Lecture 2

MOTIVATION
 Learning Outcomes
 Define and explain motivation.
 Compare and contrast early theories of
motivation.
 Compare and contrast contemporary
theories of motivation.
 Discuss current issues in motivating
employees.

Copyright ©2017 Pearson Education, Inc. 11-2

13-1
Define and explain
motivation.

Copyright ©2017 Pearson Education, Inc. 11-3

 What is Motivation?
Motivation refers to the process by which a person’s efforts are
energized, directed, and sustained toward attaining a goal.

Has three key elements – energy, direction and persistence

Energy
• is a measure of intensity or drive
• A motivated person puts forth effort and works hard
• The quality of effort must be considered as well as its intensity
Direction
• High levels of effort do not necessarily lead to favorable job
performance unless the effort is channeled in a direction that benefits
the organization
• Effort that is directed toward, and consistent with, organizational goals
is the kind of effort we want from employees
Persistence
• Employees to persist in putting forth effort to achieve those goals
11-4
13-2
Compare and
contrast early
theories of
motivation.

Copyright ©2017 Pearson Education, Inc. 11-5

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Proposed that within every person, there is a hierarchy of five needs.

Once a need is substantially satisfied, it no longer motivates.

Copyright ©2017 Pearson Education, Inc. 11-6
 Maslow’s Hierarchy of
Needs Theory
Maslow’s theory that there is a hierarchy of five human needs:
physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self actualization
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Needs Description Examples

Highest-level
needs Self- Realize one’s Use abilities
actualization full potential to the fullest

Feel good Promotions

Esteem
about oneself and recognition

Social Interpersonal
Belongingness
interaction, love relations, parties

Job security,
Safety Security, stability
health insurance

Lowest-level Food, water, Basic pay level

Physiological
needs shelter to buy items

Lower-level needs must be satisfied before

higher-level needs are addressed.
 Maslow’s Hierarchy of
Needs Theory
• Managers using Maslow’s hierarchy to
motivate employees do things to satisfy
employees’ needs
• But once a need is substantially
satisfied, an individual isn’t motivated to
satisfy that need
• Therefore, to motivate someone, you
need to understand what need level
that person is on in the hierarchy and
focus on satisfying needs at or above
that level
McGregor’s Theory X and
Theory Y
Theory X THEORY Y

Assumption that Assumption that

employees dislike employees are creative,
work, are lazy, avoid enjoy work, seek
responsibility and responsibility and can
must be coerced to exercise self-direction
work
 McGregor’s Theory X
and Theory Y
Theory X Theory Y
 Little ambition  Enjoy work
 Dislike work  Seek and accept
 Avoid responsibility responsibility
 Must be closely  Exercise self-direction
controlled
To maximize
motivation

Copyright ©2017 Pearson Education, Inc. 11-11

 Herzberg’s Motivation-
Hygiene Theory
 Herzberg’s wanted to know when people felt
exceptionally good (satisfies) or bad
(dissatisfied) about their job
 Herzberg’s motivation theory, which
proposes that intrinsic factors are related to
job satisfaction and motivation, whereas
extrinsic factors are associated with job
dissatisfaction
 When people feel good about their job –
tend to cite intrinsic factors (achievement,
recognition, responsibility)
 When they were dissatisfied - tend to cite
extrinsic factors (company policy and
administration, supervision, interpersonal
relationships, working conditions)
 Herzberg’s Motivation-
Hygiene Theory
Focuses on outcomes that lead to higher motivation and
job satisfaction, and those outcomes that can prevent
dissatisfaction.
• Motivator needs relate to the nature of the work
itself—autonomy, responsibility, interesting work.
• Removing dissatisfying characteristics from a job
would not necessarily make that job more
satisfying (motivating)
• Thus, managers who sought to eliminate factors
that created job dissatisfaction could keep people
from being dissatisfied but not necessarily
motivate them
• Hygiene needs are related to the physical and
psychological context of the work—comfortable
work environment, pay, job security.
• When these factors are adequate, people won’t
be dissatisfied, but they won’t be satisfied (or
motivated) either.
• To motivate people, Herzberg suggested
emphasizing motivators, the intrinsic factors
having to do with the job itself
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Also called motivation-hygiene theory
(intrinsic factors) (extrinsic
factors)
Job context
Job content

Copyright ©2017 Pearson Education, Inc. 11-14

Satisfaction vs.
Dissatisfaction

Copyright ©2017 Pearson Education, Inc. 11-15

 McClelland’s
Three-Needs Theory
Three acquired needs are major motives in work:
1. Need for achievement (nAch)
 The drive to succeed and excel in relation
to a set of standards
2. Need for power (nPow)
 A desire to control or influence others.
3. Need for affiliation (nAff)
 The desire for friendly and close
interpersonal relationships

