Catena 163 (2018) 123–129

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Catena
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Study of applying naturally occurring mineral sorbents of Poland (dolomite T

halloysite, chalcedonite) for aided phytostabilization of soil polluted with
heavy metals
Maja Radziemska
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Nowoursynowska 159, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: A greenhouse experiment was carried out for evaluating the effects of mineral sorbents, i.e.: dolomite, halloysite,
Aided phytostabilization and chalcedonite on the chemical characteristics of soil contaminated with heavy metals and the uptake of
Metal-contaminated soil metals by plants. The contents of trace elements in the plants and soil were determined using the method of
Soil reclamation spectrophotometry. All of the investigated element contents in the tested parts of F. rubra differed significantly in
Risk minimization
the case of applying mineral sorbents to the soil, as well as increasing concentrations of Pb, Cd and Zn. The
greatest average above-ground biomass was observed when chalcedonite and halloysite were amended into the
soil. Halloysite and chalcedonite also caused significant increases in Pb, Cd and Zn concentrations in the roots.
The addition of dolomite significantly increased soil pH. Halloysite and chalcedonite were shown to be the most
effective and decreased the average Pb, Cd and Zn contents in soil.

1. Introduction
The contamination of all components of the natural environment
has been increasing as a result of progressing urbanization, excessive
exploitation of the environment and the continuously increasing po-
pulation. Solid, liquid and gas contaminants can negatively influence
the condition of the soil-water environment, as well as directly and
indirectly influencing the development of living organisms (Bojko and
Kabala, 2016; Duan et al., 2015; Gworek et al., 2016; Radziemska and
Fronczyk, 2015; Sas et al., 2015). In many cases, their negative effects
on the environment are of an increasingly globalized character. How-
ever, in many cases, their influence is also observed at the local level.
The contamination of the natural environment with heavy metals,
which can be derived from a wide range of anthropogenic activities, is a
particularly important issue (Adamcová et al., 2017). Pressure exerted
on the environment and the contamination connected with it, have a
real and continuously growing influence on the quality of life.
The progressing degradation of the natural environment, along with
an increase in the ecological awareness of society have an influence on
the increasing role of the remediation of contaminated areas (Sarwar
et al., 2017; Montpetit and Lachapelle, 2017). Returning ecosystems to
as close to their natural state as possible appears to be a key task. In-
tensive enhancement of effective and non-invasive methods of cleaning
degraded lands is essential. The rate of innovation and dissemination of
new solutions plays a key role in this case. For years, methods used in
order to remediate soils contaminated with heavy metals have been
based on one of two strategies: the immobilization of metals in soil or
their mobilization and removal from soil (Zhang et al., 2017). Treat-
ments of metal immobilization should be applied especially where there
is a need for temporarily restricting ecological risk, e.g. if the removal
of excessive metals from soil cannot be applied in a short time interval.
The effect of decreasing the mobility of metals can be obtained by in-
troducing organic materials characterized by high sorption capacity to
the soil (compost, peat, lignite, saw dust, tree bark), additives rich in
clay minerals (bentonite, halloysite, kaolinite, illite, goethite, ferrihy-
drite, zeolite), materials containing phosphates (apatite, phosphorite)
(Μolla et al., 2017; Mlekodaj et al., 2014; Ferreira et al., 2015;
Radziemska et al., 2016; Gusiatin et al., 2016). Moreover, in order to
limit the effects of soil erosion and reduce the spread of contaminants
into groundwater, a dense vegetation cover of the soil surface (phy-
tostabilization), which causes the immobilization of heavy metals in the
root zone, can be applied directly on the contaminated area (Paz-
Ferreiro et al., 2014).
There exist many species of plants which are capable of growing in
areas contaminated even with high concentrations of heavy metals
(Nadal-Romero et al., 2016; Vaverkova and Adamcova, 2014). De-
pending on the specific features of the plant, they can prove useful for a
given phytoremediation method. In the case of phytostabilization, these
plants ought to be characterized, above all, by low habitat require-
ments, a low translocation factor, fast growth and a well-developed root

