Agritech 123

MODULE
AGRITECH123 – Principles of Soil Science
3

Chapter 4
Chemical Properties of Soil

Objectives
After finishing this module, you are expected to have a knowledge, understanding and
familiarization on the soil’s chemical properties which includes the soil colloid, soil reaction such as
soil acidity and soil alkalinity, their effects on plant growth and how they are treated and controlled.
Specifically, at the end of the course, you should be able to:
1. Analyze and discuss the importance of soil colloids, silicate clays and organic colloids.
2. Explain and familiarize the soil reaction which includes soil acidity and alkalinity, their effects
on plant growth and the techniques on how they are treated and controlled.

Learning Content
Topics:
1. Soil Colloids
2. Soil Reaction
- Soil acidity
- Soil alkalinity

Topic 1. Soil Colloids

Significance of Soil Colloid

The most active portions of soil are those in colloidal state and the two distinct type of
colloidal matter, which is the organic and inorganic colloids. The inorganic is present almost
exclusively as clay minerals of various kinds, while the organic is represented by humus. The process
of exchange of ions, which generally occurs on surfaces of soil colloids are considered to be the most
vital to plant and animal life aside from photosynthesis.
The colloidal fraction of the soil can be considered as the modern bank. They are the sites
within the soil where ions of essential mineral elements Ca, K and S are held and protected from loss
due to rain and irrigation.

What is a Soil Colloid?

 It is a seat of chemical activity or reactions in soils, very small particles whose sizes range
from 0.2 to 1 micrometer (μm), organic and inorganic components of soil having very small
particle size and a corresponding large surface area per unit of soil mass.
 These are the most active constituent of the soil and it determines the physical and chemical
properties of the soil. They are important because their surfaces attract soil nutrients
dissolved in soil, water as positively charged mineral ions.
 These are the finer fractions of the soil (clay and organic matter), being also considered as
the most chemically active portion of the soil because of their large surface area and the
chemical structure of the materials involved.
Properties of Soil Colloids
1. Colloidal particles are always in motion because of charge particles.
2. Colloidal particles are transformed from a liquid into a soft semisolid or solid mass by adding
an opposite charged ion.
3. Colloidal particles have ability to absorbed gases, liquid and solid from their suspension.
4. Colloidal particles never pass through a semipermeable membrane.
5. Colloidal particles have the properties of cohesion and adhesion.

Importance of Soil Colloids

Soil colloids are important because their surfaces attract soil nutrients dissolved in soil, water
as positively charged mineral ions. Some cations are needed for plant growth, including calcium (Ca),
Magnesium (Mg), Potassium (K) and sodium (Na). They need to be dissolved in a soil-water solution
to be available to plants when they are in close contact with root membranes.
The fertility of the soil-water solution for plants is based on the capability of the soil to hold;
this is referred to as the cation exchange capacity. Without soil colloids, most vital nutrients would be
leached out the soil by percolating water and carried away in streams.
Humus colloids have high soil fertility.

Two Kinds of Soil Colloids

Soil colloids are of two kinds:

A) Inorganic Colloids (Minerals)

 Refers to soil particles that have a diameter <2 micrometer
 It is a secondary mineral formed or synthesized from primary minerals or their weathering
products.
 It is made up of layers of plates or flakes.

1. Layer silicate clays

a) Silica tetrahedron. A unit composed of one silicon atom surrounded by four oxygen
atoms.
b) Alumina octahedron. The key cations surrounded by six oxygen atoms or hydroxyl group
giving an eight sided building block termed octahedron.