Copyright ©2017 Pearson Education, Inc. 11-16

 McClelland’s Needs
for Achievement,
Affiliation, and Power
They prefer jobs that
People with high offer personal
responsibility for
need for finding solutions to
They have a
achievement are problem, in which
desire to do they can receive
striving for
something rapid and
personal
better or more unambiguous
achievement feedback on their
efficiently than
rather than for performance in order
it’s been done to tell whether
the trappings
before they’re improving,
and rewards of and in which they
success can set moderately
challenging goals
 McClelland’s Needs
for Achievement,
Affiliation, and Power
A high need to McClelland
achieve doesn’t showed that
necessarily lead to employees can
being a good be trained to
manager, especially
High achievers in large stimulate their
avoid what they organizations. That’s achievement
perceive to be because high need by being in
very easy or very achievers focus on situations where
their own
difficult tasks accomplishments they have
while good managers personal
emphasize helping responsibility,
others accomplish feedback and
their goals
moderate risks
 McClelland’s Needs
for Achievement,
Affiliation, and Power
However, we do know
The other two needs in
that the best managers
this theory haven’t
tend to be high in the
been researched as
need for power and
extensively as the
low in the need for
need for achievement
affiliation

9–19
13-3 Compare and
contrast
contemporary
theories of
motivation.

Copyright ©2017 Pearson Education, Inc. 11-20

 Goal-Setting Theory
Says that specific goals increase performance, and that difficult
goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than easy goals.

 Working toward a goal is a major source of job motivation

 Will employees try harder if they are involved in goal-setting?
Copyright ©2017 Pearson Education, Inc. 11-21
 Goal-Setting Theory
Influences on Job Performance
Feedback – self-generated is more powerful motivator
Goal commitment – assumed by the theory
Adequate self-efficacy – a person’s belief that
he/she is capable of performing a task
National culture – well-adapted to North American
countries

Copyright ©2017 Pearson Education, Inc. 11-22

 Goal Setting Theory
Focuses on identifying the types of goals that are effective in
producing high levels of motivation and explaining why goals
have these effects.
Considers how managers can ensure that workers focus their
inputs (efforts) in the direction of high performance and the
achievement of organizational goals.
First
• Working toward goal is a major source of job motivation
• Specific and challenging goals are superior motivating
forces
• Such goals produce a higher output than does the
generalized goal of “do your best”
• The specificity of the goal itself acts as an internal
stimulus
• E.g. when a sales rep commits to making eight sales
calls daily, this intention gives him a specific goal to try to
attain
 Goal Setting Theory
Next
• Will employees try harder if they have the
opportunity to participate in the setting of goals? Not
always
• In some cases, participatively set goals elicit
superior performance; in other cases, individuals
performed best when their manager assigned goals
• However, participation is probably preferable to
assigning goals when employees might resist
accepting difficult challenges
Finally
• We know that people will do better if they get
feedback on how well they are progressing toward
their goals because feedback helps identify
discrepancies between what they have done and
what they want to do
Job Characteristics Model
 Job design refers to the way tasks are combined to
form complete jobs.
 The job characteristics model (JCM) was
developed by Hackman and Oldham, to design jobs
that motivate. According to them, any job can be
described in terms of the following five core job
dimensions:
1. Skill variety
2. Task identity
3. Task significance
4. Autonomy
5. Feedback
Copyright ©2017 Pearson Education, Inc. 11-25
 Job Characteristics Model
 Finally, the Job characteristics mode (JCM) is seen in this integrative
model
 Task characteristics (job design) influence job motivation at two
places
First
 jobs that are designed around the five job dimensions are likely to
lead to higher actual job performance because the individual’s
motivation will be stimulated by job itself – will increase the linkage
between effort and performance
Second
 jobs that are designed around the five job dimensions also
increases an employee’s control over key elements in his or
her work
 Therefore, jobs that offer autonomy, feedback, and similar task
characteristics help to satisfy the individual goals of employees who
desire greater control over their work
Job Characteristics Model

Desire for
Self-esteem &
Copyright ©2017 Pearson Education, Inc. Self-actualization
Job Design and Motivation

From a motivational point of view …

Internal rewards are obtained when an
employee learns (feedback) that he or
she personally (responsibility through
autonomy) has performed well on a task
he or she cares about (meaningfulness).

Copyright ©2017 Pearson Education, Inc. 11-28

Guidelines for Job Redesign

Copyright ©2017 Pearson Education, Inc. 11-29

 Stacey Adams’

Equity Theory
The theory that an employee compares his or her job’s input-to-outcome
ratio with that of relevant others and then corrects any inequity.

