A Literature Review: Contactless Power Transfer
Systems For Electric Vehicle Charging
Abstract— For the past several years, the possibility of contactless
power transfer (CPT) as a future solution for charging electric
vehicles has been actively investigated (EVs). According to studies, the
key challenges in CPT are low power efficiency, misalignment
tolerance, cost, range, and concern about charging time. This research
gives an overview of CPT systems for EV charging based on available
literature. Different types of CPT technologies are examined, as well
as their principles of operation and corresponding circuit-based
analyses. Compensation options are evaluated and discussed, as well
as their success. In general, the design of coil systems for some city
electric automobiles has been mentioned.
Keywords— Contactless power transfer (CPT), Inductive Charging,
Electric vehicles (EVs), Mutual flux, Efficiency,
Compensation Topologies
I. INTRODUCTION
There are two main ways to charge batteries in a car:
conductive and wireless. This literature review is fully
dedicated to wireless electrical energy transmission
(WEET) in the vehicle industry. The WEET is mainly
used in environments where the risk of safety cannot be
established by conventional means, for example,
underwater or places with humidity, gas, dust. Some
applications need the power to be supplied without
mechanical contact or to a moving object. So, the first
obvious advantages of WEET are the absence of extra
wires, sockets, plugs which makes the charger lighter
and less in size adding to the aforementioned safety. In
spite of all advantages, some issues do not allow
contactless charging to be dominant on the market. For
instance, design of magnetic core in receiver and pick-
up device (couplers) to achieve high performance in
efficiency and maximum power supply. Introducing
simple control techniques and leakage flux regulation
makes the competition with wired chargers difficult. We
can mention several variables to take into account when
designing contactless systems: distance between
windings is not constant, the voltage of the battery pack
dependent on the state of charge, and others.
The general structure of a WEET system is based on
using a magnetic induction transformer. The main
difference between ordinary transformers and a charger
is that the second one has a decoupled magnetic core.
The distance of the separated core may vary in range
from millimeters to meters. Thus, for a bigger distance,
the transformer has bigger leakage inductance as well as
increased proximity-effect winding losses. The large air
gap requires a huge magnetizing current. To decrease
the leakage inductance, one can incorporate different
converter topologies as well as a capacitor for
compensation. These devices are included in the
transmitter and the receiver part of the system.
The transmitter, in general, has a rectifier and a
converter to change supplied frequency. Also, it
includes a compensator connected to the prime winding
wound on a core. The receiver comprises elements such
as a second compensator coupled with a second
winding, rectifier, and a dc-dc converter to keep the
desired voltage on a battery.
The charging process can be controlled either or both
from the transmitting or receiving end. When we
control from the transmitting end, the DC-DC converter
can be excluded, which makes the charger lighter.
When it is inappropriate, control from the receiving end
is utilized.
II. DIFFERENT TECHNOLOGIES IN CONTACTLESS
POWER TRANSFER
We can mention three main technologies for
transferring power from a transmitter to a pick-up
device through an electric, magnetic or electromagnetic
field [1].
So, the first mentioned technology utilizes coupling
capacitors, figure 1. Structure of the charger is the same
as for inductive technology. The power transmittance
here depends on frequency, because while increasing it
the capacitor loses its resistance. The advantages of
capacitive CPT are low electromagnetic emission,
power losses are negligible and power is transferred
without inducing eddy currents. But, the energy density
stored in a capacitor does not allow transfer of energy Figure 1: Basic Compensation Topologies
fast.
The radiant CPT technology that transfers energy In the compensation circuit design, the capacitance
over great distances due to electromagnetic waves. value in the secondary is first selected. A capacitance
Since the receiver and transmitter are proportional in value is used to compensate for the self-inductance of

size to EM waves it allows to make devices small. But
the vehicle industry cannot afford it because of high
cost and potential health hazards.
The inductive CPT comprises structure mentioned in
the introduction. The block diagram of it is shown in
figure 2. When an alternating voltage is induced on the
first coil, then current creates magnetic flux and power
is transmitted to a second coil if load is connected. This
voltage is rectified and supplied to the battery load. The
inductive device can store more energy in a magnetic
field than a capacitive device in an electric field. That is
why the vehicle industry focuses on this technology.
