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    39 views134 pages

    Rock Slope Stability by Charles Kliche

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    Mochammad Yaza Azhari Britain

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    Charles A. Kliche To Alexandra Veturia Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Ine. (SME) ‘8307 Shaffer Parlay Littleton, CO, USA 80127 (G03) 973.9850 wowsmenetorg SME advances the worldwide minerals community though information exchange and professional development. With more than 16,000 members in $0 countries, SME isthe ‘world’s largest professional association of mineral professionals. Copyright © 1999 Society for Mining, Metallurgy, end Exploration, Ine All Rights Reserved. Printed inthe United States of America 'No pat of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in ‘any form or by any means, electronie, mechanieal, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, ‘without the prior writen permission ofthe publisher, Gover photo by Mark Kennihan from the South Dakota Department of Environment and [Natural Resources used with permission of Homestake Mining Company, Figure 1.¢ used with permission of Institution of Mining and Metallurgy Figure 27 used with permission of authors, Figure 2.6 used with permission of International So-ery of Rock Mechanics, Figure 211 used with permission of International Sciety of Rock Mechanics, igure 3.14 used with permission of U.S. Filte/Jahason Sereens Figure 10.10 used with permission of Modular Mining Systems, ine. Figures 10.26, 10.27, 10-28, 10,29, 10.30, 1031, 10:32, and 10.33 used with petmission of Barrick Goidstrike ISBN 0-87335.171-1 Library of Congress Catalogin lice, Charles A, 2981- Rock slope stability / Charles Klche. Pc Includes bibliographical ferences ISBN 0-87335-171-1 (paper) 1-Rockslopes. "2. Rock mechanics. 3. tabiliy. 1. Title. TATOG.K62.1999 624.15132-de21 923542 cr Contents “CHAPTER 1 ‘CHAPTER 2 ‘CHAPTER 3 (CHAPTER 4 PREFACE xv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. wih BASIC CONCEPTS 4 Slope Stability as an Engineering Ise 4 Terminology 2 Slope Fallure Causes and Processes. 6 General Modes of Slope Failure in Rock Masses 9 ‘Mechanical Approachesto Stability Analysis 42 References 25 ROCK MASS PROPERTIES 27 Engineering Properties cf Discontinuties 27 Shear Strength of Discostinuties 24 Geologic Data Collection 4 Hemispherical Projection Techniques 47, References 4 GROUNDWATER 67 Groundwater Flow Withnn Rock Masses 68 Influence of Groundwater on Slope Stability 74 Evaluation of Groundwaver Conditions in Slopes 76 Slope Dewatering #1 References 96 THE ROCKFALL HAZARD RATING SYSTEM 99 Origins 99) Overview 200 Slope Survey and Prelimnary Rating 08 Detailed Rating 203 References 110 HAPTER 5 HAPTER 6 HAPTER 7 HAPTER HAPTER 9 4APTER 10 KINEMATIC SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS. 13 Markland Test for Plane Shear Failure 444, ‘Markland Test for Toppling Failure 134 Friction Cone Concept 134 References 123 KINETIC SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS OF PLANAR FAILURE 125, Method of Analysis for Plane Shear Failure 427 Solving Plane Shear Problems: An 2xample 433 References 137 KINETIC SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS OF TOPPLING FAILURE 29 General Model for Toppling Failure 140 Limiting Equilibrium Analysis of Teppling on a Stepped Base 144, Example: Toppling Failure 247 References 81 KINETIC SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS OF WEDGE FAILURE 159 ‘Wedge Geometzy 484 Factorof Safety Determination 161 Other Considerations 365 References 169 ROCK SLOPE STABILIZATION TECHNIQUES 473 Grading 272 Controlled Blasting (Overbreak Control) 376 Mechanical Stabilization 188 Seructural Stal Vegetative Stabilization 198 Water Control 396 References 199 GEOTECHNICAL INSTRUMENTATION AND MONITORING 203. Instrumentation to Measure Rock Deformation 20% Monitoring 220 References 230 GLossaRY 237 INDEX 248 List of Figures qa 12 13 14 1s 16 7 18 19 10 un aaa 14 11s 1.16 117 Lis 2a 22 23 24 28 ‘The Mohr Envelope 2 Highwall slope configuration 4 Orientation of plane 5 ‘Transition from intact rock to rock mass 6 Pit plan with slope design sectors. 7 ‘The planar failure mode 8 ‘The rotational failure mode 40 ‘The wedge falure mode 14 ‘The toppling failure mode a1 Block on an inclined plane at limiting equilibrium 42 Statics for the method of slices forrotational failure 34 Potential toppling failure when the vertical welght component, W, outside the pivot point 46 Hypothetical histogram and probability density netion of dip value for joints inaset a7 Standardized normal distribution graph and table 19 ‘Typical PDFs for variables affecting slope stability 20 The cumulative probability dstibution for dip angles 24 Distribution offition angles for probabilistic method example 22 Determining the factor-of safety distribution: (A) frequency distribution histogram; (B) probability denstyfunction 25 Geologic and rock slope engineering conventions for rock structure orientation 30 Conversion from bearing to azimuth and azimuth to bearing 38 First-and second-order discontinuity wall roughness 32 Possible relationships beeween gouge thickness and asperity size 33 Peak and residual failure envelopes for multiple inclined surfaces 98 29 a0 an 2a2 243 214 215A 2158 2ase 216 2a7 218 219 2.20 2a 2.22 2.23 2.24 2.25 2.268, 2.268 2.26¢ 2.26D 2278 2278 Principle of and output from waviness measurements 36 Discontinuity shear resistance (r), against shear stain (Cj) 88 well 5 ‘ormal strain Cyrmy), against shear strain, during shear testing along a ‘ypieal discontinulty 37 Rock joint roughness profiles showing the typical range of JRC values associated with each 39 ‘Te tlt test utilizing 70 contiguous blocks or rock extracted from the same location to measure the friction angle and back-calelate the joint roughness coefficient 38 Aditect shear machine 44 Suggested arrangement for a laboratory divect shear test on a single discontinuity 42 The direct shear test 43 Example discontinuity survey datasheet 4 Basic concept behind hemispherical projections: () inclined plane; (b) stereographic representation of inlined plane 47 Loci of planes with N-S strike and various dip angles 49 Projection of radial lines ina plane with B dip angle 49 Projection of small circles in planes with systematic dip angles 50, Locus of points of constant plunge angle, 8, around the center ofthe reference sphere 50 [Equatorial equal-angle stereonet 62 Equatorial equal-area stereonet. $2 Polar equal-anglestereonct 53 Polar equal-area stereonet 88 Kalsbeck counting net 58 ‘The geometry forthe position of P onthe equal-angle projection 56 ‘The geometry forthe postion of P onthe equal-area projection $6 ‘The geological compass 57 Geologie structure with dip direction of 62° and dip of 51° 58 Plotting a great circle, step 1: Mark te dip direction onthe overlay clockwise from the north 69 Plotting a great crete, step 2: Rotate the overlay until the dip direction mark lies at the E-W line 89 Plotting a great circle, step 3: Count inward from the dip diretion, mark the dlip amount, and draw the great circle 6 Plotting a great circle, step 4: Rotate the overlay back to its original position 60 Polar plot of (198°, 58°) and (210°, 75°) 64 Polar plot of 37 discontinuities ina single set 62 227e 227 2.28 aa 32, 33 34 35 36 37 28 39 3.10 aan 312 3.43 344 345 3.16 aa7 4a 42 51 52 53 84 55 56 