electronics

Article
An Energy Storage System’s Operational Management
and Control Method Considering a Battery System
Jeong Lee, Jun-Mo Kim, Kyung Ryu and Chung-Yuen Won *
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Korea;
leejeong1@skku.edu (J.L.); ksho4807@skku.edu (J.-M.K.); ryukyung@skku.edu (K.R.)
* Correspondence: woncy@skku.edu; Tel.: +82-031-290-7164




Received: 2 January 2020; Accepted: 18 February 2020; Published: 20 February 2020


Abstract: Losses in energy storage systems (ESSs) result from losses in battery systems and power
conversion systems (PCSs). Thus, the power difference between the input and output occurs as a
loss, which is considered an operational cost. Additionally, since battery systems consist of modules,
there is always a temperature difference. Even if voltage balancing is conducted, deviations between
the state of health (SoH) and state of charge (SoC) always exist. Therefore, a battery characteristic
should be considered in relation to the efficient operation of an ESS. In this paper, charging control is
implemented based on the SoC. When errors occur in the beginning, the coulomb counting method
(CCM) continues to produce errors; it also calculates the SoC through an improved equation. Thus, it
can calculate the SoC by using high-accuracy initial values. Moreover, battery deterioration occurs
during charging and discharging, which increases a battery’s internal resistance. This reduces the
switching time to the battery cut-off voltage or constant voltage (CV) mode, so it becomes possible to
calculate the SoH. Therefore, in this paper, the algorithms and equations are proposed to perform
SoH operations according to the charging time that is able to reach CV after charging. A conventional
battery is usually charged by using constant current (CC) charging until the voltage of the battery
module reaches the cut-off area. A switch to CV then occurs when the cut-off area is reached and
maintained. However, SoC-based selective charging control is carried out to prevent heat problems.
In addition, the battery is charged safely and efficiently by conducting SoH prediction considering the
battery thermal characteristics, which vary depending on the charging time and other characteristics.
In this paper, a 3 kW ESS was produced, and the proposed algorithm’s feasibility was verified.

Keywords: energy storage system (ESS); state of charge (SoC); state of health (SoH); power conversion
system (PCS)

1. Introduction
An energy storage system (ESS) is comprised of a power conversion system (PCS) and a battery
system (battery + battery management system (BMS)), which is used to increase energy efficiency
by supplying power to peaks while storing dump power. This is also a power conversion device
that can convert battery-stored DC power to AC to supply power to the power system and AC/DC
load, and to store power in the battery by converting AC power from the power system to DC. As a
power conversion device, it can be used to improve a battery safety and reliability. Moreover, it is a
key element of the ESS. According to the PCS control algorithm, it will affect the quality of the entire
system, including the battery efficiency, lifetime, safety, etc.
An ESS is a system that uses a battery for its capacity, and there is always the risk of fire or an
explosion. The most commonly used batteries in ESS are lithium-ion batteries, which are characterized
by high energy density and efficiency. However, they also bring with them the risks of explosions and
fire, and the state of health (SoH) tends to decrease according to the battery state.

Electronics 2020, 9, 356; doi:10.3390/electronics9020356 www.mdpi.com/journal/electronics

Electronics 2020, 9, 356 2 of 17

In general, a battery SoH is determined by the battery initial capacity, or by a reduction of its
capacity due to the deterioration of the battery versus the power or an increase in resistance.
A battery’s end of life (EoL) is determined based on which of these two conditions is reached first.
The SoH is also affected by the temperature of battery’s usage, the state of charge (SoC), and the C-rate
of charging and discharge. To ensure battery lifetime, SoH prediction and management algorithms
based on accurate battery modeling are required [1–3].
The SoC calculation method uses the coulomb counting method (CCM), which measures the
amount of current flowing in and out of the battery. The SoC provides important information regarding
battery charging, discharge, and use, and it reveals the properties proportional to battery voltage.
However, if an initial value error occurs, the CCM continues to make errors. Thus, the SoC has
been calculated by applying an improved form of the CCM. Calculating the battery’s internal resistance
by modeling the battery has a high degree of accuracy in minimizing the factors that affect the battery.
Therefore, this paper predicts the SoC calculation based on modeling and manages expected battery
lifetime according to charging and discharging times [4–6].
An equation for calculating the SoH according to the charging time, such as that found in [7], is
a commonly used method, but since the change of the charging time can be large depending on the
internal resistance, an equation considering the internal resistance is required [7–9]. The voltage, or
flowing current applied to the battery, determines its charging speed, safety, reliability, and lifetime.
In this paper, in order to increase the reliability of the battery, considering the internal resistance
of the battery system, the charging time was compared according to the time point when the constant
current (CC) charging was completed [6].
The general charge control of an ESS provides charge control without considering SoC conditions
affecting the lifetime of the ESS. Therefore, it is important to maintain a constant battery SoC in order to
increase the lifetime of the battery, so a charge control method according to the SoC state of the battery
is proposed. The battery system of the ESS has a large capacity, but when the battery is charged and
discharged, the battery is greatly deteriorated. As the battery degrades, the internal impedance of the
battery increases. As a result, power loss increases, battery lifetime decreases, and breakage occurs [6].
In this paper, a fault diagnosis algorithm of the battery system is applied to prevent the battery
from deteriorating, and battery faults are prevented by measuring the deterioration of the battery. In
addition, this algorithm can predict a fault or the EoL time in advance so that the battery management
can be performed safely.
In this paper, in order to enhance the reliability of the ESS, charging control is done according
to the SoC battery system. Moreover, a system that can increase the safety of the ESS is proposed.
Additionally, a fault diagnosis algorithm calculated using a module charging time due to deterioration
is proposed to increase battery safety with selective charging and discharging, and prevent the risk of
explosion from unsecured insulation distances due to battery deterioration during charging.
Therefore, in order to achieve a high degree of reliability and safety of the ESS, this paper proposes
the following: (1) SoC and SoH algorithms, (2) selective charging control of the ESS, and (3) a fault
diagnosis algorithm to prevent damage due to deterioration.

2. Configuration of Proposed ESS

Figure 1 shows the configuration diagram of the ESS.
Generally, battery-based systems are subject to reduced performances and lifetimes based on
charging and discharging, and a battery in an unstable state is an accident risk. A battery that goes
into ESS is characterized by a large capacity, which greatly affects battery performance.
The most common fire issues that arise with ESS include "heat explosions" and "insulation distance
problems arising from heat,” which should be avoided or monitored to prevent fire. Thus, a fault
diagnosis that can optimally manage a battery’s condition and an algorithm to accurately predict said
condition are essential.
Electronics 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 17

Electronics 2020, 9, 356 3 of 17

Electronics 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 17

Figure 1. Configuration diagram of an energy storage system (ESS).