Copyright ©2017 Pearson Education, Inc. 11-30

 Adam’s Equity Theory
• Focuses on people’s perceptions of the fairness (or lack of fairness) of their work
outcomes in proportion to their work inputs.
• E.g. if an employee perceives her ratio to be equitable in comparison to those of
relevant others, there is no problem
• E.g. if the ratio is inequitable, she views herself as underrewarded or
overrewarded
• When inequities occur, employees attempt to do something about it – the result
might be lower or higher productivity, improved or reduced quality of output,
increased absenteeism or voluntary resignation
• A relative outcome to input ratio comparison to oneself or to another person
(referent) perceived as similar to oneself.
• The “persons” category includes other individuals with similar jobs in the same
organization but also includes friends, neighbors or professional associates
• Based on what they hear at work or read about in newspapers, employees
compare their pay with others
 Adam’s Equity Theory
• The “system” category includes organizational pay policies, procedures
and allocation
• The “self” category refers to inputs-outcomes ratios that are unique to the
individual
It reflects past personal experiences and contacts and is influenced by criteria
such as past jobs or family commitments
• Distributive justice
Is perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals
Has a greater influence on employee satisfaction than procedural justice
• Procedural justice
Is perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards
Tends to affect an employee’s organizational commitment, trust in his or her boss
and intention to quit
 Equity Theory
The referent is important
1. “Persons” – others with similar jobs, friends,
neighbours, etc.
2. “System” – organizational pay policies,
procedures and allocation.
3. “Self” – inputs-outcomes ratio that are unique to
the individual.

Copyright ©2017 Pearson Education, Inc. 11-33

 Victor Vroom’s
Expectancy Theory
Says that an individual tends to act in a certain way based on the
expectation that the act will be followed to a given outcome and on the
attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.

The key to expectancy theory is understanding an individual’s goals and

the links between effort and performance, between performance and
rewards, and between rewards and individual goal satisfaction.

Copyright ©2017 Pearson Education, Inc. 11-34

 Expectancy Theory
o The theory that an individual tends to act in a certain way, based
on the expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome
and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual
Major Factors of Motivation
• Expectancy—the belief that effort (input) will result in a certain
level of performance.
• Instrumentality—the belief that performance results in the
attainment of outcomes.
• Valence—the importance that the individual places on the
potential outcome or reward that can be achieved on the job.
Valence considers both the goals and needs of the individual
Motivation will be high when workers believe:
• High levels of effort will lead to high performance.
• High performance will lead to the attainment of desired outcomes.
 Expectancy Theory
 The key to expectancy theory is understanding an
individual’s goal and the linkage between effort and
performance, between performance and rewards and
finally, between rewards and individual goal satisfaction
 It emphasizes payoffs or rewards
 As a result, we have to believe that the rewards an
organization offers align with what the individual wants
 Expectancy Theory
 Expectancy theory recognizes that no universal principle
explains what motivates individuals and thus stresses that
managers understand why employees view certain
outcomes are attractive or unattractive
 Expectancy theory emphasizes expected behavior
Do employees know what is expected of them and how
they’ll be evaluated
 The theory is concerned with perceptions. Reality is
irrelevant
 An individual’s own perception of performance, reward
and goal outcomes not the outcomes themselves will
determine his or her motivation (level of effort)
Expectancy and Motivation
Motivation is highest when expectancy, instrumentality,
and valence levels are high.

If one of the values is low, motivation will be low:

• Workers do not believe they can perform well.
• Workers do not believe that performance and
rewards are closely linked.
• Workers do not value the rewards offered for
performance.
13-4
Discuss current
issues in motivating
employees.

Copyright ©2017 Pearson Education, Inc. 11-39

Current Issues

Copyright ©2017 Pearson Education, Inc. 11-40

 Country Culture
and Motivation
Managers can’t assume that motivational
programs that work in one geographic
location are going to work in others.

Copyright ©2017 Pearson Education, Inc. 11-41

Cross-Cultural Differences

Employees’ study of Belgium, Britain, Israel, the U.S., Japan,

the Netherlands, and Germany

Study on job-preference outcomes in U.S., Canada, Australia

& Singapore – growth, achievement, & responsibility rated as
top 3 outcomes with identical rankings.

Copyright ©2017 Pearson Education, Inc. 11-42

Unique Groups of Workers
Motivating:
• Diverse employees
• Men (autonomy), women (convenient & flexible
work hours), Gen Y (independent & different
experiences), older workers (highly structured work
opportunities)
• Professionals
• Commitment to the field of expertise, job challenge,
value support, work as the central life interest
• Contingent workers
• Temporary part-time & contract workers
Copyright ©2017 Pearson Education, Inc. 11-43
THANK
YOU