424464

vroopJournal of Research in Music Education

JRM59410.1177/0022429411424464De

Journal of Research in Music Education

The Occupational 59(4) 393­–405
© 2012 National Association

Aspirations and for Music Education

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DOI: 10.1177/0022429411424464
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Students Majoring in
Jazz Studies

Karendra Devroop1

Abstract
This study was designed to investigate the occupational aspirations and occupational
expectations of college students majoring in jazz studies in the United States.
Participants included the population of jazz studies majors (N = 211) at a large
mid-southern university known for its prestigious and internationally recognized
jazz program. A response rate of 85% was obtained. Occupational aspirations and
occupational expectations were measured on the Jazz Occupational Prestige Index.
Results indicated that students aspired to more prestigious occupations but expected
to be employed in occupations less prestigious when considering the realities of the
job market. A small percentage of students (4.7%) aspired to teach while a higher
percentage (15.8%) expected to be engaged in teaching as a profession. The analysis
of relationships between variables revealed a low positive relationship between
occupational aspiration and support from significant others. All other relationships
were negligible.

Keywords
music education, jazz, college students, occupational aspiration, occupational expectation

The occupational decisions and choices made early in one’s life may have a direct
bearing on subsequent success and career development (Farmer, 1985). Mote (1982)
suggested that making occupational choices when the individual is fully aware of the

1
North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa

Corresponding Author:
Karendra Devroop, North-West University, School of Music, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom,
North-West Province, 2520 South Africa
Email: kdevroop@hotmail.com
394 Journal of Research in Music Education 59(4)

consequences of his or her choices is as important as the decisions themselves and that
decisions that are made when the individual is not aware of the consequences of his or
her actions could result in expectations that are beyond or below the capabilities of the
individual. Unrealized expectations, however, can lead to frustration, insecurity, and
poor career development (Hanson, 1994; Mote, 1982).
Occupational aspirations and expectations are at the core of career development
and have been found to be predictive of occupational achievement (Hanson, 1994;
Mote, 1982; Newkirk, 1998; Wims, 1994). Accordingly, aspirations and expectations
have become the focus for intervention (Chung, Loeb, & Gonzo, 1996). The term
occupational aspirations refers to jobs that individuals ideally would prefer or like to
have, while occupational expectations refers to jobs that individuals realistically
expect to obtain while accounting for the realities of the job market (Devroop &
Devroop, 2006). According to Newkirk (1998) and Wims (1994), youth clearly distin-
guish between occupations they aspire to have and occupations they realistically
expect to get.
Farmer (1985) was one of the first researchers from within the field of career devel-
opment to propose a model to explain occupational aspirations and occupational expec-
tations. Her model was strongly influenced by Bandura’s (1978) social learning theory
and included three sets of multidimensional variables: social environmental, personal, and
background variables. Over the past 25 years, Farmer’s model has been substantiated
and utilized by most researchers within the career development literature.
When one considers the intensive training and years of preparation that musicians
undertake in order to achieve success, it becomes apparent that career decisions and
choices need to be made when the individual is fully aware of the consequences of his
or her decisions (Jones, 1964). The process by which musicians make career decisions
and the point in their lives when these decisions are made remain unexplained. It also
is unclear what bearing social and psychological variables have on the career decisions
of musicians.
Studies in music related to occupations have focused primarily on professional
orchestra musicians, college students majoring in classical music performance, and
students majoring in music education. Researchers have investigated relationships
between selected variables and the career development of musicians (Gilbert, 1994;
Shelter, 1985), problems experienced by aspiring musicians (Land, 1979), occupa-
tional status of music education majors (Bergee, 1992), first remembrances of wanting
to be a music educator (Madsen & Kelly, 2002), and career patterns and goals of music
students (Holloway, 1984; Ploumis-Devick, 1983; Schmidt, Zdzinski, & Ballard,
2006).
Studies focusing on professional jazz musicians in particular indicated that jazz
musicians experienced a lack of stable work (Patalano, 1997), irregular employment
led many to give up the music profession (Becker, 1953), musicians were periodically
“broke” and had no health and pension benefits (Corzine & Sherwood, 1983), and
many were required to play commercial music in order to earn a living (Levy &
Dranguet, 1990). Nanry (1979) found that the attitudes expressed by successful jazz
Devroop 395