The most common fire issues that arise with ESS include "heat explosions" and "insulation
distance problems arising from heat,” which should be avoided or monitored to prevent fire. Thus, a
fault diagnosis that can optimally
Figure
Figure manage diagram
1.1. Configuration
Configuration adiagram
battery’s condition
ofan
of anenergy and ansystem
energystorage
storage algorithm
system (ESS).
(ESS). to accurately predict
said condition are essential.
Figure
The most
Figure 22 represents
commonthe
represents the proposed
fireproposed
issues that configuration
arise with of
configuration of
ESSaninclude
an ESS for
ESS for "heat
high reliability
high reliability
explosions" and
and andsafety, which
"insulation
safety, which
isdistance
is typically
typically used to
problems
used toarising
discharge
from
discharge the
the ESS which
heat,”
ESS at
at peak daytime
peakshould
daytime loads while
be avoided
loads while charging the
or monitored
charging the systemfire.
to prevent
system at night
at night toa
Thus,to
smooth
fault it out.
diagnosis Losses
that in
can the ESS
optimally are caused
manage aby losses
battery’sin the battery
condition and system
an
smooth it out. Losses in the ESS are caused by losses in the battery system and the PCS. The difference and
algorithm the PCS.
to The
accurately difference
predict
in power
said
in between
condition
power between the
arethe input and
essential.
input and output
output is is also
also caused
caused byby these
these losses,
losses, whichwhich then then become
become part part of of the
the
operating
Figure
operating costs.
2 represents the proposed configuration of an ESS for high reliability and safety, which
costs.
is typically used to discharge the ESS at peak daytime loads while charging the system at night to
smooth it out. Losses in the ESS are caused by losses in the battery DC MCsystem and the PCS. L The difference o

S S S S i 7 8 11 12

in power between the input and output is also caused byDCthese MC

losses, which
Trans
L
then become part of the
BAT MC3 o
BAT

operating
Pre-Chargingcosts.
Circuit AC/DC Converter
S S
DC/DC Converter Trans
S S i
C
7 8 11 12
BAT
o

Pre MC1 Ldc DC MC L

S9 S10 o S12 S14 BAT MC2
vo
S11 S12 Co BAT #3
LC Filter S1 S2 S3 idc S7 S8 iBAT
Grid Lf Trans
DC MC S12 S14 Lo
S9 S10 BAT MC1
vo
Cdc Co S11 S12 BAT #2
S7 S8 iBAT
Trans
Main MC1 DC MC S Lo
S4 S5 S6 S9 S10 13 S14 BAT MC3
vdc vo
S7 S8 S11 S12 BAT #1 Co
Pre-ChargingvabCircuit Cf iBAT
vbc vca
ia i b ic AC/DC *Converter DC/DC Converter Trans
Pre MC1 * * Ldc DC MC L S12 S14
Line-to-Line Iα
Tas Tbs Tcs Ds7,10* Ds8,9* S9 S10 o BAT MC2
vo
Voltage dq Space Vector S11 S12 Co BAT #3
LC
Phase Voltage Filter abc Iβ
S1 S2 PWM
S3 idc S7PWM S8
Ds11,14*Ds12,14* iBAT
Grid Lf αβ αβ Generator
Generator
Trans
vas vbs vcs S9 S10 S12 S14 BAT MC1
θe Vas* Vbs* Vcs* Ds *
vo
Phase Cdc Co BAT #2
Positive Phase-Sequence Locked Id PI Current Current
Component Detection Loop(PLL) Iq Controller Sharing
Main MC1 S13 S14
S4 θe S5
&S6 S9CurrentS10
PI
vap vbp vcp θe dq abc vdcI *
Controller vo
vd-LPF BAT #1
vα Cf vd I ref  ref

dq I q* BatteryModuleN
vab abcvbc vca Digital Id*=0 Iref
iva q ib LPF
ic
αβ vβ αβ T * Tbs* Tcs* Ds7,10* Ds8,9*
Line-to-Line Iα Vdc* asPI Voltage Vdc Vo *
PI Voltage Vo
Voltage abc dq Space Vector
Controller PWM
Controller
Phase Voltage Iβ PWM Ds11,14*Ds12,14*
αβ αβ Generator
Generator
vas vbs vcs
θe Vas* Vbs* Vcs* Ds*
Phase
Positive Phase-Sequence
Component Detection
Locked
Loop(PLL)
Figure
I
I
2. Proposed ESS circuit diagram.
d

q
PI Current
Controller
Current
Sharing
& PI Current
vap vbp vcp θe θe
vd-LPF dq abc I ref * Controller
vα vd I ref =
dq BatteryModuleN
abc I =0 Digital
*
Iq* Iref
In addition,
addition,since sincethe battery system consists Vof modules, there isthere
always is aalways
temperature difference.
d
v v
theαβ batteryβ
V systemV consists
αβ q LPF
ofV modules, dc
* a temperature
PI Voltage dc o
*
PI Voltage o
Controller Controller
Even if voltage balancing is carried out, deviations between the SoH
difference. Even if voltage balancing is carried out, deviations between the SoH and SoC always exist.and SoC always exist. Therefore,
batteries characteristics
Therefore, should beFigure
batteries characteristics taken
should 2.intobeaccount
takenESS
Proposed tocircuit
into guarantee
account tothe
diagram. efficient the
guarantee operation
efficientofoperation
ESS.
Each battery module has a BMS. Each BMS also senses the state of the battery and calculates the
of ESS.
SoC and
Each SoH of each
In addition,
battery since
module battery hasmodule.
the battery
a BMS. Each system BMS consists of modules,
also senses the state of there is always
the battery andacalculates
temperature
the
In this
difference.
SoC and SoH paper,
Even charging
if voltage
of each battery control
module.is carried
balancing implemented based onbetween
out, deviations the SoC. theSince
SoH theandexisting
SoC alwaysmode of
exist.
CCM Incontinues
Therefore, paper,to produce
this batteries errors
characteristics
charging if should
control errors occur in the
be taken
is implemented beginning,
into
basedaccount
on the it SoC.
to can calculate
guarantee
Since thethethe SoC through
efficient
existing mode an
operationof
improved
of ESS.
CCM equation.
continues It can then
to produce calculate
errors if errorsthe SoCinbythe
occur anticipating
beginning,high-accuracy
it can calculateinitialthe SoC values.
through an
The
Eachcharging
improved battery of
equation. Itbatteries
module hasisacalculate
can then performed
BMS. Each theusing
BMS constant
SoC also senses current-constant
by anticipatingthe state of thevoltage
high-accuracy battery (CC-CV)
andvalues.
initial charging
calculates the
SoC The
until and SoH
the voltage of each
of each battery
batterymodule.
module increases to the cut-off
charging of batteries is performed using constant current-constant voltage (CC-CV) area. A switch to constant voltage
(CV) In
mode
charging this paper,
occurs
until charging
when
the voltage the control
of cut-off
each is implemented
area
battery ismodule
reached. based to
However,
increases onthethethis
in SoC. Since
paper,
cut-off area. theswitch
charging
A existing
based mode
on the
to constantof
CCM
SoC and
voltage continues
SoH mode
(CV) to produce
is carried occurs toerrors
out when if errors
prevent
the thermal
cut-off occur in the beginning,
problems,
area and However,
is reached. it canincalculate
the SoC-based selective
this paper,thecharging
SoC through
charging an
control
based
isimproved
on the SoC equation.
performed. andThis
SoHmethodisItcarried
can then calculate
safely
out and
to thethermal
efficiently
prevent SoCcharges
by problems,
anticipating high-accuracy
the batteries
and theby conducting
SoC-based initialSoHvalues.
selective prediction
charging
controlThe
considering charging
the batteries
is performed. ofThisbatteries
thermal
method is performed
characteristics,
safely using
whichconstant
and efficiently change
charges current-constant
according to theby
the batteries voltage
charging (CC-CV)
time
conducting and
SoH
charging
other until the voltage of each battery module increases to the cut-off area. A switch to constant
characteristics.
voltage (CV) mode occurs when the cut-off area is reached. However, in this paper, charging based
on the SoC and SoH is carried out to prevent thermal problems, and the SoC-based selective charging
control is performed. This method safely and efficiently charges the batteries by conducting SoH
Electronics 2020, 9, 356 4 of 17