57 58 Contour of pote d 37 measurements 62 Great circle representing the predominant orientation ofthe 37 discontinuities €2 Plotof the great circles representing A= (62°,51*) and B= (185°, 48") 62 Features ofthe hydrologic cycle 67 ‘Simplified permeability test. 68 Definitionof joint conductivity, Kj 74 Groundwater pattems ina stratified slope 72 Flow net for seepage through addope 73 Influence of water pressure on the strength of rock discontinuities 78, Hivorslev piezometer test: (A) geometry; (B) method of analysis 78 Representation of the Dupuit assumption of hydraulic gradient for a confined aquifer 62 Radial flow to a well penetrating an extensive confined aquifer @4 to determine the predominant orientation ofthe _ Type curve of the relationship between W(u) and 1/a_ 87 Method of superposition for solving the Theis nonequilibrium equation #8 Drawdown, s, versus t/r for observation well 1 89 CCooper-Jacob method for solving the Theis nonequilibrium equation 90 Effect of different coefficients of transmissivity on the shape, depth, and extent ofthe cone of depression 92 Pumping well and three observation wells 94 ‘Time-drawdown curve for observation well | 98 Dravidown versus distance from the pumped well for the three observation wells 98 Composite of depression from two pumping wells based onthe principle of superposition 96 Sample RHRS field datasheet 302 Diagram for determining slope bright 308 ‘The Markland test for plane shear 442 Potential wedge eure (planes A and B) and stable wedge (planes B and) a Potential plane fallure and stableplane 144 ‘The toppling failure mode showing low-dip base plane and undercutting discontinuities 435 Potential toppling failure 345 ‘The friction cone concept fora block resting on an inclined plane 138 ‘Stereographic representation ofthe rietion cone concept from Figure5.6. 137 Slope for friction cone method example 149 594 590 59 59D 5.0 6a 62 63 64 65. 66 67 68 69 6.0 6 7a 72 73 74 75 76 27 78 81 82 Plotting the fiction cone forthe example of Figure 5.8, step 1: Plo great circles representing the slope face and discontinuity and the pole of the Aliscontinuity P) 420 Plotting the fiition cone fr the example of Figure 5.8, step 2: Rotate Pp (0 great circle on the stereonet, then measure and plot along the great circle onboth sides of Py 220 Plotting the fition cone fr the example of Figure 5. step 3: Rotate Pp t0 nother great etc, then measure and plot 424 Friction circle of 30° around the pole ofthe discontinuity oriented at 143°, 45° a8 The friction canes for @~ 30° and 9,=-49° forthe discontinuity oriented at 143°, 45° a2 ‘A mass of rock that sid alonga single plane 425 ‘The planar failure mode 426 Plane shear failure plane geometry 127 Block on an inclined plane at limiting equilibrium 328 Free body diagram ofthe failure surface of Figure 6.3 when surcharge force fsindluded 320 Free body diagram of the failure surface of Figure 6.3 when water forces are included 34 Pree body diagram ofthe failure surfce of Figure 6.3 whe vibration force isinduded aaa Roclebolt angle, @, and rock-bolt force, T 432 Free body diagram ofthe failure surface of Figure 6.3 when rockolt forces areincluded 233 Slope geometry for example probler 133 Pree body diagram of example problem 136 ‘The toppling failure mode 139 General model for toppling failure 140 ‘Condition for sliding and toppling of block on an inclined plane 242 ‘Undercuttng discontinuities in the highwall of a mine striking approximately parallel tothe slope face 142 Forces acting on the ith column sittirg on (A) a flarbase and (B) a stepped base 143 Dilation process in columnar slopes on a flat base 344 Slope geometry forthe toppling failure mode of columns on a stepped base 445, Moment arms, land, atthe crest efthe slope, above the rest, and below theerest. 448 ‘Typical wedge failure involving sliding on two discontinuities 483 ‘Typical wedges in rock slopes 85 483 a4 8s 86 87 a8 89 a0 aa 9a 92 93 94 9s 96 97 98 99 9.0 oa 92 eas. oa4 eas 9.16 9a7 Stereographic representation of ane wedge (top) for which failure is kinematically possible and one (ottom) for which fllure is not Kinematially possible a5 ‘Notation used for designating th: planes and lines for wedge geometry 157 ‘Notation of planes forming the wedge and the numbering of wedge endlines 158 Notation for calculation of rock wedge volume: (A) view of plane A, (B) Jooking along the lin of intersection 260 Location on the stereonet of wedge weight, W; the normals N,N, and Ni and angles to the normals, B, (6), 8,, and 8, 362 Force polygons to determine themagnitudes of N, Ny, and Ny 468 Stereonet for wedge factorof-safety determination, with and without cohesion 64 ‘Water pressure distribution on arock wedge 367 Rock:bolt force, T, and effective weight, W, 468 Bench designed with across slope and back slope to drain water away from the crest and across the bench toa disposal system 472 ‘Alevel catch bench in the face ofa rock slope along s highway 174 Acatch bench in the face ofa rock slope along a highway, constructed parallel to the surface topography 374 Rock slope cut to match the dip fthe beds along a highway 178 ‘A mine highwall with overall slope angle equal tothe dip ofthe beds 478 ‘Mine highvll cut at an angle to match the dip of the beds, with eable bolting for additional support 76 ‘Modified production bast designin favorable conditions 477 ‘Typical presplit blast. 178 Presplit blasting utilized to providea stable final main highwall_ 479 Radial and tangential stresses at distance rfrom the center ofa pressurized thick-walled cylinder 280 Generalized trim blast design utlzing production drills. 188 A typical line drilling pattern used in conjunction with a production blast 486 Overview of line drilled holes: (A) production blasthole detonating adjacent toaline drilled hole; (8) stresses cn the line dilled hole from the detonation ‘ofthe blasthole 287 CChain-link wire mesh anchored a: the crest and draped over a slope to prevent rockfalls from passing the toe region 290 Application of shoterete over wire mesh and rockbolts 190 Resin-grouted threadbars used toanchor a rock wedge in an unstable cutslope 188 Grout and air bleeding tubes inserted with acable bolt 194 28 aol 102 103 104 106 107 108 109 10.10 roa 10.12 10.13, 10.14 10.15, 10.16 1017 10.18 10.19 10.20 a0.21 10.22 wos 10.24 10.25 1026 1027 10.28 {A graded, shaped, and reclaimed mine highwall that appears similar to surrounding natural topography 198 Remote pitslope data acquisition system 203 ‘Wooden survey hubs for monitorirg movement across a tension crack 206 Survey prism for monitoring slopemovernent 206 Survey net for the Twin Creeks Mine in Nevada: Slope monitoring program, ‘west highwall (old dispatch ste) 207 Single-point rod extensometer 200 Cable extensometer installed in exploration dill hole 209 ‘Multipoint extensometer for monitoring magnitude and rate of movement along two discontinuities 240 Displacement versus time for a multipsition extensometer, as well a5 tate of change of displacement (acceleration) over the entze length of the anchor 2a, Portable wire line extensometer with continuous recorder 212 ‘Schematic ofan automated wir lite extensometer 243 An automated wie line extensometer monitoring movement across a strest crack in amine in eastern Nevada 248 ‘An in-place ineinometer system 248 A traversing probe inclinometer system 236 (Close-up of inclinometer casing, cable, and data collector 246 Inclinometer installed