musicians did not conform to popular myths typically associated with the jazz profes-
sion. He suggested that college jazz musicians might be misled when making occupa-
tional choices.
There have been three studies that specifically addressed occupational aspirations
and expectations of musicians. Talbot and Kopala (1991) investigated the occupa-
tional aspirations and expectations of university and conservatory music performance
majors, Devroop and Aguilar (2006) investigated the occupational aspirations and
expectations of college students majoring in music education in Mexico, and Devroop
and Devroop (2006) studied the occupational aspirations and expectations of college
students majoring in jazz studies in South Africa. Considering the paucity of informa-
tion about the occupational aspirations and expectations of college jazz musicians in
the United States, the home country of jazz, the purpose of the current study was to
obtain such information.

Research Questions
This study sought to answer three questions: (1) What are the occupational aspirations
of students majoring in jazz studies? (2) What are the occupational expectations of
students majoring in jazz studies? and (3) Are students’ aspirations and expectations
related to selected social environmental, personal, and background variables?
Research question 3 was included in this study because these variables have been
found to predict occupational aspirations and expectations by previous researchers.
My purposes were to test for any relationships that might exist among them for my
participants and to determine if the findings from this study would be similar to or
different from those reported in the career development literature.

Method
Participants

Participants included the population of students majoring in jazz studies at a large

mid-southern university in the United States. The jazz program at this university was
ranked among the largest and strongest programs in the country and consisted of nine
lab bands (big bands), two vocal jazz ensembles, over 40 jazz combos (small jazz
groups), and a selection of keyboard, guitar, and repertoire ensembles. Due to strong
motivation from jazz faculty based on their belief in the importance of the study and
the value of the results to the college of music, all students agreed to participate ini-
tially (N = 249). Students were offered the opportunity to decline participation or
withdraw from the study at any point. A total of 211 students ultimately responded to
the survey, representing a return rate of 85%.
Participants were classified by academic level (undergraduate and graduate), age,
gender, and instrument type. The majority of participants (88.5%) were male. Almost
a fourth of the responding group (26.4%) was graduate students, with freshmen
396 Journal of Research in Music Education 59(4)

(20.2%) and seniors (20.2%) the largest of the undergraduate subgroups. Second-year
senior (6.6%) was the smallest undergraduate group. The largest ethnic group was
Caucasian (71.5%) followed by Hispanic (12.1%). The college of music has a history
of attracting students from across all 50 states and Puerto Rico, due largely to the size
and prestige associated with the jazz program. Approximately 20% of the responding
group was composed of international students. The four countries with the highest
representation of international students, accounting for 2.4% each, were Germany,
Mexico, Korea, and Japan. The remaining countries represented approximately 11%
of the makeup of the responding group.