The algorithm proposed in this paper consists of an AC/DC converter, a DC/DC converter, and a
battery system. The AC/DC converter is configured using a two-level converter that is easy to control,
has a small number of switching elements, and has a low fault probability. Since the battery system
requires insulation, and the ESS should have a large capacity, the DC/DC converter was configured
using a full-bridge converter. Since the battery is charged by configuring the module, the DC/DC
converter used current sharing to control charging.

3. Improved Operation Management and Control of ESS

The CCM is used for SoC prediction, but if an initial error occurs, the error continues to accumulate
as the current is integrated. The CCM can estimate the SoC simply and accurately if the initial SoC
error and the current integral cumulative error are small. Therefore, in this paper, more accurate
management is proposed by calculating the initial value of compensation.
When a battery is connected to a current, three types of voltage drop are likely: the first due to the
battery internal resistance, the second due to the contact resistance at the terminals, and the third due
to the electrochemical reaction. Thus, the SoC and SoH are accurately estimated, and the components
of the C-rate and charge and discharge times are combined to enable the battery to be used in the
optimal SoC area. Therefore, the proposed algorithm can improve the battery lifetime prediction and
management algorithm. In addition, the current integration method is applied to calculate the battery
pack SoC, and voltage compensation is performed to compensate for the initial error value. However,
since the battery pack composed of modules changes the SoC according to the environment and the
system configuration, an auxiliary circuit or other algorithm is required for improving battery lifetime
and reliability.
The conventional method is conducted based on the sensed temperature from the BMS and the
estimated SoH value by the module according to the SoC.

3.1. Improved SoC and SoH Prediction Control Method

General methods are applied with algorithms to determine the SoH. However, applying algorithms
to battery systems can lead to complex problems. In addition, the actual state of the battery cannot be
calculated, since the battery system efficiency is compromised and additional systems must be applied.
Many methods are used to calculate the SoH by using discharge. However, if a battery chemical
problem occurs, the SoH calculation also causes a problem.
In general, the ESS battery module is the most commonly used vehicle battery pack. There is
a temperature difference between modules, which makes it easier to implement the SoH and SoC
deviations even if voltage balancing is carried out. Finally, a minimum algorithm is required. Thus,
this paper uses the proposed algorithm to calculate the use of sensing values, proceed with charging
and discharging, and predict the SoH through charge and discharge time.
Figure 3 shows how SoC and SoH are calculated through BMS. The BMS senses the state of the
Electronics(battery
battery 2020, 9, x voltage,
FOR PEERcharge
REVIEWcurrent, temperature, etc.) and calculates the SoC. 5 of 17

Battery
Current
Model

State SoC Charging

OCV Current
t i (t )bat
SOCModuleN  SOCinit  
Charging Time SoH
dt
0 C
Coulomb Counting Method

Figure 3.
Figure Battery management
3. Battery management system
system (BMS)
(BMS) sequence
sequence for
for the
the state
state of
of health
health (SoH)
(SoH) and
and state
state of
of charge
charge
(SoC) calculations.
(SoC) calculations.

The proposed algorithm is performed in BMS, and it takes into account the change in internal
resistance due to battery deterioration so that the battery state can be accurately calculated. The
proposed algorithm predicts the SoC and SoH of the battery according to the battery state value, so
it does not need the auxiliary circuit and the control is not complicated.
Figure 4 shows the proposed SoC and SoH calculation algorithm.
 Current
Model

State SoC Charging

OCV Current
t i (t )bat
SOCModuleN  SOCinit  
Charging Time SoH
Electronics 2020, 9, 356 dt 5 of 17
0 C
Coulomb Counting Method

The SoC calculates the initial value of the battery SoC through the open circuit voltage (OCV) and
Figure 3. Battery management system (BMS) sequence for the state of health (SoH) and state of charge
is calculated by accumulating the charged current.
(SoC) calculations.
SoH is calculated after the end of the ESS charge, as opposed to the charging time of the battery.
The
The proposed
proposed algorithm
algorithm is
is performed
performed inin BMS,
BMS, andand it
it takes
takes into
into account
account the
the change
change in
in internal
internal
resistance
resistance due to battery deterioration so that the battery state can be accurately calculated. The
due to battery deterioration so that the battery state can be accurately calculated. The
proposed
proposed algorithm
algorithmpredicts
predictsthe
theSoC
SoCand
andSoH
SoHofofthe
thebattery
batteryaccording
accordingtotothe battery
the state
battery value,
state soso
value, it
does not need the auxiliary circuit and the control is not complicated.
it does not need the auxiliary circuit and the control is not complicated.
Figure
Figure 44 shows
shows the
the proposed
proposed SoC
SoC and
and SoH
SoH calculation
calculationalgorithm.
algorithm.

Start

Measurement of the State

of the battery module

OCV, SoC calculation

Determine the charge state

of the battery
Sensing possible Charging
Sensing impossible Discharging or Rest period
(sensing value=0)
No
Current can be measured
No
Yes

SoC calculation considering

Current re-measurement
internal resistance

SOCModule N>=80[%] SOC reset

Yes

Charging end

SoH calculated according to

the charge time

End

Figure 4.
Figure 4. Proposed SoC and SoH calculation algorithm.
algorithm.

