In 1855, the third tenet of Schwann were replaced by the Rudolph Virchow’s
powerful dictum, Omnis cellula e cellula, “All cells only arise from pre-existing
MODULE 1
CELLS
The discovery of the cell would not have been possible if not for advancements
to the microscope. Interested in learning more about the microscopic world,
scientist Robert Hooke improved the design of the existing compound
microscope in 1665. His microscope used three lenses and a stage light, which
illuminated and enlarged the specimens. These advancements allowed Hooke
to see something wondrous when he placed a piece of cork under the
microscope. Hooke detailed his observations of this tiny and previously unseen
world in his book, Micrographia. To him, the cork looked as if it was made of
tiny pores, which he came to call “cells” because they reminded him of the cells
in a monastery. Not long after Hooke’s discovery, Dutch scientist Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek detected other hidden, minuscule organisms— bacteria and
protozoa. It was unsurprising that van Leeuwenhoek would make such a
discovery. He was a master microscope maker and perfected the design of the
simple microscope (which only had a single lens), enabling it to magnify an
object by around two hundred to three hundred times its original size.
About 150 years passed before scientists began to organize the observations
begun by Hooke and van Leeuwenhoek into a unified theory known as the cell
theory. Early evidence for the cell theory was provided by German scientists. In
1838, the botanist Matthias Schleiden concluded that all plants are composed
of cells. A year later, the zoologist Theodor Schwann came to the same
conclusion about animals. Schwann published his book on animal and plant cells
(Schwann 1839) the next year, a treatise devoid of acknowledgments of anyone
else’s contribution, including that of Schleiden (1838). He summarized his
observations into three conclusions about cells:
1. The cell is the unit of structure, physiology, and organization in living
things.
2. The cell retains a dual existence as a distinct entity and a building block
in the construction of organisms.
3. Cells form by free-cell formation, similar to the formation of crystals
(spontaneous generation).
cells”. Over the years, modern scientists have gathered much additional
evidence that strongly supports the cell theory.
Modern Cell Theory
1. All known living things are made up of cells.
2. The cell is structural & functional unit of all living things.
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells by division. (Spontaneous
Generation does not occur).
4. Cells contains hereditary information which is passed from cell to cell
during cell division.
5. All cells are basically the same in chemical composition.
6. All energy flow (metabolism & biochemistry) of life occurs within cells.
What is It
The cell membrane marks the boundary between the outside and inside of a
cell. Its integrity and functions are vital to a cell because it acts as much like a
gate-keeper, regulating the passage of molecules and ions into and out of the
cell, allow cell recognition and provide anchoring sites for filaments of
cytoskeleton. The Fluid Mosaic Model describes the structure of the plasma
membrane as a mosaic formed by a phospholipid bilayer with proteins and
carbohydrates. The proteins can move laterally, giving fluidity to the plasma
membrane. The phospholipid molecules (made up of two fatty acids joined to
glycerol and a phosphate group) are arranged in two layers (a bilayer) or
parallel sheets, and are amphipathic molecules they have a hydrophilic region
and a hydrophobic region. Cell membrane is also composed of different
membrane proteins with specific functions. The cytoplasm is the entire region
of a cell within the plasma /cell membrane. In eukaryotes, it is made up of
organelles suspended in gel-like cytosol, the cytoskeleton, and various
chemicals. Even though the cytoplasm consists of 70% to 80% water, it has a
semi-solid consistency due to the proteins within it. Glucose, and other simple
sugars, polysaccharides, amino acids, nucleic acids, fatty acids and derivatives of
glycerol are found there too. Ions of sodium, potassium, calcium and many
other elements are also dissolved in the cytoplasm. Many metabolic reactions, The molecules within the vesicles are modified as they move between
including protein synthesis, take place in the cytoplasm. saccules.