Measurement Instrument
A questionnaire was developed specifically for this study. To develop the question-
naire initially, I conducted informal interviews with students majoring in jazz studies
and jazz faculty. The purpose of the informal interviews was to (1) gain insight into
students’ occupational concerns, (2) gain insight into occupational concerns as per-
ceived by the jazz faculty, and (3) identify terminology typically used by students
when discussing occupational development. Following these informal interviews, the
questionnaire was constructed and refined.
Researchers (Mote, 1982; Newkirk, 1998; Wims, 1994) typically have assessed
occupational aspirations and occupational expectations by coding individuals’ occu-
pational choices on Duncan’s Socioeconomic Index (Duncan, 1961), which was
updated by Stevens and Cho (1985). Duncan’s Socioeconomic Index makes no provi-
sions for the various occupations that are available to musicians, including jazz musi-
cians. All music occupations are grouped into two overall categories: musician/
composer and music teacher. To address this shortcoming, I developed a Jazz
Occupational Prestige Index (JOPI) specifically for this study, and it was used as an
interpretive tool.
In order to develop the JOPI, I asked five jazz faculty members to categorize all
possible occupations that are available to jazz musicians. The result was the establish-
ment of six occupational categories: performer, teacher, composer/arranger/author,
jazz technology specialist, music business specialist, and a combination of categories.
The five jazz faculty and 30 students majoring in jazz studies were then asked to indi-
cate the level of prestige they associated with each of the six occupational categories
on a 10-point continuous rating scale ranging from no prestige to highly prestigious.
This procedure was consistent with the rating of occupational prestige presented by
Stevens and Cho (1985). Means of the individual jazz occupational categories were
used as indexes for each of the occupational categories listed on the JOPI. The calcu-
lated means for the six jazz occupational categories were performer (M = 9.32), a
combination of categories (M = 8.31), composer/arranger/author (M = 8.06), teacher
(M = 6.78), jazz technology specialist (M = 4.36), and music business specialist (M = 4.02).
Higher means were interpreted as indicating more prestigious.
Devroop 397

Occupational aspiration and occupational expectation were assessed by asking par-

ticipants to indicate the occupation that they preferred to have and the occupation they
expected to get. Participants indicated their choice of one of the six categories on the
JOPI. The number representing the mean level of prestige associated with the occupa-
tional category they chose was used as an indicator of their occupational aspiration/
expectation level (e.g., the choice performer was equal to 9.32).
The social environmental variables (support from significant others and choice of
school), personal variables (academic achievement and academic level), and back-
ground variables (socioeconomic status and early jazz experience) were represented
by individual items on the measurement instrument. To measure support from signifi-
cant others, participants were asked the question, “To what extent did each of the fol-
lowing persons contribute to your decision to major in jazz?” Measurements were
made on a 10-point continuous rating type scale ranging from none to completely. An
overall mean for the scores on each of the sub-categories that made up significant oth-
ers (parents, relatives, private instructors, high school band director, friends, and role
models) was used as an overall index for significant others. This was consistent with
procedures used by Newkirk (1998) and Wims (1994). Responses to the question on
participant’s choice of school were measured similarly to the procedures used by
Mathombela (1997) and Mote (1982), whereby participants responded to five items
that were measured on a 10-point continuous rating scale, and the mean of these items
provided the overall index for choice of school. In a manner similar to that used by
Farmer (1985) and Kapral (1980), grade point average was used as a measure of aca-
demic achievement. Academic level was determined from the response to a single item
requiring participants to indicate whether they were currently a freshman, sophomore,
junior, senior, second-year senior, or graduate student.
In this study I assessed socioeconomic status in a manner similar to Mote (1982)
and Newkirk (1998) in that participants were required to respond to four items: two
questions asking about their parents’ occupation and two items asking about the edu-
cation levels of each parent. Responses to parental occupations were coded on
Duncan’s Socioeconomic Index (Duncan, 1961), updated by Stevens and Cho (1985).
Responses to the educational items ranged from “some high school but did not gradu-
ate” to “advanced graduate degree.” Lower scores indicated a lower educational level
and vice versa. The coded responses on the occupational items were added to the
responses on the educational items. The total score was divided by 4 to provide an
overall index for socioeconomic status.
Early jazz experience was assessed in a manner consistent with Holloway’s (1984)
procedures. Participants responded to six questions developed to assess the number of
years that they had received jazz instruction and played jazz, the results of which were
averaged to obtain one data point representing a participant’s jazz experience.
The primary method used for investigating validity was to establish content valid-
ity. For this purpose a panel of three university jazz faculty members was selected to
serve as experts. Faculty members were selected based upon their knowledge of the
398 Journal of Research in Music Education 59(4)

content area under investigation and their national reputation as jazz educators and
performers. Each possessed a broad knowledge of the occupational circumstances that
professional jazz musicians were subjected to as well as the academic environment of
college level jazz musicians. The questionnaire was submitted to the panel for review
and critique of (1) content, (2) clarity of questions, and (3) appropriate use of terminol-
ogy. All recommended revisions were adopted.