The SoC always calculates and applies the proposed algorithm when the battery starts charging.
The SoC of the battery considers the internal resistance when the battery is charged, and the SoH
is predicted by comparing before and after the battery charging time.
The proposed algorithm is composed of the battery pack of an electric vehicle, the battery module
of an ESS, and the module of a recycled battery so that the SoH can be predicted without an additional
balancing of the SoC.
Electronics 2020, 9, 356 6 of 17

The algorithm starts by sensing the current battery state values (temperature, SoC, voltage, and
current).
If the current can be sensed according to the current measurement value of the ESS during
charging, the current sensed value is 0, or if a negative value is measured, it is determined as discharge.
If the current sensing value is more than 0, the SoC is calculated by combining OCV and CCM.
When OCV is accumulated and the system is turned on, the OCV and SoC are calculated using
Equations (1) and (2).
If it is determined that it is discharging or not charging, the SoC of the battery is reset to prevent
the accumulation of error values.
In general, the internal resistance value can be calculated by the difference between the terminal
voltage during charging and discharging with the same C-rate through modeling with OCV.
When the battery voltage according to the internal resistance of the battery and the temperature
variable are charged and discharged according to the current ibat of the battery, the terminal voltage
appearing in the battery is calculated as follows:

SoCinit = Vocv + (ibat × Rtotal ) (1)

ta f ter
Z
i(t)bat
SoCModuleN = SoCinit ± dta f ter (2)
C
0

where,


 Vocv = Open Circuit Voltage(V )

ibat = current(A)



total = internal resistance( Ω )

 R

The CCM has a problem with errors when the initial SoC value is difficult to set and/or when
initial errors occur. In fact, as integration increases, errors continue to accumulate.
In this paper, selective charging is employed, and when a pause period for the ESS occurs, if the
current sensing value determines that it is a pause, the SoC is reset.
Normally, the battery is charged using the CC-CV method [10], as shown in Figure 5. Thus, the
battery is charged to CC until the battery cell voltage increases to the cut-off area. Once the cut-off area
is reached, a switch to the CV method is made to maintain the voltage. While charging the battery, the
battery 2020,
Electronics will deteriorate
9, x FOR PEERand the CC time will be reduced, as Figure 6 shows.
REVIEW 7 of 17

Voltage
Current
Current[A]
Voltage[V]

CC(Constant Current) CV(Constant Voltage)

Time[s]
Figure 5. CC-CV charge control of battery.
Figure 5. CC-CV charge control of battery.

Battery heat generation

Internal resistance increase
SOH decrease
]
 Current[A]
Voltage[
Time[s]

Electronics 2020, 9, 356 Figure 5. CC-CV charge control of battery. 7 of 17

CC(Constant Current) CV(Constant Voltage)

Battery heat generation
Time[s] Internal resistance increase
Voltage[V] SOH decrease

Figure 5. CC-CV charge control of battery.

Battery heat generation

CC(Constant Current) Internal resistance
CV(Constant increase
Voltage)
SOH decrease
Voltage[V]

Voltage

Time[s]
CC(Constant Current) CV(Constant Voltage)
Figure 6. SoH change according to charging time.
Figure 6. SoH change according to charging time.
Decrease in charging time is caused by chemical reactions in the battery, and the amount of
Voltage
current also decreases due to the decrease in capacity during charging. The deterioration of the battery
Time[s]
causes an increase in internal resistance, which reduces the timeBattery
to reach the cut-off
heat voltage even when
generation
charged with the same current. Because the discharge is discharged up to the cut-off voltage, the SoH
Internal resistance increase
is judged by comparison with the initial state and the capacity of the battery. As shown in Figure 7, the
Voltage[V]

discharge time is also reduced

SOH decrease
Figure 6. SoH change according to charging time.
due to the increase in internal resistance caused by deterioration.

Battery heat generation

Internal resistance increase
Voltage[V]

SOH decrease
Cut off Voltage

Voltage
Cut off Voltage

Time[s]
Voltage
Figure 7. SoH change according to discharging time.
Time[s]
Figure 7. SoH change according to discharging time.
Figure 7. SoH change according to discharging time.
The SoH prediction method using the charging time is as shown in Figure 8 along with the
proposed SoH determination method using the charging time.
Electronics 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 17

The2020,
Electronics SoH9, 356
prediction
method using the charging time is as shown in Figure 8 along with
8 ofthe
17
proposed SoH determination method using the charging time.

Figure 8. SoH change according to discharging

Figure 8. discharging time.
time.

After
After obtaining
obtainingthe charging
the chargingtime datadata
time for SoH
for prediction, the relation
SoH prediction, is terminated,
the relation the charging
is terminated, the
time of the battery module to obtain the SoH is obtained, and the charging time is derived
charging time of the battery module to obtain the SoH is obtained, and the charging time is derived from the
implemented relation. The
from the implemented SoH calculation
relation. The SoHusing the charging
calculation usingtime
theischarging
calculatedtime
by Equations (3) and
is calculated by
(4), and the(3)
Equations SoH can
and beand
(4), calculated
the SoHusing Equation
can be (5) comparing
calculated before
using Equation (5)and after charging.
comparing before and after
charging. Z
1 α) ±
1
SOCa f ter = VOCV= V± (ibat RRtotal_a f ter+ (+
± (i× × V (V−temp ) ± ) × idt
25) ×−α 25 idt (3)
C
SOC after OCV bat total _ after temp C (3)

× ( SOC
C ×C(SOC after−−V
a f ter OCV −−ibat
VOCV ibat× ×
Rtotal − (V−Temp
Rtotal 25) ×−α25
(V−Temp ) ) × α)
tafter =
ta f ter = (4)
(4)
ii
tta f ter
SOH SOHa f ter = after ×100[%]
after =
× 100[%] (5)
(5)
ttbefor
be f or

