 12 14
J2() Frequency, Hz
0.5 J3()
J4() 8
 1
Jn()
|Y(f)|
4
0 2
0
4 6 8 10 12 14
=0.5 =1.5 Frequency, Hz

=1 8
-0.5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

  1.5
6
|Y(f)|
0
4 6 8 10 12 14
Frequency, Hz

• Power in Tone-Modulated FM

Ac J k ( )2  Ac2
P 
k   2 2
• Bandwidth of Tone-Modulated FM
–The bandwidth is theoretically infinite but practically we consider
the effective bandwidth (the range where the majority of signal
energy resides).
–For small values of the modulation index (  0.2), the Bessel
functions are all negligible except J 0   and J1   , hence the
bandwidth is W  2 f m , this is called Narrowband FM (NBFM).
–If is not small, we have Wideband FM (WBFM). The bandwidth is
W  2 f max  2f m
–Generally (i.e., for all  and modulating signals) W  2(1   ) B

So far…
• So far we have looked at angle modulated signals and

considered how we can find the instantaneous frequency of
these types of signals.
• We’ve introduced both phase and frequency modulation and
contrasted the two types of modulation.
• In the next section we will look at some of the methods we can
use to practically generate and demodulate angle modulated
signals.
• In the last section we will look at some of the considerations
that are taken into account when using angle modulation for
commercial broadcasting.

Practical Generation of FM Signals
• There are two main methods of producing FM signals.

• Direct generation, which is the simplest method and utilises
voltage controlled oscillators (VCOs).
• Indirect generation, which is a much more complicated
process and involves modifying a DSB/SC AM signal with
frequency multipliers and converters to produce an FM signal.

Direct Generation of FM
m(t )  Am cos(mt ) y (t )  Ac cos[ (t )]

VCO t
 Ac cos[ct  K  m(t )dt ]
0
• The simplest method of generating FM signals is to apply m(t )

to a voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO). A VCO is a device
whose output frequency is controlled by an input voltage.
• This method is called the direct method of FM generation.
• However, VCO’s are notoriously unstable and need extra
circuitry to produce a stable oscillator frequency.

Indirect Generation of FM
• The indirect method of FM generation process is:

• The original message m(t ) is firstly integrated.
• Next a DSB/SC modulated signal is produced from the
integrated message signal.
• Adding a 90o phase shifted carrier to this produces an
approximate narrowband FM (NBFM) signal.
• Finally frequency multipliers and frequency converters are
used to increase both the carrier frequency and the frequency
deviations of the FM signal to produce wideband FM (WBFM).

Armstrong Indirect FM Modulator
• One indirect method of producing FM signals is the Armstrong

indirect FM modulator:
• This method achieves frequency multiplication by using non-

linear devices followed by a band-pass filter.
• For example, a device with the response y(t )  ax (t ) would be
2
capable of doubling both the incoming frequency of the signal, f c

as well as the frequency deviation, f .
Indirect Generation of FM
• As with the direct method of FM generation the indirect method

also has weaknesses:
• The indirect method has a much greater frequency stability
than the direct method (using VCOs).
• But the indirect method can cause a signal to become noisy
due to excessive multiplication processes.
• It can also suffer from distortion at lower modulating
frequencies when the frequency deviation, f can become too
large.

Armstrong FM Generation
1.5
• Consider how squaring an FM 1
0.5
signal affects its frequency:
y(t)
 
0
x(t )  cos ct  K  mt dt -0.5
-1
• For a squarer system with the -1.5

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
equation: y(t )  axt 

2 Time, sec
1.5
• We will get:
 
1
yt   a cos 2 ct  K  mt dt

y2(t)
0.5
Use : cos 2    1  cos2 

1
-0.5
2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Time, sec
yt  
a
2
  
1  cos 2ct  2 K  mt dt   cos 2ct  2 K  mt dt
a a
2 2
 
Doubles the frequency Doubles the frequency sensitivity
Armstrong FM Generation
• Consider how mixing frequencies affects an FM signal:
• Using the multiplication of sinusoids rule y (t ) becomes:

y(t )  cos2t  f c  f m    t   cos2t  f c  f m    t 
The spectrum will
|Y( f ) | contain two
versions of the
original spectrum,
one at fc-fm and
one at fc+fm
f, Hz
fc - fm fc fc + fm

Example 4.4: Armstrong FM Generator
• Design an Armstrong FM modulator to generate the FM signal:

• f c 4  97.3 MHz (Ultimate carrier frequency)
• f 4  10.24 kHz (Ultimate frequency deviation)
• The initial narrowband FM signal has:
• f c1  20 kHz (Original carrier frequency)
• f1  5 Hz (Original frequency deviation)
Use only frequency doublers and a local oscillator of 440 kHz

• Total factor of multiplication needed?

desired f 10.24 kHz
  2048  M 1 M 2  211 (can only use doublers)
original f 5 Hz

• Signal needs doubling 11 times 2 n1 n2  211 
• Multipliers also increase frequency by the same factor, so the
equations for f c 2 and f c 4 are:
f c 2  M 1 f c1 and f c 4  M 2 f c3
f c1  20 kHz
f c 4  97.3 MHz
f c 2  M 1 f c1 f c3   f c 2  f LO  f c 4  M 2 f c3