Pilot Study
A pilot study was conducted to determine reliability of the measurement instrument.
The pilot study was administered to a convenience sample (N = 14) of nine under-
graduate and five graduate students who were enrolled in their final academic semes-
ter in the jazz program at the university. Test–retest or internal consistency procedures
were utilized to investigate reliability, as appropriate for the variable being investi-
gated. Reliability coefficients for the major variables under investigation were occu-
pational aspiration (.81), occupational expectation (.91), socioeconomic status (.72),
support from significant others (.70), early jazz experience (.70), choice of school
(.78), age (.99), academic achievement (.99), academic level (.99), and instrument
type (1.00).

Questionnaire Administration
Questionnaire administration and retrieval was done by the investigator over a 3-week
period. An enrollment list of all music students majoring in jazz studies was obtained
from the College of Music academic records. Class lists for all jazz courses and jazz
performance ensembles were obtained. Through the process of elimination, five
classes and 13 ensembles were identified for visitation by the researcher. Visiting
each of these classes and ensembles ensured that the researcher had access to every
jazz studies major enrolled in the program.

Results
The average age of participants was 24 years with a range of 18 to 58 years. In light
of the wide range, the age variable was coded into six categories: 18–22 years, 23–27 years,
28–32 years, 33–37 years, 38–42 years, and 43 years and older. A frequency analysis
of the six-category age variable showed that 52% of participants were in the 18–22-
year category, 28% in the 23–27-year category, and 13% in the 28–32-year category.
Each remaining category accounted for approximately 2% of the total.

Occupational Aspirations
As indicated in Table 1, most participants aspired to be jazz performers. The second-
most-aspired-to occupational category was a combination of occupations. A very
small number of participants aspired to teach.
Devroop 399

Table 1. Distribution of Occupational Aspiration by Occupational Categories on the Jazz

Occupational Prestige Index
n %

Jazz performer 106 50.2

Combination of occupations 89 42.2
Jazz teacher 10 4.7
Composer/arranger/author 4 1.9
Music business specialist 1 0.5
Jazz technology specialist 1 0.5
Total 211 100

When participants indicated the type of performance ensemble/environment to

which they aspired, over 46% indicated that they aspired to perform in a combination
of ensemble types and/or environments. Approximately 35% aspired to play in a jazz
combo and 10.8% in the recording studio. The ensembles/environments to which par-
ticipants least aspired were service band (0.5%) and big band (7.5%).

Occupational Expectations
The analysis of participants’ occupational expectations (Table 2) revealed that
approximately half of all participants expected to sustain a livelihood through a num-
ber of different activities. Jazz performer and jazz teacher were the second and third
most expected occupational categories.
When participants indicated their expected performance ensemble/environment, a
majority of participants (45.4%) indicated that they expected to perform in a combina-
tion of ensemble types and/or performance environments. Approximately a third of
the total number of participants (29.9%) expected to perform in a jazz combo while
12% expected to perform in the recording studio environment. Approximately 10%
expected to perform in a big band and less than 3% in a service band.

Table 2. Distribution of Occupational Expectation by Occupational Categories on the Jazz

Occupational Prestige Index
n %

Combination of occupations 101 48.3

Jazz performer 62 29.7
Jazz teacher 33 15.8
Composer/arranger/author 7 3.3
Music business specialist 4 1.9
Jazz technology specialist 2 1.0
Total 209 100
400 Journal of Research in Music Education 59(4)

The comparison of mean scores for occupational aspiration and occupational

expectation showed that the overall mean for occupational aspiration (M = 8.70,
SD = .79) was higher than the overall mean for occupational expectation (M = 8.23,
SD = 1.08). This suggests that the occupations to which students aspired were more
prestigious than the occupations they expected.
A follow-up section on occupational expectations required students to indicate their
immediate career plans upon graduation. Almost 41% indicated that upon graduation
they expected to be engaged in a combination of performing, teaching, and compos-
ing. Approximately 16% expected to study full-time while 13% indicated that they
expected to perform full-time. An interesting finding was that 6% expected to work a
non-music-related job full-time. Only 3% indicated that they would teach full-time
while 1% indicated that they would compose and arrange music full-time.
The remaining 20% of participants indicated that they had plans other than those
described above. The career plans identified by participants who checked off the
“other” category included working a nonmusic job part-time while studying part-time,
working a nonmusic job full-time while playing music part-time, and studying part-
time while playing music part-time. The results from this analysis suggested that a
relatively large number of participants expected to work a nonmusic job while either
playing or studying music part-time.