E-mail address: maja_radziemska@sggw.pl.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2017.12.015
Received 5 April 2017; Received in revised form 26 August 2017; Accepted 14 December 2017
0341-8162/ © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
M. Radziemska
system (Mendez and Maier, 2008). The role of plants in this technique
is, above all, reducing the amount of water percolating through the soil
matrix, which makes it possible to avoid the formation of toxic and
dangerous leachates, additionally stimulating sorption processes of
heavy metals in soil. As a result of the effects of plants on the soil en-
vironment, bioavailable forms of heavy metals can change over to less
easily available ones. Compounds found in the roots (phytosider-
ophores, organic acids, phenol compounds) react with metal ions and
precipitate them in the form of insoluble salts as well as accumulating
metals in roots (Zheng et al., 2016). Next, they bind them in the cell
wall and accumulate them within the apoplast as well as in vacuoles.
Various species of grass, such as red fescue (Festuca rubra L.) are the
most useful in the process of the aided phytostabilization of heavy
metals in soils (Touceda-Gonzalez et al., 2017).
Phytostabilization may be aided by the application of various soil
additives (aided phytostabilization). The influence of additives must be
analysed in a wide spectrum, thanks to which it will be possible to
assess the effects of individual additives on physical and chemical
properties of soil, the mobility of heavy metals, the plant, and the ef-
fectiveness of the phytostabilization process (Sylvain et al., 2016;
Radziemska et al., 2017). The aim of carrying out such experiments in
controlled conditions is the concern for the natural environment, de-
creasing the risk of groundwater contamination, and the possibility to
analyse a series of elements before they are applied in field conditions.
The novelty of this study is that we examined new amendments which
had not been analysed in this perspective.
Poland is among the countries abundant in minerals which, in their
raw state, may be great mineral sorbets, with various applications in
many branches of environmental engineering. Dolomite (CaMg[CO3]2)
– primary dolomites form as a product of sedimentation from lake and
sea waters, while secondary dolomites are created as a product of the
impact of sea water, thermal waters and others abundant in Mg2 + on
limestone rocks and deposits (Zhou et al., 2017). Dolomite rocks are
found throughout the entire world, including Poland. They create large
geological formations, such as the Alps. In Poland, they are found
mainly in Upper and Lower Silesia, near Chrzanowo, Jelenia Góra and
Złoty Stok. Dolomite formations in the area of the country were created
in various geological periods. The oldest of them – Cambrian dolomites,
are found in Rędzin in Upper Silesia. They are used mainly for obtaining
building and road stone in the form of slabs and architectural details for
works on facades (Bok-Badura et al., 2015; Szybilski and Nocuń-
Wczelik, 2015).
Halloysite is a mineral in the silicate group, included among clay
minerals and occurring in two varieties of hydrohalloysite (Al4[Si4O10]
(OH)8·4H2O) and halloysite (AI4[SiO4](OH)8). Halloysites differ in
terms of the size of their specific surface area and porosity, as a result of
which there are many potential classes of this mineral which can be
used for various purposes. The average specific surface area of halloy-
site is 56.2–58.0 m2·g− 1 (Levis and Deasy, 2002; Churchman et al.,
1995). Halloysite is mined from natural deposits in Brazil, China,
France, Japan, the USA, South Korea, Turkey and Poland (Levis and
Deasy, 2002). In Poland, halloysite is obtained from the “Dunino” open-
cast mine located in the southwestern part of the country. The mine is
currently one of three in operation in the world, alongside the mine in
the USA and New Zealand, with its deposits estimated at 10–12 million
tons (Banaś et al., 2013).
Chalcedonite is a silicate sedimentary rock whose physical and
chemical properties create perspectives for wide application in many
fields of environmental protection (Michel, 2012). Chalcedonite has
high potential for application in environmental engineering, among