The main drawbacks of inductive CPT are losses in
resistance of coils and possible electromagnetic
interference on other devices. This paper will discover
only advancements of researchers that worked with
inductive Technology.
III. COMPENSATION TOPOLOGIES
CPT systems, by their nature, are inductive structures.
And since the operating frequency is going to be very
high, the power factor on the source side will become
very low. To prevent the loss of efficiency caused by
this situation, it may be necessary to place capacitors in
series or parallel to the windings. Basic compensation
structures are given in Figure 1 and below are the
explanations for each basic topology according to a
research done by Zeng vd. [3]
the secondary winding at the operating frequency value.
The value of the compensation capacity for all
topologies is calculated as follows. (1) In this equation,
“ω 0” is obtained with the operating (resonance)
frequency of the system. Similarly, the primary
capacitance value is chosen so that the input power
factor is one.
1
C s= (1)
ω 0 Ls
Compensation topologies have their advantages and
disadvantages. Which topology to use can be
determined by the application. For example, since
constant current and constant voltage are required in
battery charging applications, it is necessary to use the
topology that can provide this. In applications requiring
on-the-go charging, since the primary winding is laid as
a long line, the voltage drop across the leakage
reactance is high and the source voltage needs to be
high enough. In these applications, series compensation
is more attractive. Thus, it is possible to reduce the
input voltage to appropriate levels. On the secondary
side, series compensation is required to provide a
constant voltage to the load, and parallel compensation
is required to provide a constant current. While the
primary voltage is decreased with the series capacitor in
the primary, the primary current is increased with the
parallel capacitor.
1- S/S compensation model
 The primary compensating capacitor of a S/S is of Table 1 by ignoring the coil resistance from [4].
simply determined by the system frequency and the Table 1 shows that the transmitter side capacitance
primary coil inductance, according to Zeng vd. The should be chosen so that it can cancel out the
primary compensation capacitance value is simple to corresponding inductance seen from the source,
calculate and is unaffected by the contactless charging lowering the source volt-ampere (VA) rating. To
load or the coil's mutual inductance. In principle, if the achieve optimal power transmission to load and
compensation capacitor is chosen appropriately and the efficiency, this zero phase angle frequency should be
primary and secondary coil resistances are ignored, the equal to the secondary resonant frequency. In the
system efficiency can approach 100% and the power second column of the diagram, the primary capacitance
factor can be maintained at 1. for the fundamental topologies [5] is shown.
2- S/P compensation model
According to Zeng vd. System frequency, main and
secondary coil inductance, and mutual inductance all
influence the primary compensation capacitor in S/P.
Assuming that the electric vehicle parking mode and
position are fixed at all times, and that the mutual
inductance of the best matching capacitor compensation
requirements are met, the system efficiency could reach
100% and the power factor could be maintained at 1 in
theory, as long as the compensation capacitor is
properly selected. However, maintaining the state is
difficult.
3- P/S and P/P compensation models
In P/S and P/P compensation models, the primary
compensation capacitor is determined by system
frequency, the inductance, and the electric vehicle
equivalent load as well. In each electric vehicle Table 1: Expressions for primary capacitor, reflected
charging process, the charge equivalent load and the resistance and reactance.
mutual inductance of the coil are not the same which
makes the optimal matching of the change of the
capacitor. In these two kinds of compensation modes, a
higher requirement for power stress is necessary, and
the power factor cannot be avoided to be lower.
Meanwhile, even if the above conditions are met, the
system efficiency cannot reach 100% according to Zeng
vd. paper.