2. Silicate Clays (layer silicates)

Classifications of silicate clays (based on number of tetrahedral to octahedral sheet):
i. 1:1 Type
ii. 2:1 Expanding Type
iii. 2:1 Non-expanding Type
iv. 2:1 Limited expanding Type

Diagrammatic Representations:

Tetrahedral sheet:

Octahedral sheet:
Different types of layer silicate clays and their characteristics:
A) 1:1 Type (kaolinite)
 Two sheets are held together by oxygen atoms
that are mutually shard by Si and Al.
 Unit layers are held together tightly by H-bonding
o Restricts expansion
o Limits the reactive area to external surface
o Soils high in kaolinite do not swell nor shrink on wetting and drying.
o Soils dominated by kaolinite are:
- Good bases for roadbeds and building foundations
- Commonly used in making bricks
- Easy to cultivate in agriculture
 1:1 type of structure
 Low CEC
 Low specific surface
 Low water holding capacity
 Low shrink-swell potential

B) 2:1 expanding type – Monmorillonite

 Most common member of smectite group
 Unit layers are loosely held together by weak
o oxygen to oxygen and cation to cation
linkages
 High CEC
 High specific surface area +2 H2O+2 +2

 High water holding capacity

 High shrink-swell potential

C) 2:1 expanding type – Vermiculite

 Layer structure resembles that of mica from
which it is derived
 High CEC
 Limited expansion
 Larger crystal than smectite

D) 2:1 non-expanding type – Illite

 Chemical composition is similar to muscovite, but
contains more of quartz and less K
K - K -K -K

E) 2:1:1 or 2:2 non-expanding type – Chlorite

+ + + +
 3. Iron and Aluminum Oxide Clays
Under conditions of extensive leaching by rainfall and long-time intensive weathering of
minerals in humid warm climates: (1) which have lower solubility are called sesquioxides and
(2) sesquioxides (metal oxides) are mixtures of aluminium hydroxide and iron oxide.

Note: THE LATIN WORD “sesqui” MEANS ONE AND ONE-HALF TIMES.

4. Allophane and other Amorphous Mineral

They are amorphous in nature.
These clays are common in soils forming from volcanic ash. These clays have high anion
exchange capacity or even high cation exchange capacity.

B) Organic Colloid (Humus)

 The organic colloid is represented by the humus.
 Humus is amorphous, dark brown to black, nearly insoluble in water, but mostly soluble in
dilute alkali solutions.
 It is a temporary intermediate product left after considerable decomposition of plant and
animal remains.
 The negative charges of humus are associated with partially dissociated hydroxyl.

Topic 2. Soil Reaction

Soil Reaction
 It is the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a soil is called soil reaction. It is an indicator of the
acidity or alkalinity and is measured in pH scale.
 It is the most outstanding characteristics for plant growth factors because it determines the
availability of plant nutrients and the amount of toxic substance in the soil.
 Microorganisms and higher plants respond markedly to soil reaction because it tends to
control so much of their chemical environment. It is used in diagnosing the fertility as well as
productivity of soils.

Types of Soil Reaction

One of the outstanding physiological characteristics of the soil solution is its reaction. Soil
reaction influences many physical and chemical properties of soil.
The growth and activity of plant and soil organisms depend on soil reaction and the factors
associated with it.
There can be three types of soil reaction as follows:

A) Soil Acidity
 It is associated with the presence of exchangeable H + and Al+++ ions. Exchangeable H ion is
the major source of soil acidity and only the free ion in the soil solution affect soil pH which
provides active soil acidity.
 It is common in regions where precipitation is high enough to leach appreciable amounts of
exchangeable bases from the surface layers of the soil. The two cations such as Hydrogen
and Aluminum are largely responsible for soil acidity. The acid soil is generally found in humid
 region. The factors will help in the release and removal of bases will help in the development
of acidity of soil. If the Hydrogen (H +) ion becomes more than hydroxyl (OH--) ion in the soil
solution, the soil becomes acidic.
 It is a major environmental and economic concern. Acidic soils causes significant losses in
production and where the choice of crops is restricted to acid tolerant species and varieties,
profitable market opportunities may be reduced. In pastures grown on acidic soils, production
will be reduced and some legume species may fail to persist.
 Degradation of the soil resource is also of wider concern and off-site impacts must be
considered. Off-site impacts mainly result from reduced plant growth. Deep-rooted species
required to increase water usage may not thrive, increasing the risk of salinity. Increased run-
off and subsequent erosion has detrimental impacts on streams and water quality. Increased
nutrient leaching may pollute ground water.
 A highly acidic soil may have pH 4.5 and low calcium and magnesium, high solubility of iron,
manganese, aluminium, etc. but low availability of nitrogen and phosphorus. The activity of
microorganism responsible for nitrification is adversely effected in acid soil.