Career Development Variables

Table 3 provides the Pearson product–moment coefficients for occupational aspira-
tions and expectations responses and their correlations with social environmental,
personal, and background variables. A moderate, positive correlation was found
between participants’ occupational aspirations and occupational expectations (r = .43).
The coefficient of determination (r2) was .18. According to Cohen’s (1969) guidelines
for interpreting effect size, this would be classified as small.

Table 3. Correlations Between Occupational Aspirations, Occupational Expectations, and

Social Environmental, Personal, and Background Variables
Occupational aspiration Occupational expectation
  r r

Social environmental variables

  Significant others .18 .10
  Choice of school −.08 −.02
Personal variables
  Academic achievement −.06 .02
  Academic level −.03 −.05
Background variables
  Socioeconomic status .01 .04
  Early jazz experience .03 .10
Devroop 401

There was a low positive relationship between occupational aspiration and sup-
port from significant others. However, effect size (r2 = .03) was negligible. There
were no substantive relationships between all remaining variables and occupational
aspirations.
Low to moderate positive relationships were found between occupational expecta-
tions and support from significant others and occupational expectations and early jazz
experience. However, the effect sizes for each of these relationships (r2 = .01 and r2 = .03,
respectively) were negligible. There were no substantive correlations between occupa-
tional expectations and all remaining variables.

Discussion
Similar to previous studies on occupational aspirations and occupational expectations,
the results of this study showed that students majoring in jazz studies made a distinc-
tion between occupations to which they aspired and occupations they realistically
expected to get. Furthermore, this study substantiated previously published reports
that investigated relationships between students’ occupational aspirations, occupational
expectations, and selected career development variables including significant others,
choice of school, academic achievement, academic level, socioeconomic status, and
early jazz experience.
The majority of students indicated that they preferred to be jazz performers yet
expected to be engaged in a combination of occupational categories, an occupational
category with lower prestige than the jazz performer category on the JOPI. The finding
that students’ occupational aspirations were higher than their occupational expecta-
tions is supported extensively in the literature (Devroop & Devroop, 2006; Kapral,
1980; Mathombela, 1997; Mote, 1982; Newkirk, 1998). In fact, Wims (1994) sug-
gested that students generally expected to enter into professions that were lower in
status than the professions to which they aspired or preferred to have.
The analysis of occupational aspirations and expectations suggested that while stu-
dents aspired to a particular type of job, they were not necessarily expecting to get the
job to which they aspired. In the context of this study, a higher percentage of students
aspired to be jazz performers exclusively, however, many were not really expecting to
play jazz exclusively to sustain a livelihood. This seems to indicate that students per-
ceived possible obstacles in achieving the occupations to which they aspired—for
instance, a lack of ability or a lack of employment opportunities in the job market—
and further research to investigate students’ perceptions related to potential obstacles
would be enlightening.
The analysis of students’ preferred performance ensemble or environment indicated
that only 11% of the total number of participants aspired to play in the recording studio
environment. This finding is contrary to the findings of Faulkner (1968), Harvey
(1967), Nanry (1979), and Stebbins (1964), who reported that the most sought-after
performance environment for jazz musicians was the recording studio. According to
Faulkner (1968), the recording studio environment was considered extremely presti-
gious and provided jazz musicians with a stable and good source of income. Given the
402 Journal of Research in Music Education 59(4)