4- Calculation of Compensation Capacitor for the
Basic Topologies
Equation (13) shows that wL2 must be compensated
with a capacitor for maximum power transmission, and
the operating frequency under this circumstance is
known as the resonant frequency (w0). The receiver
side capacitance at the resonance frequency for the
fundamental topologies is given by:
C 2=1/(w ¿ ¿ 0 . w0 . L2)(2)¿
The reflected impedance (Zro) to the primary at this
resonance frequency is shown in the last two columns
 5- S/P/S compensation
Villa et al. introduced the series-parallel series
compensation architecture,[6] which is a hybrid of the
SS and PS topologies, as seen in figure 2. They
proposed a selection factor Kc for selection of C3 such
that Kc<=1 and C3 is given by (3):
C 3=K c .C 3 ps( 3)
where C3ps is the transmitter side capacitance in a P-
S topology, and C1 denotes the overall input
impedance, which should be resistive. They
demonstrated that power transferred and supplied by the
source are substantially identical to the rated values
when Kc=0,85, 40 % misalignment, and a 15 cm air gap
are used. They also demonstrated that the source is safe
from misalignment of more than 40 %. For a 2 kW
power transfer, they tested the SPS and SS topologies
and found that the SPS topology was 92 percent
efficient and the S-S topology was 89 percent efficient.
Figure 2: (C) (LC) transmitter and (LC) receiver.
As shown in Figure 3, Samanta and Rathore
presented a (C) (LC) type compensation in which a
capacitor is linked in parallel with a series (LC) at the
transmitter for current-fed inversion and (LC) type
compensation at the receiver. [7]
A parallel capacitor supplies the whole transmitter
coil reactive current in the PS topology. The parallel
capacitor and inverter switches are under a lot of stress
as a result of this voltage. The voltage stress on the
inverter switches is reduced by
the (C), (LC), and (LC) compensation topologies, as
the required reactive power of the transmitting coil is
supplied by capacitors. Figure 4 shows an LCC
compensation network developed by Li et al. on the
transmitter and receiver sides [8].
Fixed resonant frequency operation is achievable
under varying coupling and load situations since this
compensation is independent of mutual inductance and
load. The complexity of managing the inductive CPT is
minimized due to the set frequency. For an air gap of 20
cm, the authors demonstrated 7.7 kW inductive CPT
with LCC adjustment on both sides, with a 96 percent
efficiency between output power and input DC supply.
Figure 3. (C) (LC) transmitter and (LC) receiver.
For an EV CPT charging system with a four-coil
structure, Zhu et al. presented compensating capacitor
optimization [9]. An optimization search algorithm with
measured coil parameters L, M at the given frequency
achieves optimal compensation. In this scenario, the
frequency should be chosen so that system losses are
minimal. With four coil configurations, the authors
showed a 3.3 kW CPT prototype. At a 21 cm air gap,
they reached 92 percent efficiency, while at a 36 cm air
gap, they achieved 88.5 percent efficiency.
For load independent constant-current (CC) and
constant voltage (CV) charging profiles for lithium-ion
batteries used in EVs, Qu et al. developed a hybrid
design depicted in figure 4. The S-S topology produces
load-independent output current and a zero phase angle
(ZPA) between the input voltage and current at resonant
frequency [10]. Similarly, criteria for load-independent
output voltage and ZPA between input voltage and
current are given in P-S topology in [11].
Figure 4. Double-sided LCC compensation.
Figure 4 shows a combination of S-S and P-S
topologies that produce load-independent CC,CV, and
ZPA between the input current and voltage, even at
fixed frequency. Fixed frequency control can be
implemented at the input side with this topology,
making it less complicated. When S1 is ON and S2, S3
are OFF, it behaves as an S-S topology, and when S1 is
OFF and S2, S3 are ON, it behaves as a P-S topology.
Hou proposed a S/S-P compensation topology with
good output voltage controllability, high efficiency, and
low misalignment sensitivity [12].
Figure 5. Hybrid series-series (SS) and parallel-series
(PS) compensation topology.
For designing the coil the first step is doing the
preliminary sizing of the coil based on the chassis to
ground clearance (air gap), dimensions of the chassis,
space available for placing a coil system and technical
requirements of the vehicle [13]. From Table 1 it is
observed that in S-S topology C2, C1 is independent of
load resistance and mutual inductance between the coils
and there is no imaginary part in the reflected
impedance, so this topology is best suited for EVs
where the load and coupling coefficient are variable [2].
By considering the advantages of the S-S topology, the
approach of coil system design is presented considering
this topology.
In the end, we can say that there are 4 different ways
to compensate for the CPT model. The S/S
compensation mode is the most efficient and easily
controlled in the traditional four kinds of compensation
model.