Symptoms of Soil Acidity

 Reduced yields
 Poor plant vigor
 Uneven pasture and crop development (especially acid sensitive plants)
 Poor establishment and persistence of pasture species
 Poor nodulation of legumes
 Stunted root growth
 Resolution of acid-tolerant weeds
 Increased incidence of diseases
 Abnormal leaf colors
 A soil pH level test is needed to confirm a soil acidity problem.

Soil pH
 Soil pH is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions in the soil solution. The lower the
pH of soil, the greater the acidity. Soil acidity is measured in pH units.
 A well-maintained soil pH will maintain the value of the soil resource, maximize crop and
pasture choice and avoid production losses due to low pH.
 The 7 units level is known as neutral. Pure water has a pH -7.0. All values below pH 7.0
denotes acidity and the values above pH 7.0 represents alkalinity. The degree of acidity
increases as pH decreases below pH 7.0. Showing pH 5 is ten times more acidic than
showing pH 6.0. Likewise, the degree of alkalinity increase as we go higher from pH 7.0. The
alkalinity at pH 9.0 unit is ten times more than pH 8.0 units.
 The lower the pH of soil, the greater the acidity. The lower the pH of soil, the greater the
acidity. pH is measured on a logarithmic scale from 1 to 14, with 7 being neutral. A soil with a
pH of 4 has 10 times more acid than a soil with a pH of 5 and 100 times more acid than a soil
with a pH of 6.

Effects of Soil Acidity

Plant growth and most soil processes, including nutrient availability and microbial activity, are
favoured by a soil pH range of 5.5 – 8. Acid soil particularly in the subsurface, will also restrict root
access to water and nutrients.
1. Aluminum Toxicity. When soil pH drops, aluminum becomes soluble. A small drop in pH
can result in a large increase in soluble aluminum. In this form, aluminum retards root
growth, restricting access to water and nutrients. Poor crop and pasture growth, yield
reduction and smaller grains size occur as a result of inadequate water and nutrition. The
 effects of aluminum toxicity on crops are usually most noticeable in seasons with a dry finish
as plants have restricted access to stored subsoil water for grain filling.
2. Nutrient Availability. In very acid soils, all the major plant nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus,
potassium, sulfur, calcium, manganese and also the trace element molybdenum) may be
unavailable, or only available in insufficient quantities. Plants can show deficiency symptoms
despite adequate fertilizer application.
3. Microbial Activity. Low pH in topsoils may affect microbial activity, most notably decreasing
legume nodulation. The resulting nitrogen deficiency may be indicated by reddening of stems
and petioles on pasture legumes, or yellowing and death of oldest leaves on grain legumes.
Rhizobia bacteria are greatly reduced in acid soils. Some pasture legumes may fail to persist
due to the inability of reduced Rhizobia populations to successfully nodulate roots and form
functioning symbiosis.

NOTE: An effect of soil acidity leads to the following problems: (1) Al toxicity, (2) Mn toxicity, (3)
Fe toxicity, (4) Ca) toxicity, (5) Mg toxicity, (6) Mo toxicity, (7) very slow organic decomposition
and (8) the decrease in Ca and P availability.

Causes of Soil Acidity

Soil acidification is a natural process accelerated by agriculture. Soil acidifies because the
concentration of hydrogen ions and in the soil increases.
The four main causes of soil acidity are:
 Removal of product from the farm
 Leaching of nitrogen below the plant root zone
 Inappropriate use of nitrogenous fertilizers
 Build up in organic matter

1. Removal of Product. Obviously, the main aim of any agricultural production system is to produce
saleable products. However, most agricultural products are slightly alkaline so their removal from
a farm leaves the soil slightly more acidic. The degree of acidification will depend on how alkaline
the product is and how many kilograms of product are removed. Where little actual product is
removed from the farm, such as in wool production, the system remains largely in balance, the
most acidifying forms of agricultural production are operations such as hay cutting.