SOH
SOH a f ter
∆SOH = (=1(1−−
Δ SOH after
) × 100[%]
) × 100[%] (6)
(6)
100
100

3.2. Charge Control Method According to the SoC of PCS

3.2. Charge Control Method According to the SoC of PCS
Figure 9 shows that the SoC of each module in the battery turns on the MC of a module that is less
Figure 9 shows that the SoC of each module in the battery turns on the MC of a module that is
than or greater than 60% and selectively charges according to the SoC.
less than or greater than 60% and selectively charges according to the SoC.
An ESS charges within a 0.5-C rate to ensure long battery lifetime and the system safety. However,
An ESS charges within a 0.5-C rate to ensure long battery lifetime and the system safety.
in this paper, CC charging is first carried out using the control block diagram shown in Figure 9. The
However, in this paper, CC charging is first carried out using the control block diagram shown in
off module is then switched on when the average value of the off module equals that of the on module,
Figure 9. The off module is then switched on when the average value of the off module equals that
which ends simultaneous charging through CC-CV charging.
of the on module, which ends simultaneous charging through CC-CV charging.
A number of modules perform current sharing since the current is sensed in the output by the
A number of modules perform current sharing since the current is sensed in the output by the
DC/DC converter and the number of modules is determined by the SoC state. The current reference
DC/DC converter and the number of modules is determined by the SoC state. The current reference
value is calculated by dividing the ESS output current value by the selected module, and the charging
value is calculated by dividing the ESS output current value by the selected module, and the charging
is conducted.
is conducted.
 While the conventional charging control for ESS has a role in discharging the system at peak
daytime loads and stabilizing the system by charging it at night, it is important to keep the battery
SoC constant in order to prolong battery lifetime. This is because the control of charging and
discharging
Electronics 2020, the ESS depending on the situation does not take into account the SoC state affecting
9, 356 9 ofthe
17
lifetime of the ESS [11,12].

Figure 9.
Figure 9. Proposed
Proposed power
power conversion
conversion system
system (PCS)
(PCS) charge
charge control
control method
method algorithm.
algorithm.

3.3. Fault
WhileDiagnosis Algorithm charging
the conventional for ESS control for ESS has a role in discharging the system at peak
daytime loads and stabilizing the system by charging it at night, it is important to keep the battery SoC
When the battery is charged or discharged, the internal resistance component of the battery is
constant in order to prolong battery lifetime. This is because the control of charging and discharging
increased when the battery is deteriorated, thereby reducing the lifetime of the lithium-ion battery.
the ESS depending on the situation does not take into account the SoC state affecting the lifetime of the
Increasing the internal resistance of the battery reduces efficiency and increases system
ESS [11,12].
operating costs.
Therefore,
3.3. Fault as the
Diagnosis batteryfortemperature
Algorithm ESS increases, battery characteristics may change due to a
change in the internal impedance of the battery. At low temperatures, the battery utilization rate is
When
reduced duethe
tobattery is charged
the destruction of or
thedischarged, the which
grid structure, internal
is resistance
the internalcomponent
structure ofofthe
thebattery.
battery is
increased when the battery is deteriorated, thereby reducing the lifetime of the lithium-ion
Therefore, at high temperatures, the power loss due to increased internal impedance increases, battery.
which Increasing
reduces thethebattery
internal resistance
lifetime. of thesince
In addition, battery reduces
different efficiency
modules and increases
have different system
characteristics
operating costs.
Therefore, as the battery temperature increases, battery characteristics may change due to a change
in the internal impedance of the battery. At low temperatures, the battery utilization rate is reduced
due to the destruction of the grid structure, which is the internal structure of the battery.
 Electronics 2020, 9, 356 10 of 17

Electronics 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 17

Therefore, at high temperatures, the power loss due to increased internal impedance increases,
which reduces the battery lifetime. In addition, since different modules have different characteristics at
at different temperatures, voltage and capacity imbalances of each module occur, thereby outputting
different temperatures, voltage and capacity imbalances of each module occur, thereby outputting
unstable power
unstable in ainbattery
power pack.
a battery pack.
Figure 10 shows
Figure 10 shows that the
that thefault
faultdiagnosis
diagnosis algorithm
algorithm isisemployed
employed during
during charging
charging to ensure
to ensure that that
insulation distances are secured despite battery during charging.
insulation distances are secured despite battery during charging.

Figure10.
Figure Fault diagnosis
10.Fault diagnosis algorithm
algorithmforfor
ESS.
ESS.
Equation (7) shows the battery temperature; heat transfer around the resistance component
Equation (7) shows the battery temperature; heat transfer around the resistance component
determines the battery temperature increase. CBatt represents the battery heat capacity, TBatt represents
determines thetemperature,
the battery battery temperature increase.
and Qt represents CBatt
the represents
battery the
heat due tobattery heat capacity,
the resistance component. TBatt represents
the battery temperature, and Qt represents the battery heat due to the resistance component.
dT
dTBatt
Batt
CBatt==
CBatt ==Qt Qt (7) (7)
dtdt
A battery
A battery hashas a shortcharging
a short chargingtime,
time, and
and it should
shouldbe becharged
charged with a relatively
with small
a relatively rise in
small rise in
temperature. However, the fault would precede the charging time in Figure 11 and the
temperature. However, the fault would precede the charging time in Figure 11 and the intersection intersection of
thetemperature
of the temperature increase
increase graph.
graph.The
Thefault diagnosis
fault algorithm
diagnosis algorithmis conducted through
is conducted the charging
through of
the charging
the entire module CC-CV rather than through selective charging. When the error of the module SoC is
of the entire module CC-CV rather than through selective charging. When the error of the module
small, the fault can be determined more accurately.
SoC is small, the fault can be determined more accurately.
 A battery has a short charging time, and it should be charged with a relatively small rise in
temperature. However, the fault would precede the charging time in Figure 11 and the intersection
of the temperature increase graph. The fault diagnosis algorithm is conducted through the charging
of the entire module CC-CV rather than through selective charging. When the error of the module
Electronics 2020, 9,
SoC is small, the356fault can be determined more accurately. 11 of 17

Temp
Charging time

Temperature[
Time[s]
Battery heat generation
Internal resistance increase
SOH decrease

Electronics 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 17

Battery Fault Diagnosis

]
4. ESS Hardware Configuration and Experimental Results
0.1C 0.2C 0.3C 0.4C 0.5C 0.6C 0.7C 0.8C 0.9C 1.0C 1.1C 1.2C
4.1. The Experimental Hardware Configuration of ESS [C]
C-rate
Figure 12 showsFigure
the proposed control
11. Battery chargesequence of the ESS. increase graph.
time and temperature
Figure
In this experiment, 11.was
ESS Battery charge time to
implemented andverify
temperature increase graph.
the algorithm proposed in this chapter to
4.improve
ESS Hardware Configuration
the system’s reliability and Experimental
safety. Results
The algorithm improved the SoC and SoH predictive control method, and the charge control
4.1. The Experimental
method Hardware
according to the SoCConfiguration
state of the of ESSmodule. The fault diagnosis algorithm of ESS was
PCS
verified.
Figure 12 shows the proposed control sequence of the ESS.

Figure 12.Control
Figure12. Controlsequence
sequenceof
ofESS
ESSfor
forhigh
highreliability
reliabilityand
andsafety.
safety.