The output power and the efficiency cannot get to the
maximum at the same time in an electromagnetic
inductive contactless charging system, which is
supposed to reach a compromise.
Efficiency-preferred strategy is put forward to solve
the problem about the contradiction between system
efficiency and output power. Maintain a relatively high
efficiency output power by system working frequency
selection and adjusting.
IV. STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE EFFICIENCY
An important study to analyse the circuits of WEET
conducted in 2009. Stanimir Valtchev with a group of
colleagues introduced a new method for modelling and
analysis of series loaded series resonant SLSR
converter.
The Series Loaded Series Resonant (SLSR) power
converter is widely used in contactless technologies.
The main issue with SLSR is complex control strategy
based on calculation of normalized phase-plane
trajectories. It requires high speed sampling of many
variables in the same (real) time.
Since real circuit is problematic to analyze the
simplified circuit is derived which is equivalent but
easier to read. The model consists of two separate
equivalent circuits derived from the complete (i.e., more
complex) equivalent circuit. In [14] it was shown how
converter is described by high order differential
equations. By applying new approach it is possible to
reduce this order. Approach is to divide model into two
submodels: primary side circuit model and secondary
side circuit model. To prove the theory the 1 kW SLSR
converter was specially prepared for testing [15].
This approach allows evaluation of the converter
variables for large variations of the operation regimes.
Consequently, it becomes easier to find the areas of the
highest efficiency and to apply this knowledge in the
design of efficient contactless converters. The simplified
analysis is also applicable to the implementation of
efficient, faster and secure control strategies. Real
performance they managed to reach however was
around 80% [15.].
In 2010 the same group of researchers
implemented new control strategy for resonant SLSR
converter.
Classical methods of regulation like Continuous Current
Mode (CCM) lack the reaction of a circuit, which is not
fast under changing load. This paper [16] introduced
new method for converter control, which is called
“instantaneous” control.
The most convenient variable which instantaneous
value can serve as the indicator for the energy
transferred each half period in the SLSR converter is
resonant capacitor voltage. The value of this variable
corresponds to the amount of the energy circulating in
the resonant tank. This method will permit the SLSR
converter to be controlled faster and with higher
precision. In fact, method is similar to Current Mode
Control but as a measured variable here is the voltage
rather than the current.
In most contactless systems, the distance
between the primary and secondary windings is
usually much less then the dimensions of the
cores/coils to ensure effective transmission. If this
distance exceeds a desined limit, the coupling
coefficient may be excessively low.
In contactless power transmission systems coupling
coefficient is also dependent on layout of coils.
It was shown in [17] that coupling coefficient is highly
dependent on length of wires, the area of surface
defined by winding configuration or volume occupied
by coil. These variables should be tuned in terms of best
performance for different applications.
In this paper researchers have compared three coil
configurations: spiral planar, spiral globe and solenoid.
The highest coupling factor is achieved for the Spiral
Globe configuration. However, solenoid configuration
proved to be with lower EMI and high circuit
performance.
Separation between primary and secondary winding
constituted 20mm and 17.5W output power was
achieved at all load operation with efficiency about 70%
[17].
As it was discussed before, most common
compensation technology like parallel tuning makes
receiver behave like constant current-source while if
capacitor is connected in series that tuning it gives a
constant voltage-source property.
Series-tuned device is difficult to control voltage to a
desired value [19]. There are technics for parallel-tuned
pickups such as decoupling or LCL topology than allow
to reduce reactive power back, which improves
efficiency, but do not allow to control voltage output.
[20]. THIS Voltage can be tuned from primary circuit
either establishing frequency or current control. But for
multiple pick-ups primal regulation is it would affect
other receivers. Good solution is implementation of a
buck-converter to a second circuit. But dc-dc converter
is accompanied by huge drawbacks as extra losses,
inability to deal with inrush currents, large dc
capacitance that handles voltage ripples may cause
overstress and failure of components. In [19] peak
current can be higher than 200% of nominal. If one
reduce a dc capacitance it only leads to higher voltage
ripple, which is unsuitable for battery applications. In
that paper was introduced series ac-processing pickup
method than let control output voltage and decrease
losses of overall system in the same time. In a receiver
device instead of dc-dc converter ac-converted is used
before a rectifier.