The nucleus is a noticeable structure in the eukaryotic cell. It is enclosed by a ENERGY PROCESSING
unique structure—a complex double membrane called nuclear envelope. The
• Mitochondria break down carbohydrate to produce adenosine
nuclear envelope is studded with pore-like openings, and its inside surface is
triphosphate (ATP) molecule. Mitochondria are oval-shaped, double-
associated with fibrous proteins that form a lattice-like called the nuclear
membrane organelles that have their own ribosomes and DNA. Each
lamina. The nucleus contain chromatin within a semifluid nucleoplasm.
membrane is a phospholipid bilayer embedded with proteins. The inner
Chromatin looks grainy, but actually it is a network of strands. Just before the
layer has folds called cristae, which increase the surface area of the
cell divides, the chromatin condenses and coils into rod like structures called
inner membrane. The area surrounded by the folds is called the
chromosomes.
mitochondrial matrix. The cristae and the matrix have different roles in
CELL MANUFACTURERS cellular respiration.
• Chloroplast use solar energy to synthesize carbohydrates. It has outer
• Ribosomes are found both in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. In both
and inner membranes, but within the space enclosed by a chloroplast’s
types of cells, ribosomes are composed of two subunits, one large and
inner membrane is a set of interconnected and stacked, fluid-filled
one small. Each subunit has its own mix of proteins and rRNA.
membrane sacs called thylakoids. Each stack of thylakoids is called a
Ribosomes are sites of protein synthesis. They receive mRNA from the
granum (plural = grana). The fluid enclosed by the inner membrane and
nucleus, which carries a coded message from DNA. Each mRNA codes
surrounding the grana is called the stroma.
for the correct sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide. In eukaryotic
cells, some occur freely within a cytoplasm, either singly or in groups BREAKDOWN OF MATERIALS
called polyribosomes. Proteins synthesized by polyribosomes are used
• Lysosomes are vesicles produced by the Golgi apparatus that digest
in the cytoplasm. Many ribosomes are attached to endoplasmic
molecules and even portions of the cell itself. Sometimes, after
reticulum, an organelle composed of saccules and channels.
engulfing molecules outside the cell, a vesicle formed at the plasma
• Endoplasmic reticulum consists of a complicated system of
membrane fuses with lysosome. Lysosomal enzymes then digest the
membranous channels and saccules. It is physically continuous with the
contents of the vesicle.
outer membrane of the nuclear envelope. Rough endoplasmic
• Vacuoles, like vesicles, are membranous sacs, but vacuoles are larger
reticulum studded with ribosomes on the sides of the membrane that
than vesicles. Vacuoles usually store substances, such as nutrients or
faces the cytoplasm, therefore rough ER is able to synthesize
ions. Plant vacuoles contain not only water, sugars, and salts, but also
polypeptides. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum which is continuous with
pigments and toxic molecules. The pigments are responsible for many
rough ER, does not have attached ribosomes. Smooth ER synthesizes
of the red, blue or purple color of flowers and some leaves. The toxic
lipids, such as phospholipids and steroids. The function of smooth ER
substances help protect plant from herbivore animals. Few animal cells
are dependent on the particular cell.
contain vacuoles, but fat cells, or adipocytes, contain a very large lipid
• Golgi apparatus named after its discoverer, Camillo Golgi, consist of
engorged vacuole.
stacks of three to twenty slightly curved, flattened saccules resembling
• Peroxisomes are spherical membranous vesicles that contain enzymes
pancakes. The Golgi apparatus may be thought of as a transfer station.
which detoxify harmful molecules. The enzymes produced are involved
First, it receives transport vesicles sent it by the rough and smooth ER.
 in the oxidative deamination of amino acids and break down of
hydrogen peroxide.
Support and Movement
• The cytoskeleton is a network of interconnected protein filaments and
tubules that extends from the nucleus to the plasma membrane in
eukaryotic cells. Much as bones and muscles give an animal structure
and produce movement. It is composed of at least three different types
of fibers: microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments.
These fibers are distinguished by their size with microtubules being the
thickest and microfilaments being the thinnest.
Protein Fibers
o Microtubules are hollow rods functioning primarily to help support
and shape the cell and as "routes" along which organelles can
move. Microtubules are typically found in all eukaryotic cells. They
vary in length and measure about 25 nm (nanometers) in diameter.
o Microfilaments or actin filaments are thin, solid rods that are
active in muscle contraction. Microfilaments are particularly
prevalent in muscle cells. Similar to microtubules, they are typically
found in all eukaryotic cells. Microfilaments are composed
primarily of the contractile protein actin and measure up to 8 nm in
diameter. They also participate in organelle movement.
o Intermediate filaments can be abundant in many cells and provide
support for microfilaments and microtubules by holding them in
place. These filaments
NOTES:
Characteristics of life
growth, emotion, accretion (growth not biologically), reproduction (survival;
without it extinction will occur)
Living things – are made up of cell
cell – basic unit of life
Leeuwenhoek – rain water, saliva
- discovered animal scules – bacteria and protozoa
Robert Hooke – observed the dead plant cell
semi-permeable cell means that the cell chooses what will enter in the cell
organelle – subcellular structures
nucleus – the command center of the cell
- has the information and the chromosomes
Histones – the protein in the chromosomes
Ribosome – central dougma
Nuclear envelope – protects the nucleus
Endomembrane system – perform dependently but also interdependent
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum – no enzymes or ribosomes embedded on the
sides
Hydroxyl – nagiging ganiyang ang component
Camillo golgi – who discovered the Golgi apparatus
Golgi apparatus – packaging center of the cell
STRUCTURE
The golgi is made of 5-8 folds called cisternae. The cisternae contain specific
enzymes creating five functional regions which modify proteins passing through
them in a stereotypical way, as follows:
1. Cis-Golgi network: faces the nucleus, forms a connection with the
endoplasmic reticulum and is the entry point into the Golgi apparatus.
2. Cis-Golgi: major processing area allowing biochemical modifications.
3. Medial-Golgi: major processing area allowing biochemical
modifications.
4. Trans-Golgi: major processing area allowing biochemical modifications.
5. Trans-Golgi network: exit point for vesicles budding off the Golgi
surface, packages and sorts biochemicals into the vesicles according to
their destination.
Lysosome- residual bag of the cell
Peroxisome – enzymes
ATP – energy

Cytoskeleton – microtubule microfilament

DISEASES if something is missing

Lamin a – in progeria

Ribosome – diamond black fan anemia

Golgi body – achondrogenesis

Lysosome – taesaks/ tay sachs disease