M 1 and M 2
    
97.3 MHz  M 1 M 2 20  103  M 2 440  103 

The Envelope Demodulator
To Envelope Detector
• This technique uses a differentiator followed by an envelope

detector (AM demodulator)
t
y (t )  Ac cos[ (t )]  Ac cos[ct  K  m(t )dt ]
0
y(t )   Ac sin[ (t )].  (t )   Ac [c  K m(t )] sin[ (t )]

The Envelope Demodulator
y(t )   Ac sin[ (t )].  (t )   Ac [c  K m(t )] sin[ (t )]

•This is an amplitude modulated-FM signal, which looks like:
150
100
50
s(t)
-50
-100
-150
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Time, sec
•The output of an envelope detector (AM demodulator) will then

be: s(t )  Ac [c  K m(t )]

The PLL Demodulator
• The PLL is a feedback system that arranges its phase to be equal

to (or at a constant phase difference with) the phase of the
incoming signal.
• As a result, its frequency will be equal to the incoming frequency.
• This process, called locking, normally takes a number of cycles
before settling.

The PLL Demodulator
• If the incoming frequency is time-varying, as in PM or FM signals,

the PLL can also follow this frequency variation if the loop
parameters are properly arranged.
• As a result, the input signal to the VCO (i.e. the LPF output)
should be equal to the original message.
• In this case, the cutoff frequency of the LPF should be chosen
equal to the message bandwidth B (not the FM signal
bandwidth).
FM Demodulation using PLLs
• If we have a frequency modulated signal of the form:

t
y (t )  Ac cos[ct  K  m(t )dt ]
0
• This signal can be demodulated using a PLL.
• The output of the PLL’s VCO is given as:
g (t )  sin[ct  0 (t )]
• where c is the carrier radian frequency and  0 (t ) is the time
varying phase of the VCO.
• The PLL’s Phase Error Detector (PED) will continuously
detect error, e(t ), between the incoming FM signal and the
VCO phase and frequency. This can be used to demodulate
the message.

Analogue PLLs (FM Demodulation)
• An actual plot of e(t ) from a practical set up of a PLL is shown

below. The low frequency region is the original message
modulated onto the carrier while the high frequencies will be
removed using the LPF.

Analogue PLLs (FM Demodulation)
• After e(t ) is passed through a low-pass filter the only term

remaining is the low frequency term:
1
s(t )  sin( 0 (t )   (t ))
2
• This is fed back into the VCO to update the VCO

phase/frequency. Apart from this, this term is also our
demodulated message (with a scaling factor).
1 
s(t )  sin( 0 (t )   (t ))  m(t )
2 

The Zero-Crossing Demodulator
• This is the demodulation method used in the FM lab.

• It uses a comparator to create an FM square wave and a
mono-stable pulse generator that outputs narrow pulses on
each positive going edge of the FM square wave.
1
FM
0
-1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
1
Sq. FM
0 hard-limiter
-1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
1.5    monostable
p(t)
1
0.5 pulse
0 t generator
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

-1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
The1Zero-Crossing Demodulator
Sq. FM 0
-1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 monostable
0.8 1 1.2
output 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
1.5   
p(t)
1
0.5
0 t
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
• This output pulse train contains the message information

which can be time-averaged using a LPF (with f c  B) giving
the output:
tD
1 1
vo (t ) 
D t p (t )dt  D (Vo )  Vof c  VoK f m(t )
• Which is the message, mt  with a scaling factor and DC shift
proportional to the amplitude of the pulses, Vo and the pulse
width  .

Angle Demodulation in Noise
• Signal to noise ratio in angle modulation is affected by the

phase/frequency sensitivity of the modulation system.
• Noise is additive (affects the amplitude of a signal), therefore
noise will affect angle modulated signals differently to
amplitude modulated signals.
• SNR for PM: 2 2
Ps Ac K p Pm
SNR PM  
Pn 2 BN 0
where Pm is the normalised power of the original message.
• SNR for FM: 2 2

Ps 3 Ac K f Pm
SNR FM  
Pn 2B3 N0
FM versus AM
• FM consumes more bandwidth and needs more complicated

equipment than AM.
• FM has better performance as it is less sensitive to additive
Gaussian noise encountered in practical communication
systems.
• All forms of AM do not improve SNR over SNRb.
• In FM we can improve SNR by increasing the modulation index.
• FM requires less radiated power than commercial AM:
–Tone-modulated FM P  Ac2 / 2
–Tone-modulated DSB AM P  A2
c / 2   A2 2
c Am / 4

Commercial Broadcasting
• Commercial AM radio broadcasting

– frequency range 522-1611 kHz
– carriers ranging from 531-1602 kHz
– separation of 9 kHz between carriers
• Commercial FM radio transmission
– Frequency range of 88-108 MHz
– carrier separation 200 kHz and
– maximum frequency deviation of 75 kHz
• TV Broadcasting (analogue, obsolete)
– bandwidth allocation is 6 MHz for each channel
– audio signal is transmitted using FM
– video signal is transmitted using AM (most of the bandwidth is consumed
by the video signal)
– TV carriers are in the VHF (54 to 216 MHz) or in the UHF (470 to ~805
MHz) frequency bands.