(a) (b)
Fig. 5 Receiver topologies: (a)
conventional, (b) improved
Advantages of this modified topology are controlled
transient response, lower steady state losses, and
reduced cost compared to traditional series-tuned
controllers. The ac-processing pickup can control the
output power over a wide load range for a 1.2-kW
system and a maximum efficiency of 93% is measured
[18].
However, some disadvantages we should mention for
this soft-switching technique such as increased
complexity in converter design and dimensioning,
which makes harder to predict waveforms of current.
Thus, control strategy much more complex.
In series connected resonant capacitors the
configuration has a desired characteristic that makes the
primary compensation capacitance independent of load
and the magnetic coupling coefficient. Most of existing
designs utilize fixed switching frequency operation to
simplify the control, which results in poor performance
under changing load. The battery of a car is exactly the
changing load, thus varying frequency approach was
described in this paper [18].
This paper presents 4-kW contactless power transfer
system CPTS with following structure: 1) a high-
frequency power supply from a full-bridge inverter with
frequency modulation; 2) a loosely coupled transformer
that utilizes series resonant capacitors for both the
primary and secondary windings; 3) a rectification
output circuit that uses a full-bridge diode rectifier.
Using both the primary and secondary series connected
capacitors resonant converter with variable switching
frequency control for EV battery charging application.
Peak system efficiencies of 98% and 96.6% are
achieved with 4- and 8-cm air gap conditions, which are
above 90% during most of the charging period. This
efficiency is comparable with the conventional plug-in
type or wired charging systems for EVs.
However, all the results have been achieved with
perfect alignment and maximum distance of 80mm,
which in real conditions is not the case.
V. REFERENCES
[1] M. Bertoluzzo, M. K. Naik and G. Buja,
"Preliminary investigation on contactless energy
transfer for electric vehicle battery recharging,"
2012 IEEE 7th International Conference on
Industrial and Information Systems (ICIIS), 2012,
pp. 1-6, doi: 10.1109/ICIInfS.2012.6304787.
[2] K. Aditya and S. Williamson, "A Review of
Optimal Conditions for Achieving Maximum
Power Output and Maximum Efficiency for a
Series–Series Resonant Inductive Link", IEEE
Transactions on Transportation Electrification, vol.
3, no. 2, pp. 303-311, 2017. Available:
10.1109/tte.2016.2582559.
[3] S. Zeng, Y. Jin, X. Liu, C. Gong, ve L. Ma,
“Optimal matching strategy based on electric
vehicle contactless charging compensation model”,
içinde 2015 5th International Conference on
Electric Utility Deregulation and Restructuring and
Power Technologies (DRPT), Changsha, China,
Kas. 2015, ss. 2658-2662. doi:
10.1109/DRPT.2015.7432689.
[4] G. Rituraj, E. R. Joy, B. K. Kushwaha and P.
Kumar, "Analysis and comparison of series-series
and series-parallel topology of contactless power
transfer systems," TENCON 2014 - 2014 IEEE
Region 10 Conference, 2014, pp. 1-6, doi:
10.1109/TENCON.2014.7022440.
[5] Chwei-Sen Wang, G. A. Covic and O. H. Stielau, [11] X. Qu, H. Han, S. Wong, C. K. Tse and W. Chen,
"Power transfer capability and bifurcation "Hybrid IPT Topologies With Constant Current or
phenomena of loosely coupled inductive power Constant Voltage Output for Battery Charging
transfer systems," in IEEE Transactions on Applications," in IEEE Transactions on Power
Industrial Electronics, vol. 51, no. 1, pp. 148-157, Electronics, vol. 30, no. 11, pp. 6329-6337, Nov.
Feb. 2004, doi: 10.1109/TIE.2003.822038. 2015, doi: 10.1109/TPEL.2015.2396471..
[6] J. L. Villa, J. Sallan, J. F. Sanz Osorio and A. [12] J. Hou, Q. Chen, X. Ren, X. Ruan, S. Wong and C.