to monitor setement ofa reinforced concrete tunnel Duile to allow mine haul tucks to cross a busy highway 247 ‘Typleal plots of inclinometer dept versus deformation: (A) rotational failure; (B) plane shear failure 248 Mechanical crack gauge 239 Electrical crack gauge using an LVDT to measure displacement 220 Flectrical tltmeter for monitoring it ofa rock overhang 224 ‘Alarge slope failure at surface mine in eastern Nevada 222 ‘Typical displacement-time curves for pit slope failures 228, Plot of cumulative displacement versus time ofthe slowest-moving point and fastest-moving point fora pit dope failure 228 allure prediction for an open pit mine in eastern Nevada 225 ‘Twin Creeks Mine Mega Pit slope failure 226 ‘Mega Pit highwall monitoring: Total easterly displacement of prism 10 237 Robotic theodolite for monitoring movements of survey prisms ata mine in north-central Nevada 229 ‘Shed for housing the robotic theodolite and remote computer system 229, The remote computer system for controlling the robotic theodalite 290 1029 10.30 1031 10.32 10.33 Plan view map showing prismlocations and vector movement of prisms for the period Sept 5, 1998, to Ox. 5, 1998 23a, ‘Movement of prism 960131 daring the period Oct. 1, 1997, to Oct. 21, 1998 292 Computer screen dump for prim target 950040 238 ‘Second computer screen dump, showing prism locations, general information, and specific information for prism target 960071 238 simple rack exesion montring gage made fom wooden survey ahs laid head to head across a stress crack 235 : List of Tables aa 2a 22 31 32 33 34 al 42 43 44 6a 7a 72 101 Random numbers, -values, fico angles (6), and associated factors of Safety for'example problem 23 Common examples ofthe three main categories of rock origin 28 . Types of discontinuities and thei characteristics 23 ‘Typical hydraulic conductivity (permeability) values fr soils, rocks, and rockmass. 70 Pezometer types: General classkication 77 ‘Time-dravdown data for observation wells 1 and 2 (OB1 and OB2) 86 Values of Ww) for values of 98 Preliminary rating system 402 Exponent formulas for detailed rating parameters 104 Criteria for receiving listed scores For the 12 detailed rating categories 208, Decision sight distance values for various speed limits 108 Slope geometry parameters for the example problem 134 Column heights for the 11 columns of Figure 7.7, given the previous geometrical and dimensional input parameters 149 Determination of magnitudes of forces and Py for ‘example problem 160 ‘classification of instruments for measuring the various components of| rocledeformation 203 (CHAPTER 2 Basic Concepts Because ofthe discontinuous nature of rock, the design of stable rock slopes as much an artas itis applied engineering Experience isa important asthe proper utilization of ‘the theories of sol and rock mechanics, sructural geology, and hydtolopy. ‘Many computerized tools are now available to rock slope design engineers. tis impor. ‘tant shat these engineers understand the basic theory of rock slope stability (or instabi ly) before they attempt to use many of the computerized methods especially before they attempt wo interpret and apply the reuts, SLOPE STABILITY AS AN ENGINEERING ISSUE ‘The civil engineering fet utilizes mainly soll mechanics principles for slope stability analysis, This field is mosty concerned wit slopes cut in loose, granular, or unconsol- ddated materials, The analysis is used mainly for * foundations, builngs, or dam sites road euts © cutand cover tunneling * isigation channels * tilings dams ‘mine dumps ‘The mining engineering fed, on the otherhend,utlizes mainly rock mechanics princi- ples to analyze the stability of slopes eutinrocks. Rock mechanics is more complicated ‘than soil mechanles fr the following reasons (Brawnet and Milligan 1971) ‘Rock materials are heterogeneous and sally anisotropic, *Sirength parameters relating to rock masses are infinitely variable and difficult, fot Impossible, to determine preceey. "Generalized models and theories of tock behavior are complex, as are the mathemst- ies involved. * Field conditions are extremely diffiul, and often impossible, to duplicate inthe laboratory ‘+ Field esting is usually complicated and time-consuming and is almost lays very expensive, Rock Slope ity Rock slope engineering is the application of rock mechanics principles and structural, geology principles to the sabi ofa slope cut in rok, Ie ia specialized branch of geo mechanical engineering Ie includes not ony kinetic analysis (possible modes of falar) and kinematie analysis (tally of the file modes) bt also probabilistic analysis, ‘methods to stabilize the slope, groundwater analysis, geologie data collection, slope ronitoring methods, ete. TeeminoLoay Before issues of slope seablty can be addressed in detail, tis necessary to have a work ing knowiedge of number of important intcoductory terms, (The following terms, a5, ‘well as additional definitions, may be found inthe Glossary.) ‘Tobegin with, consider the individual terms inthe expression “slope stability.” The term slope may be defined a any inclined surface cut in natural material or as the degre of| Inclination with espect to horizontal. lope is usually expressed either a a ratio (euch 1.5:1, which indicates 1.5 units sise per unit of horizontal dstane), asa decimal fre tion 1.5), as degrees from the horizontal (S6.31°, or asa percentage (1503). The term stablty may be defined asthe resistance ofa structure, slope, of embankment to are by sliding or collapsing under normal conditions fr which was designed; e, bank sta bilcy and slope stability. enc, slope stably may be defined as the resistance of any Inclined surface, asthe wal ofan open pic or eut, to ale by sliding or collapsing. Rock Strength Parameters Figure 1.1 depiets important parameters relating to rock strength, The parameters of Interest include the following? * inernal angle of friction: The angle () at which a body esting onan ineined surface will overcome frictional resistance and begin to slide, as measured between the nor alto the surface and the resultant forces acting on the body. This angle is some: times referred to simply as the friction angle * cohesion’ A property ofike mineral grains enabling them to cling together in oppor tion to fores that tend to separate them. Cohesion i that portion of the shear strength, S, or shear stress, , indicated by the termi the Mohr-Coulomb equation (eee below) "| MoyCoutomb criterion: A rock failure criterion that assumes there i a functional {elationship between the normal and shear stresses eting on a potential failure sur face. The relationship takes the form t=c+otang, where tis the shes sess, cs the ‘cohesion, ois the normal ses, and isthe internal angle of friction, When shear strength, Sis used instead of shea stress, the equation becomes the “shea strength erterion.” 