Commercial Broadcasting
• Another positive to commercial broadcasting with frequency

modulation is the ability to broadcast stereo audio.
• As mentioned in the previous slide AM radio stations are
allocated just enough bandwidth to transmit a single audio
channel (9 kHz between adjacent carriers).
• FM stations are allocated 200 kHz bandwidth which can be
used to transmit multiple audio channels plus other information.
• So how do radio stations transmit stereo audio??

Stereo FM Broadcasting
• Broadcasting audio in stereo means that we have two audio

channels.
• Audio from one channel comes through the left speaker while
the second channel comes through the right speaker giving an
immersive audio experience.

• We could modulate one channel in a low region of the allocated

bandwidth and the second channel in a higher region.
• But we need to make the signal compatible with purely
monaural (mono) receivers as well as stereo compatible
receivers.

• What happens in reality is the left and right channels are added
together and left at baseband. Ultimately this will be what mono
receivers will receive.
• Then the right channel is subtracted from the left and DSB/SC
AM modulated onto a 38 kHz carrier.
• Finally a 19 kHz pilot tone is added to aid with synchronisation.
L + R (baseband)
L - R DSB/SC
19 kHz pilot tone AM modulated
-B 0 B 19 38-B 38 38+B Frequency, kHz

• Once this has been performed the entire data is then FM

modulated onto the radio frequency carrier.
• If a stereo compatible receiver detects the 19 kHz pilot tone it
then knows stereo audio is available and can demodulate and
decode it at the receiver.
( L  R)  ( L  R)  2L
FM signal Stereo
Receiver
( L  R)  ( L  R)  2R Stereo audio

Finally
• This lecture has covered angle modulation techniques.

• We examined phase modulation (PM) to begin with and then
focused on frequency modulation (FM).
• We looked at how to create FM signals and how to demodulate
them as well.
• Finally we looked at some of the techniques used in commercial
radio broadcasting.

EEET2465 Lecture 4 Analogue Communications Angle Modulation

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EEET2465 Lecture 4 Analogue Communications Angle Modulation

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EEET2465 Communication Engineering

Analogue Communications: Angle Modulation

• This lecture will start by looking at some of the basics behind

RMIT University© 2014 EEET2465 – Communication Engineering 2

• Angle modulation is the name given to modulation schemes that

RMIT University© 2014 EEET2465 – Communication Engineering 3

• Modulation involves two signal components:

RMIT University© 2014 EEET2465 – Communication Engineering 4

• In AM, we saw that the information can be carried as a variation in

• In angle modulation the instantaneous frequency f i (t ) of a

RMIT University© 2014 EEET2465 – Communication Engineering 6

• Using the previous general case consider the angle modulated

y(t )  2 cos[2000t  sin(10t )]

• Find the time varying angle of this signal,  (t ) .

RMIT University© 2014 EEET2465 – Communication Engineering 7

• Using the previous general case let’s consider the function:

y(t )  A cos[ (t )]  2 cos[2000t  sin(10t )]

• To find the instantaneous frequency at any time instance we

• For Phase Modulation (PM), the

y(t )  Ac cos[ (t )]  Ac cos[ct   (t )]

where K p is a constant called the

RMIT University© 2014 EEET2465 – Communication Engineering 9

• For Frequency Modulation

y(t )  Ac cos[ (t )]  Ac cos[ct   (t )]

where K  is a constant called

• For a certain modulator the output signal is given below:

• What would the message be if this modulator was a PM

• For PM we know mathematically the output will be:

RMIT University© 2014 EEET2465 – Communication Engineering 12

• For FM we know mathematically the output will be:

• Shown to the right are the two 2.5

message signals which would 2

produce this output for:

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• Frequency deviation (  ) is the amount of possible ‘swing’

m(t ) max  m(t ) min

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• For a PM signal the peak frequency deviation is:

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• The frequency deviation will also impact on the bandwidth of

• The Modulation Index for FM is defined as follows:

 max  f max K f mt max

RMIT University© 2014 EEET2465 – Communication Engineering 18

• Analysing tone-modulated FM is a relatively simple way of

m(t )  Am cos(mt ) hence mt max  Am and B  m / 2 Hz

RMIT University© 2014 EEET2465 – Communication Engineering 19

m(t )  Am cos(mt ) y(t )  Ac cos[ct   (t )]

• The tone-modulated FM signal will be as follows:

y(t )  Ac cos[ct   sin(mt )]

y(t )  Ac cos[ct   sin(mt )]

The instantaneous frequency of the FM signal:

where J k (  ) is the k th-order

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• Consider the FM spectra to 6

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=0.5 =1.5 Frequency, Hz

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• So far we have looked at angle modulated signals and

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• There are two main methods of producing FM signals.

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m(t )  Am cos(mt ) y (t )  Ac cos[ (t )]

• The simplest method of generating FM signals is to apply m(t )