high rate of compensation and prestige currently associated with the recording studio
environment, one would expect a larger percentage of students to have aspired to this
environment.
When questioned about their immediate career plans upon graduation, most stu-
dents indicated that they intended to play, teach, and compose music. However,
approximately 20% of the total number of participants indicated that they intended
working a nonmusic job part-time while studying part-time or working a nonmusic job
full-time while playing music (jazz and nonjazz) part-time. While it is understandable
that out of financial necessity some students may need to work a nonmusic job part-
time while studying part-time, it is unclear why students who would be graduating
with a degree in music would want to work a nonmusic job full-time while playing
music part-time. Unfortunately, this study did not seek to answer this question, how-
ever, it does raise serious concerns about students’ career choices and occupational
expectations and may be a valuable topic for future research.
In the analysis of relationships between aspirations, expectations, and selected
career development variables, a low positive correlation was found between occupa-
tional aspirations and significant others. This finding is consistent with most studies
from the career development literature and music literature (Newkirk, 1998; Ok,
1993; Sewell et al., 1969; Smith-Maddox, 1994; Wims, 1994). Additionally, music
researchers have found positive relationships between participants’ aspirations and
career development (Gilbert, 1994; Jones, 1964; Ploumis-Devick, 1983).

Implications for Music Education

The findings from the current study have ramifications for both educators and
researchers. For educators, an understanding of students’ occupational aspirations and
expectations will provide greater insight into the types of occupations students aspire
to have and the types of occupations they expect to enter. Such knowledge is valuable
in developing curricula that are aimed at meeting the needs of students and better
preparing them for their chosen occupations.
The results of this study indicated that a high percentage of students aspired to be
jazz performers yet many expected to sustain a livelihood from a combination of activ-
ities. This suggests that students perceived possible obstacles such as limited opportu-
nities in the job market or limitations in their abilities in achieving their aspired
occupations. It is recommended that educators be aware of, and advise students of, the
limitations that exist in the job market and the suitability of students’ skills and abili-
ties to specific types of occupations. Students should be encouraged to reflect upon
their abilities and aptitudes relative to the types of occupations they expect to enter.
Such encouragement and advice should be provided early to students, possibly in high
school when students are in the early stages of making career decisions.
Researchers who intend to use the questionnaire that was developed for this study
need to be aware of some of its limitations. First, the Jazz Occupational Prestige Index
was based upon the responses of 5 jazz faculty and 30 students at the university where
Devroop 403

the study was conducted. The levels of prestige that these individuals attributed to the
various jazz occupational categories that were listed on the JOPI may not be fully
representative of the larger population of jazz musicians and students. Researchers
who intend to use the JOPI should first verify the prestige levels established in this
study.
No attempt was made to determine whether students aspired or expected to be
engaged full-time or part-time in the various occupations. This study showed that stu-
dents aspired to have and expected to get certain types of occupations; however, it did
not establish the amount of time that students aspired and expected to be engaged in
these occupations. Future researchers are encouraged to redesign the questions so par-
ticipants are able to indicate whether they aspire to and/or expect to be engaged in the
various occupations full-time or part-time.
The current study contributes to the limited amount of research that exists about
college level jazz musicians. It provides baseline data for generating hypotheses and
identifying variables that may be associated with students’ career decisions and
choices. It is recommended that this study be replicated with other populations of
music students, including music education, performance, music history, and composi-
tion majors. Additional studies will assist with the development of a body of knowl-
edge regarding the occupational choices of music students, providing data that faculty
may use to more fully understand and address the aspirations and expectations of their
students.

Author’s Note
This article is based on the author’s doctoral dissertation, “The Occupational Aspirations and
Expectations of Students Majoring in Jazz Studies at the University of North Texas,” completed
at the University of North Texas in 2001.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author declared no potential conflicts of interests with respect to the research, authorship,
and/or publication of this article.

Funding
The author received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article.

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Bio
Karendra Devroop is associate professor and director of the school of music and conservatory
at North-West University in South Africa. His research interests include the career development
of amateur and professional musicians.

Submitted January 25, 2010; accepted March 25, 2011.