1+ Mol envelope, The euvelope ofa series of Mor etcles representing stress conditions at failure fr a given material, According to Mors rupture hypothesis, a failure enve- lope i the locus of points such that the coordinates represent the combinations of normal and shearing stresses that wl cause a given material to fil. The Mohr hypothesis states that when shear failure takes place across plane, the normal stress * Some defintons reprinted with permission fom the American Geological Insite ©1997 Basle Concepts Shear Stress Normel Stress, ¢ FRGUREA The Mohr Emelopo (©) and shear stess (2) across the planeare related bya functional relationship chat acteristic ofthe material (Jaeger and Cook 1979); i.e, |x =f(0). (Since the sigh of¢ affects only the direction of siding, only the magnitude of important.) The func ‘Sonal relationship can be represented by a curve in thea plane knovn as the Mohr envelope, such as curve AB in Figure 1.1 Ifwe have tteeprinepalstresses-oy, Oy, and o,~and if, ~ 05 (a ina triaxial test ona cylindrieal specimen), the value of © and tan be found by the Mobr construction of Figure 1.1, Failure wll not occur if the values of and tare below the cuve A-B. Hosiever, consider the citle with cen: {er (6, +63)/2 and with the magnitude ofthe maximum principle stres (6,) minus the magnitude ofthe minimum prnciplestress(¢,) as its diameter; failure wil occur ‘fthis cele just touches A-B Jaeger and Cook 1979). The failure values, o,and are determined as the tangent point ofthe citce tothe curve A-B, and the values Of (9, and og at failure are denoted as 6, ard 6, respectively. In oder to generate the Mor envelope AB, itis often necessary 0 conduet multiple triaxial strength tess Of a given rock type and to plot the results of o, a failure (,,) and oy at flue (o,,). for each test For soil, the curve is usualy straight; for rocks, the curve is usually ‘concave downward ne the normal seat reste. At low values of ad yyy is ‘often the case fr rock slope flue, the curve AB is assumed t be straight. ‘Slope Contiguration Figure 1.2 shows terms relating to slope coniguration, These terms include ‘ Rock Stop Stay ‘eaten Bench o Berm Fave ‘ Overall Slope Angle FIGURE? Wighwal slope contgwation enc: Ange tha in open pit ines nd quis, fora singe eve of operon Shore wc fo ats areca roma ong ano techie The mineral or ie esemovedinscesieayem eth of whch ea Bench, several of wich ny ben operon sitanecunly in dileren pars of-and aforent elevations nna open pine or quay. + onchange angle ofintnaton the beh face esate fom the orion 1 berm: A horizontal shel or ldge lato the embankaent roping wal of an open pl quarry, or hghray eto beak the contin ofan thers on lope tndtp strengthen the dope stably oro chad een oo ling rock. A term tht ndesgned to prove a suc nh toch los, len ose eae enh bench * eet The top ofan excavated lope fae Te moro les vera rice oeck exposed by exoenon + omro slope angle The angle mead fom the orzntl othe ie ning the toe Ota aan the cet ofthe wl 1 toe The bottom of ope orci. ‘Slope Orientation ‘The following terms relate to slope orientation and are presented in Figure 1.3: dip: The angle at which abed, stratum, or vein is inctined from the horizontal, as ‘messured normal tothe strike and inthe vertical plane. (Vote that the inlination of Aline, such a8 a borehole, more acurately kage asthe plunge.) The term dip may also be used asa verb, a in the vein dips toward the east” Basle Concets A FRGURE A Ovlntation of plane * dip direction: The Dearing ofthe dip ofa slope, vein, rock stratum, or borehole, mea sured normal ta the direction of stile, ‘strike: The course or bearing of the cuterop ofan Inclined bed, vein, joint, or fault plane ona level surface; the direction ofa horizontal line perpendicular tothe dip irection. (Note that the course ox bearing of line, suchas a borehole, is more accu ely known a the trend) The termtrike may also be wed asa verb, as in “the vein stukes ins northerly direction,” Rock Mass Figure 1.4 depicts terms that relate tothe rock mass. Shown on the figure ae four sets of discontinuities and, for scale effect, an wderground opening in the rock mass of size ‘spproximately 10m? (107 f), oF 3.16. by 3.16 m (10.4 feby 10.4 8), The eicles to the side of the underground opening encompass several zones of tansition from inact tock othe heavily jointed rock mas. The smallest cele encompasses intact rock ‘beren the discontinuities; the next ice shows e single discontinuity, The next icles show two discontinuities, then several dscontinuties, and finally the rock mass A the Viewing scale expands outward, the roc strengeh decreare fom tha ofthe intact rock to that ofthe rock mass. The strength parameters for rok slpe design purposes, there= fore, must be those ofthe rock mass and not ofthe intact rock, Some ofthe important terms shown on Figure 1.4 re "discontinuity (or weaknes plane): A sructralfeatare that separates intact rock bios within a rock mass; a strucirl weakness plane upon which movement can take place rock mass: The in stu rock made upc! the rock substance plus the structural discontinuities. Sectors Finally, Figure 15 shows atexm-sectorcoresponding to an area ofa et, slope o high- ‘all tobe analyzed for stability. A sector the length of wall, pie-sice-shaped portion of ‘wal, or portion of an excavation that can be considered slfcently homogeneous to alow Rock Spe Stabity “wo Becontinuis ‘Several Dscontinitios Rock Mass ne iscontinit Source Asap rom Hook ad Brawn (1980). FFGURE@ Transition rom intact rook to ook mace use ofa single set of structural data, strength data, and orientation data. subsector may ‘be use when the orientation of face or excavation changes within a constant sear, SLOPE FAILURE CAUSES AND PRocESSES ‘Sipe fair, whothrin rock oo canbe anstbuted toa number ofa icitare that given aire can be aibted any single ese, Unaly «number of cases ut dnc ent ger he nr Tee can ape ino the wo major etegries (Varnes 1979) (1 fats ht conte inerenied shear sess an (3) factors that contribute to lw or edced shea strength Basle Concepts 5 Sector FIGURES Pit plan with Increased Shear Stress Factor that contribute to increased sheat stress include the following: "The removal of lateral support. This isa very common cause of slope fastabiity and ‘ay be the result of any of a number of actions, such as erosion by steams or rivers; ‘wave action on lakes and glaciers; previous rockall, slide, subsidence, o large-scale faulting that ereares new slopes; or the work of humans sin the creation of mines ‘or quaties, the construction of cuts inrock, the removal of retaining structures, or "he alteration of water elevation in lakes and reservois. ‘© ‘Theadeition of surcharge to the slope, Surcharge may be added toa slope by natural actions, such asthe weight of rain, ha, snows, of water by the accurmation of talus ‘material on top of a landslide; by the collapse of accumulated voleanie materia and by vegetation Surcharge may also be edded toa slope by the ation of humans, sn the construction of fil che constructon af mine waste dumps, or stockpiles, ot leach ples; the weight of buildings, other constructed structure, o tain; and the weight of water from leaking pipelines sewers, canals, and reservoirs "Transitory earth stresses, which fhe vibrations fom earthquakes, Pasting, machinery, traffic, pile diving, vibratory compactors, ete "Assow increase in the overall slope of region asa result of tectonic uplift stresses, stress relief, o other natural mechanisms (Le, regional ti) "The removal of underlying support ofthe slope. The support underlying a slope Imay be decreased or removed by undercutting of banks by rivers, stream, oF wave actions; subaerial weathering, wetting and drying, and frost ction; subsesranean ‘erosion in which soluble material such as gypsum is removed and overlying Fock Stopo Staity material collapses; mining, quarrying, road construction, and similar actions; loss of strength or failure in underlying material, such as in clays; and the queezing ‘ut of underlying plastic material * Lateral pressure, most commonly from water in pore spaces, cracks, eaverns, oF cavities. Other sources of lateral pressure include the freezing of water in cracks, swelling of soll as a result of hydation of clay or anhydrite, and the mobilization ofresidual sess. 1 Volcan processes, such as swelling or shrinking of magma chambers. Tectonic acvities, which may alter the stress fleldson avery large scale, causing an increase or shift in the direction of geostatie stresses "Processes that eveated the slope. These may include reep onthe slope or creep in ‘weak strata below the foot ofthe slope. Low or Reduced Shear Strength actors that conrbueto low o reduce shear sength incude the following: 1 Factors stemming fom the nial tare or ineren characterises ofthe materia “These factor include material compotion; extre; and grose structure and slope comet, Le, the presence and orentaton of lsontautes, slope olenttion the Sentence of assive beds over weakor plac material nd the alteration of Pe Ineabe beds and weak permeable be. + Chungesin shear strength dito weathering and other physicochemical eatons. ‘These changes on include softening of issued cay, pial dintegration of gam tar rocks die othe action of fest er by thermal expansion and contraction; hy ton or deiydration of clay materials Cncluding the absorption of water by ly ‘ninerals which may decease he coesin; the sweling-and cs lx of cohesion by oman dasa he onan fi upon rene exchange in clay; migration of water due to elecucl potent drying of ay, Sich euls inca; yng of shel, hh crees econ bedng ad er nes and removal of cement within dscontnlties by solution. Side Relief Planes oper Slope Surtace. Slope Face Foe Plone TRGUREE The planar fare mode Beste Concepts ° * Changes in intergranular forces due water content and pressure in pores an fra. tures, which may result from(1)rapic drawdown of s lake or reservoir, (2) rapid changes inthe elevation ofthe water abl, (3) rise of the water table ina distant aquifer, and (4) seepage from an artscal source of water. * Changes in structure, which can be eaused by emalding clays or lay-lke materials ‘upon disturbance, by the fssuring of shales and preconsolidated clays, and by the {racturing and loosening of rock slopes due tothe release of vertical or lateral restraints upon exesvation, "Miscellaneous eases, which can include weakening of a slope due to progressive ‘creep or due tothe actions of roots and burrowing anime. ‘GENERAL MODES OF SLOPE FAILURE IN ROCK MA: “There are four primary modes of slope fafure in tock masses: 4 Plana aur, 2 Rotational flute. 3, Wedge failure. 4 Toppling failure (Other modes that are recognized as important under certain conditions include rockfalls orearth als, rockor earth spread, rock o: earth flow, and buckling of steeply dipping ‘hin beds, Planar Failure ‘Inplanar failure (Figure 1.6), the mass progresses out of down and out slong a more ot less planar or gently unduating surface. Tae movement is commonly controled sti turally by (1) surface weakness, such as fl, jints, bedding planes, and vriations in shear strength between layers of bedded deposits, of (2) the contact betwen fim bed rock and overlying weathered rock, Inorder for he tkelihood of failure to exit, che following conditions must be met ‘The strike ofthe plane of weakness must be within #20" ofthe strike of the crest of the slope "The toe ofthe faire plane must daylight between the toe and the crest ofthe slope (The term daylight is a slang word thathas common usage inthe field of slope stabi ly. Fora plane, vein, discontinuity, et, it means "to intersect the face of the excavar tion above the toe level™see Figure 16) ' The dip ofthe failure plane must be les than the dip ofthe slope face, and the inter. nal angle of friction forthe discontinuity must be less than the dip ofthe discontin ly (Hoek and bray 1981), Rotational Fallure ‘The most common examples of rotational failures are litle-deformed slumps, which are slides along a surface of rupture that is curred coneavely upward. In shimpe, the move. ‘ent is more or less rotational about an ex thats parallel to the slope Grgure 1.7). In {he heed area, che movement may be almost wholly davnward, forming a neat-vercal 7 eck Slope Stabity ney » ‘we angle Rotational fallre surfoce "HOURELT The rotational fare mode scarp, and have lite apparent rotation; however, the top surface ofthe side commonly tilts backward away from the preensting slope face, thus indicating rotation, A purely ‘cular failure surface ona rotational failure is quite rare because frequently the shape ‘ofthe failure surface controlled by the presence of preexisting discontinuities, such as faults, joins, bedding, sheat Zones, etc. The influence of such discontinuities must be considered when a slope sablity analysis of rotational failure is being conducted, Rot tional eiures occur mort frequently in homogeneous materials, such as constructed embankments fils, and highly fractured or jointed rock slopes, Wedge Faure “The posibily of wedge failure exists where two discontinuities srke obliquely across the slope face and their line of intersecron daylight in the slope face (Figure 1.8). The ‘wedge of rock resting on these discontinuities wil slide down the line ofinterseeson provided tha (1) the inclination of the line of intersection s significantly grester than the angle of internal eetion slong the discontinuities, and (2) the plunge of the line of| inetsection daylight between the toe and the erst ofthe slope Topping Fallure ‘Topplng failure oceus when the weight vector ofa block of rock resting on an inclined plane falls outside the bese of the block. This (ype of fallure may occur in undereutting beds (Figure 1.9) Basle Concepts Pine 8 Plane & Upper Sipe Surace Line of intersection ‘Slope Face Underouting Discontinstos LowDippaserine = LBL Dayleting in Slope Face "FIGURE LO The toppling fale mode 2 Rock Slope Stabiity TIGUREA0 Block on an inclined plane a iting elo MECHANICAL APPROACHES TO STABILITY ANALYSIS [Numerous approaches tothe analysis of slope stability problems have been ulized, includ Ing stati equilibrium methods, probabilistic methods, finite element and finite diference procedures, back analysis, the keyblock” concep, and stochastic medium theory. The most ‘ommon method emplayed isthe simple limiting eqalibrium technique to evaluate the Senstvgy of possible failure conditions to slope geometry and rock mass parameters (Piteau and Martin 1982), More detailed limiting equilibrium analyses, finite element analyses, or statistical and/or probabilistic analyses are employed for cases whee the Slope stability is sensitive to the fallure mechanisms and/or tothe operating parameters. imicing equirium cechniques are bes sulted for stability analysis of benthes or over- all slopes where the failure mechanism can readily be defined and strengts parameters fare known or ean be estimated. On the other hand, more advanced techniques are equired for analyses involving the consideration of mulkipe failure modes within a slope, complex slope geometry, complex or multiple structural geometry (Le., modeling ofthe distributions of discontinuity erentations), complex hydrologic eonditions, and/ ‘or variable rock strength parameters. ‘This section provides an Introduction to two of these ypes of mechanical stability analy- sis methods: the limiting equlirium approach and probabilistic analysis. An example of using the latter technique s