others as a substrate for gardening, as a sorbent for removing oil spills
or as a filtration filler at the last level of sewage treatment, as a raw
material for the production of cement, and a silicate filler for the pro-
duction of paints and varnishes (Kotwa, 2016). The “Teofilów” chal-
cedonite deposit in Inowłodz is the only documented location of such a
mine in Poland. The mine has existed since 1970.
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Catena 163 (2018) 123–129
The obtained minerals found wide application in many branches of
industry and environmental engineering, however, they have not been
analysed as sorption materials for purposes of their application in
processes of the aided phytostabilization of heavy metals. In connection
with the above, we undertook studies on the possibility of their use in
aiding immobilization processes of multi-metal contaminated soil using
red fescue (Festuca rubra L.).
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Experimental system
The greenhouse experiment was carried out in 5.0 kg plastic pots
containing soil contaminated with Pb, Cd and Zn, amended with do-
lomite, halloysite and chalcedonite, and vegetated with Festuca rubra L.
plants. The plants were watered every other day with distilled water to
60% of the maximum water holding capacity of the soil. The plants
were harvested after 40 days, and soil samples were collected. The soil
was collected from the top layer (0–20 cm) from a non-contaminated
site in an agricultural area, and was characterized by the following
physicochemical properties: pH 4.92; hydrolytic acidity (mmol·kg− 1)
31.21; sum of exchangeable bases Ca2 +, Mg2 +, K+, Na+ (mmol·kg− 1)
61.10; cation exchange capacity (mmol·kg− 1) 94.20; base saturation
(%) 65.20; total N (g·kg− 1) 1.22; organic carbon (g·kg− 1) 7.42; N-
NH4+ (mg·kg− 1) 20.32; N-NO3− (mg·kg− 1) 10.01; extractable P
(mg·kg− 1) 43.20; extractable K (mg·kg− 1) 8.72; extractable Mg
(mg·kg− 1) 31.2; Pb (mg·kg− 1) 16.38; Cu (mg·kg− 1) 8.20; Ni (mg·kg− 1)
4.10; Zn (mg·kg− 1) 23.22; Mn (mg·kg− 1) 208.3. Prior to the experi-
ment, the soil was air-dried at room temperature and sieved through a
2-mm nylon sieve. Simulated contamination of the soil with lead,
cadmium and zinc at three levels, as well as a control object without the
addition of heavy metals and mineral sorption materials, were applied
in the experiments. Pb, Cd and Zn were introduced in the following
doses (mg·kg− 1of soil): lead 0 (control), 200, 400 and 800; cadmium 0
(control), 5, 10 and 20; and zinc 0 (control), 200, 400 and 600. In all of
the experimental groups, identical basic mineral fertilization was ap-
plied, adding the following to the soil (g·kg− 1): N-26%, K2O-26%, B-
0.013%, Cu-0.025%, Fe-0.05%, Mn-0.25%, and Mo-0.20%. Three mi-
neral sorbents, i.e. dolomite halloysite, and chalcedonite, were mixed in
with the soil in the amount of 3.0% (each). Fig. 1 shows SEM photo-
graphs of the materials. Each treatment was replicated thrice. The soil
samples were thoroughly mixed and were allowed to stabilize under
natural conditions for three weeks before being used for the growth
experiment.
2.2. Plant chemical analysis
The harvested shoots and roots were washed with ultrapure water,
air-dried at room temperature for two weeks, and then ground to
powders using an analytical mill (Retsch type ZM 300, Hann,
Germany). The roots and shoots were oven-dried at 55 °C to a stable
weight, with the dry biomass recorded. The samples were stored at 4 °C,
protected from light in clean containers for subsequent chemical ana-
lysis. A representative subsample was mineralized in nitric acid (HNO3
p.a.) with a concentration of 1.40 g·cm− 1 and 30% H2O2 using a mi-
crowave oven (Milestone Start D, Italy). After filtration, the digestion
products were adjusted to 100 mL volume with deionized water.
Extracts were analysed for total Pb, Cd and Zn concentrations de-
termined by the Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS) method using
an iCE-3000 spectrophotometer (Thermo Scientific, USA). Five-point
calibration was performed with standard solutions. Each sample was
processed in triplicate.
2.3. Soil analytical methods
PH was measured in water and 0.1 M KCl solution, and electrical
M. Radziemska Catena 163 (2018) 123–129