In this experiment, ESS was implemented to verify the algorithm proposed in this chapter to
Figure 13 and Table 1 are experimental hardware configurations and experimental parameters,
improve the system’s reliability and safety.
respectively.
The algorithm improved the SoC and SoH predictive control method, and the charge control
The overall hardware configuration consisted of the PCS (AC/DC converter + DC/DC converter)
method according to the SoC state of the PCS module. The fault diagnosis algorithm of ESS was verified.
and controller, and the output side consisted of three modules of lithium-ion battery (one module: 27
Figure 13 and Table 1 are experimental hardware configurations and experimental
× 3.5 V). In addition, for the oscilloscope, a notebook, and WT3000 were used for operation.
parameters, respectively.
The overall hardware configuration consisted of the PCS (AC/DC converter + DC/DC converter)
and controller, and the output side consisted of three modules of lithium-ion battery (one module:
27 × 3.5 V). In addition, for the oscilloscope, a notebook, and WT3000 were used for operation.

Figure 13. The experimental hardware configuration of ESS.

 Figure 13 and Table 1 are experimental hardware configurations and experimental parameters,
respectively.
The overall hardware configuration consisted of the PCS (AC/DC converter + DC/DC converter)
and controller, and the output side consisted of three modules of lithium-ion battery (one module: 27
Electronics 2020, 9, 356 12 of 17
× 3.5 V). In addition, for the oscilloscope, a notebook, and WT3000 were used for operation.

Electronics 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 17

Figure 13.
13. The
FigureTable 1.experimental
The experimental hardware
hardware
The experimental configuration
for ESS.of
configuration
parameters of ESS.
ESS.

Symbols
Table 1. The experimental
Parameters Values
parameters Units
for ESS.
Rated power
Parameters Prated
Symbols 3
Values kW
Units
Input voltage
Rated power
Vin
Prated
380
3
Vac
kW
DC_Link
Input voltagevoltage VinVdc_Link 750
380 VVac
DC_Link voltage
DC_Link current V Idc_Link
dc_Link 7504 AV
DC_Link current Idc_Link 4 A
Output
Output voltage
voltage VoutVout 100
100 Vdc
Vdc
Output current
Output current Iout Iout 30
30 AA
Switching frequency fac/dc converter 10 kHz
Switching frequency fac/dc converter 10 kHz
Switching frequency fdc/dc converter 100 kHz
Switching frequency fdc/dc converter 100 kHz
4.2. The Experiment Result of ESS
4.2. The Experiment Result of ESS
Figures 14 and 15 show the charge voltage and current waveforms applied to the battery.
Figures 14 and 15 show the charge voltage and current waveforms applied to the battery.

Figure
Figure 14. Battery
Battery charging
charging voltage,
voltage, the
the current
current waveform of ESS.
Electronics 2020, 9, 356 13 of 17
Figure 14. Battery charging voltage, the current waveform of ESS.

Figure
Figure 15.15.Current
Currentflow
flow when
when modules
modules are
are inin the
the same
same SoC
SoC state.
state.

Thevoltage
The voltage was
was 100
100 V,V,
andand
thethe charging
charging current
current was
was used
used at at a 0.4-C
a 0.4-C rate.
rate.
The
The battery
battery SoC
SoC state
state waswas uniform,
uniform, andand
thethe current
current command
command value
value waswas equal
equal to 4 to
A 4according
A accordingto
to each
each module module
SoC.SoC.
Figure
Figure
Electronics 169,16
2020, x shows
shows thethe
FOR PEER experimental
experimental
REVIEW waveform
waveform forfor selective
selective charging
charging according
according to SoC,
to SoC, and and 13Figure
Figureof 17
17
Electronics
17 shows
shows 2020, 9, x FOR
the charging
the charging PEER
currentREVIEW
current
flow flow according
according to Figure
to Figure 16. 16. 13 of 17

[A]
[A] Module 1 Module 2 Module 3
Module 1 Module 2 Module 3
6 71[%] 70[%] 70[%]
6 Module 1 Module 2 Module 3 71[%] 70[%] 70[%]
4 Module 1 Module 2 Module 3
61[%] 57[%] 58[%]
4 61[%] 57[%] 58[%]

0
0 Battery Charging Current Battery Charging Current
Battery
Module Charging Current
1 [2A/div] : 0[A] Battery
Module Charging Current
1 [2A/div] : 4[A]
Module Charging
Battery 1 [2A/div]Current
: 0[A] Module Charging
Battery 1 [2A/div]Current
: 4[A]
Battery
Module Charging Current
2 [2A/div] : 6[A] Battery
Module Charging Current
2 [2A/div] : 4[A]
Module 2 [2A/div] : 6[A] Module 2 [2A/div] : 4[A]
Battery Charging Current Battery Charging Current
Battery
Module Charging Current
3 [2A/div] : 6[A] Battery
ModuleCharging Current
3 [2A/div] : 4[A]
Module 3 [2A/div] : 6[A] Module 3 [2A/div] : 4[A]
Charge control method according Current Sharing Control
Charge to
control method
SoC state according
of PCS Current Sharing Control Time Scale : 1sec/div
to SoC state of PCS Time Scale : 1sec/div

Figure 16.
Figure16. Battery charge
Batterycharge
16.Battery current
chargecurrent waveform
currentwaveform with
waveformwith charge
withcharge control
chargecontrol by SoC
control by
by SoC state.
state.
Figure SoC state.

BMS
BMS
AC/DC DC/DC
AC/DC
Converter
DC/DC
Converter Module 2 output current: 6A Converter Converter

BMS
BMS
DC/DC
Module 1 SoC: 61[%] DC/DC
Module 3 output current: 6A M odule 1 SoC: 71[%] Converter
Converter

M odule 2 SoC: 57[%] M odule 2 SoC: 70[%]

BMS
BMS
M odule 3 SoC: 58[%] M odule 3 SoC: 70[%] DC/DC
DC/DC Converter
Converter

Figure 17. Current

Current flow
flow in charge control according to SoC state.
Figure 17. Current flow in charge control according to SoC state.
SoC states
SoC states of
of battery
battery Modules
Modules 22 and
and 33 are
are measured
measured at
at 57%
57% and
and 58%,
58%, respectively.
respectively.
SoC states of battery Modules 2 and 3 are measured at 57% and 58%, respectively.
Modules 2 and 3, whose SoC states are less than 60%, are turned on to charge the battery, and
Modules 2 and 3, whose SoC states are less than 60%, are turned on to charge the battery, and
Module 1 with an SoC state greater than 60% is turned off. If the average SoC of the ON module and
Module 1 with an SoC state greater than 60% is turned off. If the average SoC of the ON module and
OFF module are the same, it shows the current waveform.
OFF module are the same, it shows the current waveform.
Through current sharing, it was confirmed that charging was performed at 4 A each again.
Through current sharing, it was confirmed that charging was performed at 4 A each again.
The battery of the ESS was charged and discharged with 30 Cycle at a 0.4 C-rate.
The battery of the ESS was charged and discharged with 30 Cycle at a 0.4 C-rate.
Figure 18 shows the profile based on charge time, and Table 2 shows the calculated SoH with
Figure 18 shows the profile based on charge time, and Table 2 shows the calculated SoH with
CC end time based on battery state.
 BMS
DC/DC
Module 1 SoC: 61[%] DC/DC
Module 3 output current: 6A M odule 1 SoC: 71[%] Converter
Converter

M odule 2 SoC: 57[%] M odule 2 SoC: 70[%]

BMS
BMS
M odule 3 SoC: 58[%] M odule 3 SoC: 70[%] DC/DC
DC/DC Converter
Converter

Electronics 2020, 9, 356 14 of 17

Figure 17. Current flow in charge control according to SoC state.