included 2s wel, ‘The Limiting Equilibrium Concept At limiing equiliium, by definon, all points are onthe verge of failure. At this point in time, the driving forces (or streses, monies) just equal the resisting forces (or stresses, moments), and the factor of safety equals uniy, Where the resisting foresofssope are {greater than the driving fores, the factor of safety is greater than unity andthe slope is ta be; when the resisting forces ze Tes than the driving forces, the lope i unstable Planar Failure, The simplest model applied to planar fallure is that of block resting fn an inclined plane at limiting equilibrium (Figure 1.10). The following equations ‘describe the forces acting on the Block: Basie Concerts -+orang oN - Wen aa shear force = 1A = resisting force = c+ Weosp- tang diving fore = Weinp where ‘T= shear stress along the failure plane = cohesion slong the failure plane (0 normal stress on the failure plane {> angle of internal friction forthe failure plane .N/= magnitude ofthe normal force across the failure plane ‘area of the base ofthe plane W= weight ofthe failure mase B= dip angle ofthe file plane ‘Bauating the diving forces and the resistin ores at limiting equim, we gt an equation for the factor of safety: : ae cosa) Rotational Faure, For tational fur, the model general applied ioe of ma nathas fae, Le, shop's method, Tors method the Morgenstern Pee Aethd,Jnbus method, the ordinary met of aes (OMS), te Thre oleh gener Aly fer nly inthe assmpsions nese emake the equation satay dossmapine oxalate may st hope compre io seme len teosiories, waste ump, talag cams ce), These dapes meses oe of ndvidal parce of rock tae not necked (nth cay Comino aire strface may fon) andthe ae wey sal eparel wth hero he ope teas and Marin 1983). For ale ooceuy, tet sbearsoeaatong eich sae mist be equal or geste an the sea steng ang the aes “The strength ofthe material is generally given by the Makt-Coulomb failure eerions = €'s(6-aptane) here ‘shear stength ¢ Fefetvecbesion ofthe material ‘© normal tess onthe sing surface i= pore water presi an the siding sure 4¢'=eective ction ange ofthe material ‘detailed discussion ofthe many methods svailble for determining the factor of safery versus alae for rotational flue sbeyond the scope ofthis disaion The eck Slop Stabity “otal Number of Unknowns fr n Sites in Rotational allure: + Factor of soety > Normal forces on the base () n Lines of action (2) pt Interaice normal forces (E) mt Intersice ehear frees) a LUnes of exon (¥) Total: 50-2 of Available Equations for Solution: for each soe foreach sce foreach see Sice Foroes on Slice THGURELIa Stati forthe method of slices for etationa allure reader eed exalt cussions of i bjt by ef and Baron (1970) ‘Smith (1962), Schuster and Krzek (1978), Hoek and Bray (1981), Brawnes and Mil gan C971), Beaver and Miligan (1972), and Breiner (1982). The fst he of ‘Bee references discuss rotational allure in sol slopes, whereas the last four are con- ered primarily th fares i rock slopes. Consider a generalized failure surface such as that shown in Figure 1.11 This gure Shows a slope anda failure surface of creularegment shape. The slope may be com Dose fa munber offen mately var inboth he azote ver Enllretions, long with pore pressure hat may also vary with postion In order to {vestigate the stablity conditions a some point along the failure surface, the slope has been dived into a number of tin, verteal les of width x. peal lice, the th Sc, is shown in igure 111 along with he forces acting on the weight ofthe sie, Basie Concerts fo ‘W; the horizontal forces, and Ri, the shear frees, Xan Xj the normal foee on the bottom ofthe slice, Nj andthe resisting shear force on the bottom of these, 8, N, acts ata position Z; with respect tox Band Bact at positions Y, and Yj, with espet toxand x# Ay respectively The total number of unknowns for sies Is 6x ~3 (Figure 1,11), However, the factor of safety sone additional unknovm, bringingthe total to 6 ~ 2. if through laboratory test ing, we determine a value fo S, whichis asiimed constant forall sies, then the total ‘umber of unknowns becomes Sn ~2. If we ae tempting to solve the problem in the ‘xy plane Cutlizing a unit width of slice through the assumtedfalure as showm in Figure 17), and if we assume the slope sin equllium, then the total numberof equations available is 3n Figure 1.1) Wedge Failure. ‘The basic mechanics of wedge failure are very simple; however, because ofthe large number of variables invlved, the mathematical treatment of the ‘mechanics can become very complex unless avery strict sequence is adhered to inthe ‘development of the equation, For the simplest ease-fition only-the fllowing equa tions apply resisting forces = Natany +Nptanty driving forces = Wein, as, = Nalin Nytaney = Wa where 1, * magnitude of normal force on plane A 1Ny= magnitude of normal free on plane B ‘friction angle on plane A ‘> fiction angle on plane B y= plunge ofthe line of intersection of planes A and B Toppling Faure. — For topping analysis, che sum of the moments causing toppling of block (i, the horizontal welght component ofthe Black and the sum ofthe étving forces from adjacent blocks behind the block under consideration) fs compared to the sum of the moment resisting topping (Le. the vertical weight component ofthe block 'and resisting forces from adjacent blocks in iont ofthe block under consideration). 1F the driving moments exceed the resisting maments, then topping can occur. ‘A measurement ofthe poretil for topplingis the rato of the thickness to the height, ‘Zh (called the slenderness ratio), forthe bloc. This ratio regulates the location of the slant force cue to the weight ofthe block with respect toa pivot point atthe lowest ‘ornor ofthe block (Figure 1-12). Whenever:/h = tan (where pi the ip uf dhe eure plane, the resultant force occurs outside the toe ofthe block, and at overturning force develops about the pivot point that cou lead to topping ‘The Probabilistic Approach he probabilistic approach takes into account ihe uncertainty of variables such as cohesion, fetion angle, cp, site, and join length (Coates 1977) Some ofthe more important de ‘isons relatng to probablsie analy include the following (Miller and Freund 1985) a Rock Stope Stability Basie Concepts a 10) ; Number of Observations \/ 5 b. o ae Dip Ange (degrees) 10 Pot Polat por FIGURE .12 Potential toppling are when the vertical welght component, W, ls ouside . ‘the pivot pont * target population: The entire group of data from which representative samples are to be taken, e.g. dip values for all the joints in set ° * sample population: The group of data from which sctual samples are taken—which may or may not be equivalent tothe target population; the dlp values of joints available for measurement on the face ofthe benches may not be representative ofall Joins in the wall rock, "random sample: A sample taken in such a way that there i an equal chance of every ‘member ofthe target population being selected or observed. * biased sample: A sample taken ina shanner resulting ina grater possibilty of some ‘members being selected or observed than others, eg, ase of dip values obtained fiom dell core will be based against dips parallel tothe hole Another issue of concern in probabllitc analysis, ofcourse, the term probability itself Probabiltyis concerned wih events chat individuslly are not predictable but that in Jagge munbers aie preictable Iris the elave expected frequency