Llombart, "High-Misalignment Tolerant K. Tse, "Precise Characteristics Analysis of
Compensation Topology For ICPT Systems," in Series/Series-Parallel Compensated Contactless
IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, vol. Resonant Converter," in IEEE Journal of Emerging
59, no. 2, pp. 945-951, Feb. 2012, doi: and Selected Topics in Power Electronics, vol. 3,
10.1109/TIE.2011.2161055. no. 1, pp. 101-110, March 2015, doi:
10.1109/JESTPE.2014.2320524..
[7] S. Samanta and A. K. Rathore, "A New Current-
Fed CLC Transmitter and LC Receiver Topology [13] K. Mude, M. Bertoluzzo, G. Buja and R. Pinto,
for Inductive Wireless Power Transfer Application: "Design and experimentation of two-coil coupling
Analysis, Design, and Experimental Results," in for electric city-car WPT charging", Journal of
IEEE Transactions on Transportation Electromagnetic Waves and Applications, vol. 30,
Electrification, vol. 1, no. 4, pp. 357-368, Dec. no. 1, pp. 70-88, 2015. Available:
2015, doi: 10.1109/TTE.2015.2480536. 10.1080/09205071.2015.1088404.
[8] S. Li, W. Li, J. Deng, T. D. Nguyen and C. C. Mi, [14] S. Valtchev, J. B. Klaassens, and M. P. N. van
"A Double-Sided LCC Compensation Network and Wesenbeeck, “Superresonant converter with
Its Tuning Method for Wireless Power Transfer," in switched resonant inductor with PFM-PWM
IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, vol. control,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 10, no.
64, no. 6, pp. 2261-2273, June 2015, doi: 6, pp. 760–765, 1995.
10.1109/TVT.2014.2347006. [15] S. Valtchev, B. Borges, K. Brandisky and J. B.
Klaassens, "Resonant Contactless Energy Transfer
[9] Q. Zhu, L. Wang and C. Liao, "Compensate With Improved Efficiency," in IEEE Transactions
Capacitor Optimization for Kilowatt-Level on Power Electronics, vol. 24, no. 3, pp. 685-699,
Magnetically Resonant Wireless Charging March 2009, doi: 10.1109/TPEL.2008.2003188.
System," in IEEE Transactions on Industrial
Electronics, vol. 61, no. 12, pp. 6758-6768, Dec. [16] S. Valtchev and S. Valtchev, "Improved strategy
2014, doi: 10.1109/TIE.2014.2321349. for an instantaneous super-resonant converter
regulation," 2010 12th International Conference on
[10] W. Zhang, S. Wong, C. K. Tse and Q. Chen, Optimization of Electrical and Electronic
"Load-independent current output of inductive Equipment, 2010, pp. 631-638, doi:
power transfer converters with optimized 10.1109/OPTIM.2010.5510484.
efficiency," 2014 International Power Electronics
Conference (IPEC-Hiroshima 2014 - ECCE ASIA), [17] H. Marques and B. V. Borges, "Contactless battery
2014, pp. 1425-1429, doi: charger with high relative separation distance and
10.1109/IPEC.2014.6869772.. improved efficiency," 2011 IEEE 33rd
International Telecommunications Energy
Conference (INTELEC), 2011, pp. 1-8, doi:
10.1109/INTLEC.2011.6099786.
[18] H. H. Wu, G. A. Covic, J. T. Boys and D. J.
Robertson, "A Series-Tuned Inductive-Power-
 Transfer Pickup With a Controllable AC-Voltage
Output," in IEEE Transactions on Power
Electronics, vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 98-109, Jan. 2011,
doi: 10.1109/TPEL.2010.2052069.
[19] C. I. Chan, G. A. Covic, and J. T. Boys, “Regulator
capacitor selection for series compensated IPT
pickups,” in Proc. 34th Annu. Conf. IEEE Ind.
Electron. (IECON), 2008, pp. 932–937.
[20] N. A. Keeling, G. A. Covic, and J. T. Boys, “A
unity-power-factor IPT pickup for high-power
applications,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 57,
no. 2, pp. 744–751, Feb. 2010.