Fig. 1. SEM images of dolomite (A), halloysite (B), chalcedonite (C).

conductivity determined in 1:5 (w/v) soil:deionized water extracts
(Smith and Doran, 1996), with a Handylab pH/LF 12 conductometer
(Schott, Germany). Before setting up the experiment the nitrogen con-
tent of soil was determined by Kjeldahl's method (Bremner, 1996), total
organic carbon was determined according to Tiurin's method, after the
hot digestion of soil samples with K2Cr2O7 and H2SO4 in the presence of
Ag2SO4 as a catalyst and the titration of excess K2Cr2O7 with FeSO4/
(NH4)2SO4·6H2O,soil available phosphorus and potassium were de-
termined by the Egner-Riehm method (Riehm, 1958), while magnesium
content - by means of the atomic absorption spectrometry method,
following extraction using the Schachtschabel method (Lityński et al.,
1976), hydrolytic acidity (HAC) was assessed using Kappen's method;
the soil samples were treated with 0.5 M·dm− 3 Ca-acetate solution
adjusted to a pH of 8.2 in the ratio of 1:2.5 total exchangeable bases
(TEB-K+, Na+, Ca2 +, and Mg2 +) by Kappen's method, determining
individual cations after extraction from the soil with CH3COONH4,
cation exchange capacity (CEC) from the formula: CEC = HAC + TEB,
and percentage base saturation (V) from the formula: BS = 100·TEB/
CEC− 1. In the soil samples before and at the end of the experiment the
heavy metals content was demined. A modified version of the EPA
3051A method (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2007) was used
in the digestion of soils. Briefly, 1.0 g of soil was weighed in a vessel
and 9 mL of a nitric acid (HNO3 p.a.) with a concentration of
1.40 g·cm− 1 and 1 mL of a 30% H2O2 (Chempur, Poland) were added.
The digestions were carried out in a Milestone microwave oven (Start
D, Italy). All trace metals were analysed with an ICE-3000 spectro-
photometer (Thermo Scientific, USA). Triplicates were performed for
each sample.
All reagents were of analytical reagent grade unless otherwise
stated. Stock solutions of metals (1000 mg·L− 1) were prepared from
their nitrate salts. Ultra-pure water (Millipore System, USA) of
0.055 μS·cm− 1 resistivity was used for preparing the solutions and di-
lutions. Laboratory equipment had previously been treated for 24 h in
5 mol·L− 1 HNO3 and then rinsed with ultrapure water.
were compared and evaluated using Duncan's multiple range test.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Dry biomass yield
The application of the amendments (dolomite, halloysite, and
chalcedonite) increased F. rubra dry biomass yield significantly as
compared to the control (Fig. 2).
In the process of aided phytostabilization, in addition to lowering
the availability of heavy metals, it is also very important to create an
adequate vegetation cover on the contaminated land (Pourrut et al.,
2011; Shutcha et al., 2015). The above-ground parts of the tested plant
in the control series were characterized by high sensitivity to soil
contamination, which is confirmed by the occurrence of a negative
correlation between plant yield and increasing soil contamination with
Pb, Cd and Zn. The result of the toxic effect of lead is lower crop yield,
small dark green or red leaves and, in extreme cases, the occurrence of
necrotic spots, and shortened roots with reduced root hair density
(Chen et al., 2015). In the case of cadmium, the effects of toxicity to
plants occur, in general, at soil contents of 5–30 mg·kg− 1. Included
among the basic effects are chloritic and brownish spots on leaf blades,
as well as the twisting of leaves and shortening of roots. At excessive Zn
contents in soil and increased uptake by the roots, similarly as in the
case of deficiencies, stunted plant growth occurs (Shaikh and Saraf,
2017). The greatest average above-ground biomass was observed in
cases of amending soil with chalcedonite (25%) and halloysite (21%) as
compared to not applying any of these substances to the soil. In

2.4. Calculation and statistical analysis

The ability of a plant species to uptake and translocate metals to the

shoots can be compared by assessing the bioconcentration factor (BCF)
and translocation factor (TF). The BCF was calculated as the ratio of Pb,
Cd, Zn concentration in the roots to the concentration of metals in the
soil, according to the formula: BCF = metal concentration in roots/
metal concentration in soil. The following formula was used to calculate
TF: TF = concentration in above-ground parts/concentration in roots
(Xiao et al., 2015).
Experiments were performed in triplicates and the values presented Fig. 2. Effect of lead, cadmium, zinc, and mineral-based amendments on the above-
as the means ± standard deviation. The data were analysed using ground biomass of Festuca rubra L. in grams of fresh mass per pot. Error bars are ±
Statistica software (version 10.0, San Diego, CA, USA). Significant dif- standard error (n = 3). Bars marked with different letters differ significantly for the same
heavy metals exposure (P < 0.05) according to the Duncan test.
ferences (p < 0.05) between the mean values of different treatments