af occurrence of & ven event in an infinitely large population of events. A probabily distribution depicts the relationship between the relative likelihood of oceurence ofan event and the ‘numerical value associated with the event; eg, ifthe event isthe dip of joins ina set, the probability distribution may be as shown in Figure 1.13, ‘Three important axioms associated with probabltes are a follows ce Dip Ange (degrees) ‘Source: or Coates (2983 0 wth perio, 'OURE 18 Hypothetical histogram and probability density function of lp value frente nase 41 The probability associated with any discrete event among all possible outcomes, must be between 0 and 1 2 Thesumofall probabilities defined inthe probability density function (PDF) must add upto 3. fAand B are mutually exclusive events, the probabilities associated with A and B smut be additive; ie, PCALB) = F(A) + PCB). A probability density function, 0, when integrated between any two constants aan b, gives the probability thatthe corresponcing random variable takes on a vale between {hese evo limits. The fis of the preceding axioms states thatthe probability must be berween 0 and 1, whereas the second aniom states thatthe um ofthe probabiles Within a given probability density function ras equa 1 : Rock Sipe tatty The Norma istibton ‘Acommon typeof probably denssythe normal probity density usually referred tosimplys the normal darburion) va mathemati that aes the fort of thetuniiar bell shaped curve. The equation of he normal probably dns atey nae wexee Since the normal probability density cannot be integrated in closed form between every pair ofits @ and b, probabilities relating to normal distributions are usually obtained from a special table (Figure 1.14). The table pertains tothe standard normal distribu sion, namely the normal dissibution wth a mean (x) of anda standard deviation (0) Of Tits entries are the values ofthe following equation; ie op Fe Po = Fe fort =0.00,001, 0:02, 849, and ate for e=400,5=5.00, and == 600 (Mller end Tend 198 ner word we aot dec ave above cq forthe vate ‘fst integration owe must we speci tbls that gives ose proximate sotons forthe value of given FS), Fr experimental dat, sch asa series of dip angle mea- surements and assuming thatthe variations olow closely «normal distribution, the vel define by the mean 6), and the variance 2), o andard deviation), ‘sccordng tothe follwing equations: where individual srple values al number of samples In the precedingequations note tha the mean and standard deviation ofthe x terms ‘were wren ast ands respectively, ot asf and. The reason ithat general practice Inepplie stats to ue Latin leer to denoe desertion of octul data and Greck Teer to denote deserpon of theoretical distbutons (Note also thathad we divided byrminstend of n= inthe equation forthe valance, the resulting formula could have ten used forthe tandand deviation of the dstrbuton of random variable tht assumes the values of; wit equal probable of 1/ Is standard deviation would be denoted by o {Miler and Freund 19851) Basie Concepts 2 (raph of Noema Probability Densty Fe Fa) Fa) 29. 95000 10 © oats, «20 .g77a 81 O30 «= T2 gas 32 OSE 02 O87 «= t3 aaa 33 seat 03 = ogi7a «3 Ososz = 33 Shanes od, desea ta ates 38 Saas 05 = desis, 8 ase 3S Raa 08 —oras7, teams 38 aos Or © brs80 7 Osea 3 anes. 08 —breer 1 Ogats 3B gra os oaisg «= t8sOamus, 38 ges "ROURE 1.14 Standardized normal distribution graph and fable ‘The mean describes the center, median, o average of the data; for 1, 2, and 3 standard deviations on ether side of the mean, 68.27%, 95.45%, and 99.7396 ofthe data is included, respectively. ‘The table can be applied to find values of FG), givens from a normally distributed sam ple population of observed values, where Pa) isthe probability ofan occurence. To use ‘the table forthe normal distribution in connection with a random variable that as the value. and a normal distribution with the rean and variance o, we refer tothe corre- sponding standardized random variable, hich has the vale sand tothe standard normal distribution. This equation uses the mean and standard evi ation of our observed data (u and o), along with a value (2) within the range of the observed date, to calculate the standard score). The standard score (a is then entered into the table in igure 1.14 to determine the probability of occurrence ofx, ie, FC). ‘The example given later in this chapter provides more detal on how a standard normal lstibution is used to find values fora nonstandard normal distribution. ‘Typical probability density functions for some ofthe more important variables affecting slope stability are shown in Fgure 1.15 Plated on the abscissa (x-axis) is the range of ‘measured values (eg. cohesin, fection angle strike, te); potted onthe ordinate (ax) 7 ec lp ty ae Cnc : 8 & ‘Cohesion Friction Angie § i 3 : 8 : k : 5 8 : Ding ene 5 5 FIGURE L26 The amuatve probably tbaton for dip angles anes mane ee ae Saas fra Source: Aor Costas (1984) used win pormsson, FGURE 15 Typcal PDFs for varlablesafectng slope stably is rato representing the normalized number of occurrences within each ass neva {Gey momber of occurrences ad mensrement within the ange of 30 032 divided Sythe tor! numberof ip mesurements). This normaleatonprocedae resus inthe ‘mf he area under the PDF equaling 1.0, Because the sm under the PDF cuve qunls 1.0, we can now determine the probity of ocerrence, 0) of any vale x sein the enge of messed vale: poe slong the aca ife sun the normalize tion ratios fon eft tight along the able for each cas ftereal we aban he urate probability csriburon that hasan eympote of 10 Fire 1.168 cuts Inde dierihron ofthe ip angles of igure 1.13 Probabilistic Analysis ofthe Plane Shear Fallure Modo" The probability of plane shear failure is a combination of two probabilities: (1) the prob- bility that the failure plane exists, and (2) the probability that sliding on the Failure plane wil occur, 2 The equation forthe probability of plane shea failure (PF) is “This section draws heavily rom Marek and Seve (1978). ‘where x represents the joint orientation, "Thi isthe joint probability that a fracture is resent and that sliding ocurs,suramed overall possible join orientation, Inthe plane shear analysis, many orientations ae not censidered because their probabilities of sli sng ave zero. Gnly those join sets with strikes that parallel the slope face and dips that could be daylighted are considered. In realy, the integral ie approximated by vee Fra where the summation tis taken over a disrete se of dips with a ange between zero and the slope face angle This equation is ald fer any fallure mode, For the plane shear condition, the probability of existence isthe combined probability of bo occurrences >= PAP, ‘hati, the probabily of existence isthe combined probability that the fracture has certain dip atitude (P) and that the facture slong enough to reach from the foe tothe top surface ofthe slope at that particular dip The probability of length (Is determined lirecty from the cumulative length distribution (See Figure 1.16). For any dip inthe jit set, a certain fracture length srequirecto reach from the toe tothe top surface of 2 Rook Slope Stabity "ROURE 137 Distibution of teton angles for probaillate method example te slope, The probably of meeting or exceeding this lengths determined dseey tom the probably dstrbutin for acre length: The probability of ae thus becomes w= Srey, ‘summed over a selected range of