SoC states2of
Modules battery
and Modules
3, whose 2 and are
SoC states 3 are measured
less at 57%
than 60%, and 58%,
are turned on respectively.
to charge the battery, and
Modules
Module 1 with2anand 3, state
SoC whose SoC states
greater are less
than 60% than 60%,
is turned off. Ifare
theturned onSoC
average to charge the battery,
of the ON module and
and
Module 1 with an SoC state greater than 60% is turned
OFF module are the same, it shows the current waveform. off. If the average SoC of the ON module and
OFF Through
module are the same,
current it shows
sharing, it wasthe current waveform.
confirmed that charging was performed at 4 A each again.
Through current
The battery of thesharing,
ESS wasitcharged
was confirmed that charging
and discharged with 30 was performed
Cycle at a 0.4 at 4 A each again.
C-rate.
The battery of the ESS was charged and discharged with 30 Cycle at a 0.4 C-rate.
Figure 18 shows the profile based on charge time, and Table 2 shows the calculated SoH with CC
Figure
end time 18 shows
based the profile
on battery state. based on charge time, and Table 2 shows the calculated SoH with
CC end time based on battery state.

100
SoH[%]

50
SOH[%]

0
250 S…
550 850 1150 S…
1450 1750
2050 S…
2350
2650
2950

Electronics 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW Charging

Charging time[Sec]
time[Sec] 14 of 17

Table 2. Constant
Figure currenttime
18. Charging
Charging (CC)profile
time end time according
according to battery
to battery state.
state.

ParametersTableOCV Charging
2. Constant current Time Before
(CC) end Charging
time according Time After
to battery state. ∆SOH
Module 1 94.1 V 2763 Sec 915 Sec 66.9%
Parameters OCV Charging Time Before Charging Time After ∆SOH
Module 2 94.5 V 2632 Sec 2590 Sec 1.6%
Module 1
Module 3 95.2 V94.1 V 2763 Sec
2886 Sec 915 Sec
2850 Sec 66.9%
1.3%
Module 2 94.5 V 2632 Sec 2590 Sec 1.6%
Module 3 95.2 V 2886 Sec 2850 Sec 1.3%
A fault module can shorten the charging time, and the SoH can be predicted using a profile.
The proposed algorithm calculates and predicts the SoH by comparing the time before and after
A fault
charging; themodule
results can shorten thethrough
are confirmed chargingantime, and the SoH can be predicted using a profile.
experiment.
The proposed algorithm calculates and predicts
When charging is carried out using the battery, there the SoH
is anby comparing
increase the time before
in temperature, and and after
the fault
charging; the
diagnosis results are
algorithm confirmed
monitors thethrough
batteryantemperature
experiment. while charging it. This confirms the
When charging
identification is carried
of the fault module. out If,
using the battery,
through the PCSthere is an increase
algorithm, in temperature,
the deviation and the
of the battery fault
module
diagnosis algorithm monitors the battery temperature while charging it. This confirms the
temperature in Module 1 is greater than 53°C during battery charging, the battery is judged to be the identification
of the fault
faulty module.module. If, through the PCS algorithm, the deviation of the battery module temperature in
Module 1 is 19
greater ◦ C during battery charging, the battery is judged to be the faulty module.
Figure showthanthe 53
current waveform and current flow chart of a module charging a battery
Figure 19 show the current
module when a fault module occurs. waveform and current flow chart of a module charging a battery
module
If a when a fault module
fault module occurs.
occurs, share the current through Current Sharing as shown in Figure 20.

[A] [A]

6 6
Battery Charging Current Battery Charging Current
4 Module 1 [2A/div] : 0[A] Module 1 [2A/div] : 0[A]
4
Battery Charging Current Battery Charging Current
Battery Charging Current Module 2 [2A/div] : 6[A] Module 2 [2A/div] : 6[A]
Module 1 [2A/div] : 4[A] Battery Charging Current Battery Charging Current
Battery Charging Current Module 3 [2A/div] : 6[A] Module 3 [2A/div] : 6[A]
0 Module 2 [2A/div] : 4[A] 0
Battery Charging Current
Module 3 [2A/div] : 4[A]

Conventional Control Current Sharing Control Current Sharing Control

Module 1 fault diagnosis

Time Scale : 200sec/div Time Scale : 200sec/div

(a) (b)

19. The
Figure 19.
Figure Thebattery
batterycharge current
charge waveform
current waveformwhen faultfault
when module occurs.
module (a) Sharing
occurs. of fault of
(a) Sharing module
fault
current sharing,
module (b) current
current sharing, (b) waveform at end ofatcharge.
current waveform end of charge.

Module 1 output current: 4[A] Module 2 output current: 0[A]

Fault Module
BMS BMS Module 1 Iout ref: 0[A]
AC/DC DC/DC AC/DC DC/DC
Converter Converter Module 2 output current: 4[A] Converter Converter Module 2 output current: 6[A]

BMS BMS
 Battery Charging Current Module 3 [2A/div] : 6[A] Module 3 [2A/div] : 6[A]
0 Module 2 [2A/div] : 4[A] 0
Battery Charging Current
Module 3 [2A/div] : 4[A]

Conventional Control Current Sharing Control Current Sharing Control

Module 1 fault diagnosis

Time Scale : 200sec/div Time Scale : 200sec/div

Electronics 2020, 9, 356 (a) (b) 15 of 17

Figure 19. The battery charge current waveform when fault module occurs. (a) Sharing of fault
Ifmodule
a faultcurrent
module occurs,
sharing, (b)share thewaveform
current current through
at end ofCurrent
charge. Sharing as shown in Figure 20.