125
M. Radziemska
literature, we can find reports indicating the effectiveness of mineral
amendments in promoting plant growth. An example are studies carried
out by Sun et al. (2014), Radziemska et al. (2013, 2016, 2017),
Wyszkowski and Radziemska (2013, 2010), Szostek and Ciećko (2017),
and Μolla et al. (2017), in which the authors used soil additives such as:
halloysite, bentonite, diatomite chalcedonite, dolomite, limestone and
calcium oxide, confirming their positive influence on the crop yield of
the tested plants.
3.2. Effects of amendments on the concentrations of heavy metals in the F.
rubra
In the present study, the concentration of Pb, Cd, and Zn in the roots
and above-ground parts of F. rubra was closely correlated with the
applied dose of heavy metals and mineral sorbents (dolomite, halloy-
site, chalcedonite) introduced into the soil (Fig. 3). In the control, Pb
concentrations (in mg·kg− 1 dry weight) varied between 8.50 and 65.67
in the shoots, and between 11.80 and 103.28 in the roots; Cd con-
centrations varied between 0.43 and 2.85 in the shoots and between
0.42 and 2.95 in the roots, while Zn concentrations varied between
59.03 and 185.37 in the shoots and between 68.73 and 193.72 in the
roots. The addition of dolomite, halloysite, and chalcedonite sig-
nificantly reduced the plant uptake of Pb, Cd, and Zn as compared with
the control, by 25%–40%, 45%–58% and 2%–11%, respectively. This
result is in agreement with most previous studies in which the addition
of mineral amendments commonly reduced the plant uptake of heavy
metals (Jin et al., 2016; Putwattana et al., 2015; Parra et al., 2016;
Radziemska et al., 2014; Ye et al., 2015). The greatest reductions in Pb,
Cd, Zn content were observed in the above-ground parts of F. rubra
grown in soil to which contained halloysite as compared to the un-
contaminated soil.
The taken up metals accumulate in greater amounts in the roots
than in shoots, proportionately to the increase of concentration in the
ground, where up to 70–98% of the taken up metals remain in the roots
(Oh et al., 2016). The plant roots have the ability to modify the area of
the rhizosphere, increasing or limiting the uptake of elements. Under
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Catena 163 (2018) 123–129
Fig. 3. Lead, cadmium, and zinc concentration (mg·kg− 1, dry
weight basis) in the above-ground part (A) and roots (B) of F
rubra at the end of the trial. Error bars are ± standard error
(n = 3). Bars marked with different letters differ significantly for
the same Pb, Cd, Zn exposure (P < 0.05) according to the
Duncan test.
conditions of a deficiency of nutrients, they increase the bioavailability
of elements, whereas in the case of toxic contents of bioavailable me-
tals, they lead to their immobilization in the soil. Plants used in the
phytostabilization technique should store heavy metals in root tissues
and be characterized by a limited ability of translocating them to their
above-ground parts (Zhang et al., 2012). As shown in Fig. 3, the ac-
cumulation of Pb, Cd, Zn was much higher in the roots than in the
shoots. It should be highlighted that the highest concentration of heavy
metals in relation to the control was observed in the roots of the test
plant upon applying halloysite and chalcedonite to the soil. In the study
of Abad-Valle et al. (2016) alfalfa shoot Zn concentrations experienced
significant reductions of 34% and 45% when mine soil was amended
with 2% and 5% sepiolite, respectively. In another experiment con-
ducted by Radziemska et al. (2017), limestone and chalcedonite caused
significant increases of Pb concentrations in the roots of L. perenne. Feng
et al. (2007) demonstrated that soil amended with minerals, i.e. ben-
tonite, clays and zeolite, effectively restrained the action of Zn on Lu-
pinus arboreus L.
3.3. Soil chemical properties
Chemical and physical properties of soil are an important factor
influencing the uptake of certain elements and compounds from the
soil, and include: sorption and ion exchange, exchange capacity in re-
lation to cations, the soil structure, water retention and its movement,
soil air and the total content of heavy metals (Bravo et al., 2017;
Wyszkowski and Radziemska, 2010). Soil pH directly and indirectly
affects the behaviour of elements in the soil (Teng et al., 2015).
Moreover, soil pH also influences the bioavailability of chemical ele-
ments in the soil and plays an important role in their availability and
toxicity to plants (Likar et al., 2015). The bioavailability of Cu, Zn, Ni,
Cd and Pb is significantly reduced in soils with a pH of above 7 (Han,
2007). In addition to this, root exudates can induce changes in the pH of
the rhizosphere, and this fact can influence the availability of mineral
elements. Cu, Pb and Zn undergo mobilization at substantial acidity. Cu
and Pb undergo mobilization with pH < 5.0, and have two high levels
M. Radziemska Catena 163 (2018) 123–129