dps. Probabilistic Method Example. Asa simple example of the probabilistic method, sssume that discontinuty strikes parallel othe slope face and dips st constant 23° For simplicity, assume also that cohesion is equal to 2ro. The applicable equation for the factor ofeafety ofthe rock wedge-Le, Equation 11 fr planar fllure—teduces to rs, = ae theron angle, which somal disbute with a mean vale, of 25° and A standard deviation 0, of = igure 1.17) b= 23% the dip othe deoninuty ate generate a table of random numbers betwen 2ro and 1, shown in Table 1.1, fn ict the andom numbers be equal t,o he pababiyof caren onthe Standarized normal dsb (ee Figure 1.14), ten we can detemine the eome- Sponding vale for each random uber, The sve s determined by interpolation meen values of) inthe table on Fire 114 Noe that the able on igure 1.14 Incdes only vals of) from 05000 0 981 (1.0, hat) Tiss onl the cea Under the ight sie of the standardized norm stibtion, Fo probate, FD), ess tan Uo000, ten "4 FG) thats hase negate sgn (eau) Unig die ‘ale, we can then calculate the vale Giton ange) rom de equation xejsor For the numerous values of @ and the constant value ofB, we can then Galeulate the or ‘responding factor of safety, s tabulated in Table 1.1 Basie Concots 4 TABLE.A Random numbers, salves, htlor angle (9), and sesecated factors of safety for example pobiom Random Number, Corresponding Covesponding Resting Value Equated vo Fe). ‘Palue i ots. ——~“‘osieais ———aaaar 252807 Tore 0.497778 ~0056 24.9008, 9982 0.943232 1.5826, ae.07e2 6100 o.s08i5 1.2709 a806s aos osere2a = * 0.703 2eseri 0549 60527 02670 25.8690 11.0865 o2rasi4 5059) 20.7587 129 0.354349 ~2737 rages osss2 0.780751 8087 0.6299 22703 o.aarers oasis 2a08e3 9565 ‘os07r101 ove 25.1246 4.0057 0.884756 1.1992 aaa aa37 0.259876 gas roe oon 0.443082 “1.0827 assis osrs? osoi94s oss? 30.9409 1.2885, 011362 -22780 9.054 o2sa7 oasz38 0.9007 31.9079 13399) o.s7s03 ose 2a.a6e7 17593, o21aei9 0.7906 19.4058 0.7580 otsrise 1.0090 x7.46570 6826 022401 “2010 308300 oats 0.737278 0.8205, 70.4135 1.2080, 0326784 04517 area o.asoe 032797 0.4833 2806s 0.8620 o.snsiss 2604 aa8298 4372 0.964635 1.8067 37.6469, e543 0.905152 18138 37.6062 es72 0.427589 -tsara 70384 ossra 0.994505 25005, 42.5405 119991 0320719 0.0058 aara04 oss o.024064 “9768 aase2e 4282 o.saseza “oose 2aarie oraz 0.276205 ~0.5008 20.8079 osirs vezasos 02133 zrasaa 4018 77264 602 pazais 1.1509 0.288096 08565 21.1045 osar7 0530 04343 2.9401 0432 o.s52844 -1.0244 ar.8002 o.seo7 (eb coninaes) a eck slope Stabity Basie Concepts TABLES Random numbers values, tion angles (9), and associated factors of safety for ‘example problem (contineed) Random Number, Covespondng __Covesponding Renting Vale aust t Riz). ‘pave xo ots. 0.238208 “Tae THRO o7TEt 106456 susie? 363601 ost94 oseazoee asr23 ‘6.0061 ss5e4 o.s0a8s ose2 si01es 4.2803, 0.897861 o2a7e 267346 41.0802 0.76098 0.7008 29,9005 1.2365, o.stas61 ‘ose10 27.8670 243 oszises aat7e e923 La973 077356 suas 150376 osres 0.762861 7456 22.7156 asv76 2086 028s 242005 261 oasa7e. “o3783 223729 08827 168698 0.9672 15.2296 0.7083 o.601258 0.2566 26.7962 sLo8st o.ovas7s 2087s 39.3395 47573, ooenest 2.8889 arr o792 0.894795 12522 33.7658 1.4337 0.468108 0776 38.1508, 0.7033, ostoasa oss sa3001 1.067 0.252786 0.8657 203401 0.7980 0.475058 0.9209 35.4837 o71e9 0.43530 0.4626 23.0618 0.9866 {Upon ealeulatng the factor of safety for the 60 random numbers generated, we can next Alevelop frequency dstriation for various class intervals of the factor of safety (Pigure 1.184). f ve normalize the feequency distribution by dividing the number of ‘ecurrences in each class by therotal number of occurrences (Le, 60), then we develop probability density function for factor of safety (Figure 1.188). We can then use this PDP to determine the probability of, for example, the factor of safety being less than or ‘equal to 1.0, For the ekample we get the following results: ‘Mean value ofS, 3. 1.038557 Standard devitionofFS,0 0.382114 P(RS.<1.0) 0.4629, oF 46.396 ‘This eat then, implica thatthe slope it marginally sable (Le, the FS. cleulatd to be greater than 1.0 for 83.79of the iterations), and it also has a 46.3% probability of eventually failing a A Bas jo é $ | = i ofp 038 080 cro 1d 48 50 1's a0 Factor Ste 8 “pons. : iE i Bo 00 085 050 078 Am als a5) 176 av Taco t Sty 'RGURE 18 Determining the fctorafantts (ewan At ‘histogram; (B) probability density function ie ae REFERENCES se tg sev snog "Srl et owes DE 1977. Design. tn Pt Slope Manual. epr 7, ed by DF Costes Ota, wario, Canada: Canada Centre for Mineral and Energy Technology (CANMET, formerly ‘Mines Branch, Energy, Mines and Resources Canad), : : G18, Rook MechanisPrincpes. Monograph 874. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada: Canada Cente for Mineral and Energy Technology (CANMET, fr an ira and Hoey Technolgy (ANMET, forme Mines Branch, egy Rock Slope Stabity Hook and JW. Bray. 1981. Rock Slope Engineering London: Instiaton of Mining nd Meratuey. Hock, and ET, Brown, 1980, Underground Excavations in Rock Londen: Insiution of Mining and Malay. Jneger, JC. and N.G.W, Cook, 1979, Fundamental of Rock Mechanics. Seed London ‘Chapman and Hall ‘Marek, JM, and JP. Savely. 1978 Probabilistic Analysis ofthe Plane Shar Faure Mode. Proceedings 190 US. Sympastu on Rock Mechanies, Univers of Mevada-Reno, Vo.2 ‘Reno, Nev Conferenoes & Instiutes, Extended Programs and Continuing Hucation, University of Nevada Mille, and LE. Preund. 1985 Probably and Stats for Engineers. Englewood Chis als Prentice-Hall Palo, W., and W Baton. 1976, Si Mechanics Principe and Applications. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Pica, DR, and D.C Martin, 1982. Mechanics of Rock lope Fale In tail in Surface ‘Mining, VoL 3 Edited by CO. Bravner. New York: Socery of Mining Engineers ofthe ‘American Insitute of Mining, Metallurgical, nd Petroleum Engineers. Schuster, RL, and RJ. Krzek, eds, 1978. Landslides, Analysis and Control. Special Report 176, Washington, D.C: Transportation Research Board, Commision on Soiotechnicl ‘Systems, National Research Counll National Acadamy of Scenes. Smith, GN. 1982, Elements of Soll Mechanics for Ci and Mining Engines. th ed. New "York: Granada Publishing ‘Varnes, DJ. 1978, Slope Movement Types and Processes. n Landslides, Anls& Control ‘Edited by RL. Sehusterand RL Kezek. Special Repor 176, Washington, D.C. Transportation Research Board, Cammission on Socotecneal ystems, Nasional ‘Reseach Council, National Acedemy of Selences. (CHAPTER 2 Rock Mass Properties Inthe assent ofthe ape hilly ofan craton ain os imponant 2 sccurately determine meny of the rock mass engineering properties. These proper consist of (1) the physical and mechanical popertis of intact locks of ek nd (2) the Properties of discontinaiis-such a jon, fl, ation, shear zones, and bedding Planes-tharbound the indvidual Bock, Excavations within aock mes re affected by theshear strength of csconiutes within te mas ia rock mass contain unfsvoray lene disconinstes, ts suength for engineering purposes maybe greatly reduced ‘The dicontinaties may intersec and form potently usable wedges ox ey ay dip sd to orm cia planes of aoe, kn ero a ced by rock joie wats sich 5 surface roughness, weathering ante presen of infiling The surface roughness fs rockyoit contol the ns sheasength and taney. The strength ofthe whole mas of ack the itt blocs plus the anatned

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