Module 1 output current: 4[A] Module 2 output current: 0[A]

Fault Module
BMS BMS Module 1 Iout ref: 0[A]
AC/DC DC/DC AC/DC DC/DC
Converter Converter Module 2 output current: 4[A] Converter Converter Module 2 output current: 6[A]

BMS BMS

DC/DC DC/DC
Converter Module 3 output current: 4[A] Converter Module 3 output current: 6[A]

BMS BMS

DC/DC DC/DC
Converter Converter

Figure20.
Figure 20.The
Thebattery
batterycharging
chargingcurrent
currentflow
flowwhen
whendetermining
determiningfault
faultmodule.
module.

The
Thefault
faultdiagnosis
diagnosisprofile in in
profile Table 3 increases
Table safety
3 increases by turning
safety off theoff
by turning battery MC if aMC
the battery fault
if occurs
a fault
depending on the temperature
occurs depending at the end
on the temperature of charging.
at the In addition,
end of charging. when determining
In addition, failures,failures,
when determining it was
confirmed that charging
it was confirmed control control
that charging was performed by current
was performed sharing.sharing.
by current

Table3.3.The
Table Thetemperature
temperatureprofile
profileofofbattery
batterymodule
modulewith
withfault
faultdiagnosis
diagnosisalgorithm.
algorithm.

Before theBeforeAfter the After

Parameters
Parameters ∆T ∆T
Experiment Experiment
the Experiment the Experiment
Module 1 15.3◦ C 68.3◦ C 53◦ C Batteryproblem
Battery module moduleoccurred
Module
Module 2 1 ◦
16.9 C 15.3°C 50.1◦ C 68.3°C ◦C
33.2 53°C
problem occurred
Module 3 17.6◦ C 46.3◦ C 28.7◦ C
Electronics 2020,Module 2
9, x FOR PEER 16.9°C
REVIEW 50.1°C 33.2°C 15 of 17
Module 3 17.6°C 46.3°C 28.7°C
Figure21
Figure 21features
featuresaagraph
graphcomparing
comparingbefore
beforeand
andafter
afterthe
the application
application of
of the
the proposed
proposed algorithm.
algorithm.
Themaximum
The maximumefficiency
efficiency after
after applying
applying thethe proposed
proposed algorithm
algorithm was was 95.68%,
95.68%, whilewhile the efficiency
the efficiency prior
prior
to to application
application was 95.797%.
was 95.797%. Thus,
Thus, the the difference
difference in efficiency
in efficiency was calculated
was calculated to be 0.117%.
to be 0.117%.

Figure 21.The
Figure21. Thebattery
batterycharging
chargingcurrent
currentflow
flowwhen
whendetermining
determiningfault
faultmodule.
module.

5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
This paper proposed algorithms to increase ESS reliability and safety.
This paper proposed algorithms to increase ESS reliability and safety.
The proposed algorithms accurately predict battery condition, improving the reliability and safety
The proposed algorithms accurately predict battery condition, improving the reliability and
of the ESS. They also perform charging control according to the battery SoC when charging the system
safety of the ESS. They also perform charging control according to the battery SoC when charging the
and identify faults through the fault diagnosis algorithm based on temperature. Finally, they effectively
system and identify faults through the fault diagnosis algorithm based on temperature. Finally, they
perform the management and control of the ESS operation.
effectively perform the management and control of the ESS operation.
The proposed algorithms were then divided into three main parts.
The proposed algorithms were then divided into three main parts.
First, the CCM, which is widely used as a method for calculating SoC, is a method of
accumulating current, and thus an error gradually increases when an initial error occurs according
to battery condition. Therefore, the battery condition is accurately calculated by adding the internal
resistance value according to the battery condition to prevent error accumulation. In addition, a
battery composed of modules will be subject to SoC deviation according to the environment, the
Electronics 2020, 9, 356 16 of 17

First, the CCM, which is widely used as a method for calculating SoC, is a method of accumulating
current, and thus an error gradually increases when an initial error occurs according to battery
condition. Therefore, the battery condition is accurately calculated by adding the internal resistance
value according to the battery condition to prevent error accumulation. In addition, a battery composed
of modules will be subject to SoC deviation according to the environment, the temperature, and the
condition of the PCS. SoC deviations lead to the problem of reduced whole system efficiency due to
reduced efficiency and increased battery heat. In order to prevent SoC deviation, this paper proposes
a method for maintaining the SoC by selectively charging the battery module according to the SoC
considering the battery condition.
Second, the temperature of the battery increases as the battery charges and discharges. As battery
performance decreases, the internal impedance of the battery increases. Therefore, charging with
the same current reduces the battery CV mode switching time. This paper proposes algorithms and
equations for performing SoH calculations based on the charge time transitioned to CV mode using
CC end time. This study used experiments with 30 Cycle of battery charging to verify the change of
CC end time according to the battery SoH.
Third, the temperature increases when the battery is charging or discharging. A sudden
temperature rise can damage the battery. In this paper, a fault diagnosis algorithm is proposed to
prevent fault due to battery deterioration and the rapid temperature rise of the battery. Through
the experiment, the temperature of the fault module was confirmed to increase rapidly. The fault
diagnosis algorithm proposed in this paper improves the safety of ESS by diagnosing battery fault or
system problems.
In this paper, the reliability of the system is increased by predicting SoH using battery SoC
calculation algorithms and equations and CC termination time. In addition, the safety of ESS is
increased through selective charge control according to SoC considering battery states and a fault
diagnosis algorithm during charging. In this paper, an ESS of 3 kW was produced, and the ESS
operational management and control methods considering battery system feasibility were verified.
Finally, ESS had a maximum efficiency of 95.68% and an efficiency difference of 0.117% when the
efficiency values were compared before and after the application of the algorithms.

Author Contributions: J.L., J.-M.K. and C.-Y.W. conceived of and designed the experiment; J.L., J.-M.K. and
K.R. analyzed the theory; J.L. wrote the manuscript; J.-M.K., K.R. and C.-Y.W. participated in the research plan’s
development and revised the manuscript. All authors contributed to the manuscript. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Acknowledgments: This work was supported by the Korea Institute of Energy Technology Evaluation
and Planning (KETEP) and the Ministry of Trade, Industry, and Energy (MOTIE) of the Republic of Korea
(20172410104900).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature
ESS Energy storage system
PCS Power conversion system
BMS Battery management system
SoC State of charge
SoH State of health
EoL End of life
CCM Coulomb counting method
CC/CV Constant current/constant voltage
OCV Open circuit voltage
SoCinit SoC initial value of the battery
Vocv Open circuit voltage of the battery
Electronics 2020, 9, 356 17 of 17

ibat Battery charge current

Rtotal Battery internal resistance
SoCModule N SoC of Nth module
C Battery capacity
Vtemp Voltage value by temperature
a Temperature gain value
SoHafte After SoH state
tafte After charge time
tbefore Before charge time
4SoH SoC variation
CBatt Battery heat capacity
TBatt Battery temperature
Qt Battery heat due to the resistance component

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