Table 1 Table 3
Results of soil pH obtained for the tested amendments. Effects of applying mineral sorbents on Pb, Cd, Zn bioconcentration (BCF) and translo-
cation (TF) factors in F. rubra.
Control Diatomite Halloysite Dolomite
Treatment Pb Cd Zn
5.50 6.49 6.34 7.06
BCF TF BCF TF BCF TF

of concentrations, in a soil solution at a pH 5.2–6.5 and pH 7.5–7.8 Control 0.79 0.49 0.16 0.91 0.75 0.74
Dolomite 2.02 0.26 1.21 0.38 1.04 0.76
(Sady and Smoleń, 2004). In the presented research, the pH of soil Halloysite 2.53 0.20 1.24 0.33 1.15 0.69
solutions increased following the addition of mineral sorbents Chalcedonite 1.64 0.21 1.23 0.48 1.12 0.74
(Table 1). The greatest increase was 1.56 pH units, observed after do-
lomite was added to the soil. The availability of mobile forms of heavy Data are the means of three individual replicates from Pb/Cd/Zn level: 200/5/200; 400/
metals in the soil complex increases in highly acidic and acidic soils. 10/400; and 800/20/600 (mg·kg− 1).

This is connected with an increase in the solubility of chemical bonds

between these elements and decreasing their absorption on soil colloids
under conditions of low soil pH. Hamon et al. (2006) and Likar et al.
(2015) determined that an increase in soil pH causes a decrease in the
efficiency of the absorption of Zn by the plant. Ye et al. (2015), in their
studies, also found that the addition of mineral sorbents (natural and
modified diatomite) increased the pH value of soil.
Sorption, ion exchange, redox processes, the formation of stable
complexes with organic ligands and their precipitation can all take
place in heavy metal immobilization processes, thus leading to a re-
duction in the amount of metals directly available to plant roots.
Generally, limestone increases soil pH and favors the formation of
oxides and metal carbonate precipitates, which decrease metal solubi-
lity (Fraser et al., 2016). The analysis of results showed that the con-
tents of Pb, Cd and Zn in the soil were influenced by the dose of heavy
metal contamination as well as the addition of diatomite, halloysite,
and chalcedonite (Table 2). In the control series (without mineral sor-
bents), the differences in the Pb, Cd and Zn contents of soil were po-
sitively correlated with increasing doses of heavy metals. Soil samples
from this experiment were characterized by Pb concentrations ranging
from 13.83 to 520.17 mg·kg− 1, Cd ranging from 1.15 to
18.80 mg·kg− 1, and Zn ranging from 9.40 to 451.91 mg·kg− 1. Among
the mineral sorbents applied to immobilize Pb, Cd and Zn contamina-
tion, the application of halloysite and chalcedonite were shown to be
the most effective and decreased the average Pb, Cd and Zn contents by
22%, 14%, and 12%, respectively. The remediation of lead-polluted
garden soil by zeolite limited the availability of lead in the soil as well
as enhancing the validity of phytoremediation (Shi et al., 2009). In
another experiment conducted by Radziemska and Mazur (2016), the
addition of halloysite and zeolite to soil contaminated with heavy
metals caused a significant decrease in Ni, Pb, Cr, Cu and Zn in the soil.
In a study by Ye et al. (2015), soil contaminated with heavy metals,
after being treated with 5.0% modified diatomite, showed a 69.7%
reduction in lead concentration.
3.4. Accumulation factors
The bioconcentration factor and translocation factor were calcu-
lated based on metal availability and its uptake by a particular plant
(Fayiga and Ma, 2006; Mendez and Maier, 2008). These indexes are a
useful tool for interpreting the accumulation and mobilization of metals
in plants. A bioconcentration factor value > 1 indicates that the con-
sidered element tends to accumulate in the roots of the plant (Yoon
et al., 2006). The translocation factor measures the ability of the plant
to transport the metal accumulated in the roots to the aerial part.
Moreover, plants suitable for phytostabilization should be characterized
by a bioaccumulation coefficient > 1 and translocation factor < 1
(Mendez and Maier, 2008). Significant soil parameters influencing the
process of translocation are: pH, content of organic substances, content
of certain microelements such as: P, Mg, Ca and Fe, and moisture
content (Kabata-Pendias, 2011). The results obtained for BCF and TF
have been shown in Table 3. The highest values of the bioconcentration
factor for Pb, Cd and Zn, ranging from 1.15 to 2.53, were observed for
halloysite treatment. Translocation factors, on the other hand,
where > 1 for all series of the experiment, assuming the lowest value
also in the case of treatment with halloysite.
4. Conclusion
Activities connected with introducing various kinds of sorption
materials to soils contaminated with heavy metals ought to be preceded

Table 2
Impact of soil amendments on the concentrations of Pb, Cd, and Zn in treated soil compared to the control, (mean ± SD, n = 3).

Treatment Dose Pb/Cd/Zn mg·kg− 1 of soil

Without metal contamination 200/5/200 400/10/400 800/20/600

Lead
Controla 16.07 ± 0.18 148.46 ± 0.90 246.54 ± 3.47 520.17 ± 4.64
Diatomite 13.83 ± 0.21 122.90 ± 0.34 203.01 ± 1.67 416.05 ± 2.45
Halloysite 12.04 ± 0.69 120.34 ± 0.13 200.10 ± 1.06 413.22 ± 0.96
Chalcedonite 15.51 ± 0.53 130.74 ± 1.41 218.76 ± 1.71 402.50 ± 0.64

Cadmium
Controla 1.54 ± 0.02 4.53 ± 0.07 8.64 ± 0.10 18.80 ± 0.21
Diatomite 1.23 ± 0.02 4.02 ± 0.01 7.54 ± 0.03 16.38 ± 0.15
Halloysite 1.33 ± 0.02 4.00 ± 0.02 6.72 ± 0.14 17.47 ± 0.23
Chalcedonite 1.15 ± 0.01 4.09 ± 0.01 6.51 ± 0.15 17.00 ± 0.39

Zinc
Controla 43.42 ± 0.77 187.33 ± 2.02 318.70 ± 6.70 451.91 ± 1.54
Diatomite 31.69 ± 0.57 164.92 ± 3.01 301.52 ± 0.61 391.59 ± 5.81
Halloysite 29.40 ± 0.53 153.95 ± 0.55 312.54 ± 1.53 388.88 ± 1.53
Chalcedonite 31.07 ± 1.85 174.22 ± 0.95 306.28 ± 1.94 373.88 ± 4.52

a
Without soil additives.

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M. Radziemska
by comprehensive studies identifying potential environmental risk. It
appears extremely important to determine a series of physicochemical
properties of both the soil and, above all, the composition of vegetation
found in the contaminated area. The carried out studies support the
application of combined methods in phytostabilization processes. In the
conducted experiment, the use of sorption materials such as dolomite,
halloysite and diatomite gave promising results in the process of aiding
the phytostabilization of soils contaminated with Pb, Cd and Zn. Of the
three neutralizing substances, chalcedonite had the most positive effect
on the amount of F. rubra biomass. On the other hand, the highest
concentrations of Pb, Cd and Zn as compared to the control were ob-
served in the roots of the tested plant following the application of
halloysite and chalcedonite to soil. The addition of dolomite sig-
nificantly increased soil pH as compared to unamended heavy metal
contaminated soil. The application of halloysite and chalcedonite were
shown to be the most effective and decreased the average Pb, Cd and Zn
in soil when compared to the control. The obtained values of bio-
concentration and translocation factors observed for halloysite treat-
ment indicate the effectiveness of using F. rubra in phytostabilization
techniques.
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