2. Leaching of Nitrogen. Leaching of nitrogen in nitrate form is a very important factor in soil acidity.
Nitrate is a major nutrient for plant growth. It is supplied either from nitrogenous fertilizers or
atmospheric nitrogen fixed by legumes. When there is more nitrate than the plant can use, the
nitrate is at risk of draining – leaching below the plant roots and into the ground water system.
This leaves the soil more acidic. Leaching of nitrate can happen through inappropriate use of
nitrogen fertilizers and is more common in intensive production like horticulture or because the
plants are not suitable stage of growth to use the available nitrogen. Pastures based on annual
species, the use of long fallow in crop rotations and heavy applications of nitrogen fertilizers are
examples of practices that may increase the risk of nitrate leaching.

3. Use of nitrogenous fertilizers. The amount of acid added to the soil by nitrogenous fertilizers
varies according to the type of fertilizer. Fertilizers such as sodium and calcium nitrate are nit
acidifying. Superphosphate has no direct effect on soil pH. However, its application stimulates
growth of legumes and clovers which fix nitrogen. This increases the amount of nitrate nitrogen in
the soil increasing the potential for leaching and consequent soil acidification.
4. Build-up of organic matter. Over the last 50 years, the regular use of fertilizer and improved
pastures, has increased the amount of organic matter in soil. While organic matter has many
 beneficial effects including improving soil structure, the increasing amount of organic matter may
make the soil more acid. However, organic matter will not build up indefinitely and when an
equilibrium is reached the acidification process stops.

Treatments for Soil Acidity

 When a particular soil is acidic, it can be corrected to suit one’s selection for planting. This
can be completed using the following methods flooding
 Addition of organic matter
 Addition of wood ash
 Liming: this is the traditional process used to correct soil acidity and to improve soil
productivity. General liming materials are limestone, dolomite, hydrated lime and quicklime.

B) Soil Alkalinity
 Alkaline soils are clay soils with high pH (>8.5), a poor soil structure and a low nitrification
capacity.
 The soil that contains absorbed sodium to interfere with the growth of most crop plant is
known as alkali soil. The amount of exchangeable sodium in great quantities in the soil makes
the soil alkalinity. The sodium ion easily displaced the calcium ion from clay colloid and
makes the sodium mixed clay particles. This sodium is converted into sodium hydroxide by
hydrolysis.
 The OH—ion this formed increases the soil pH.

How do Soil Alkalinity affects Plant Growth?

Although the optimum range is 5.5 to 7.0, some plants will develop in more acid soil and
some at a more alkaline level. pH is not an indication of fertility, but is does change the availability of
fertilizer nutrients.
The soil may have adequate nutrients, yet plant health may be limited by an unfavourable pH
level. Vegetables and other plants grow when the pH is optimal for the plants being grown. It is very
important to match a plant to the soil pH or to adjust the soil pH to a plant’s needs.

Effects of an Alkaline Soil

 The quality of water produced in the plants is reduced due to the existence of salt.
 The inability of the plant to absorb nutrients required from the soil.
 The alkalinity of the soil causes a corrosive action on the bark of roots and stems.
 Rainwater stagnates in the soil very easily.

How to lower the pH in alkaline soil?

1) Sulfur. Plain elemental sulfur is probably the easiest and most common method to make the
soil more acidic, since it’s cheap, relatively safe and can be extended on top of the soil. Since
sulfur is pretty slow-acting, you shouldn’t apply more than 2 pounds per 100 square feet at a
time.

2) Sphagnum Peat. This is a great organic solution since sphagnum peat adds organic matter to
the soil and increases water retention.

3) Aluminium Sulfate and Iron Sulfate. These two are very fast acting, but they can be the most
damaging by adding salts and elements than can build up in the soil. Be sure not to apply
more than about five pounds per 100 square feet.

4) Acidifying Fertilizer. Fertilizers that have ammonia, urea or amino acids can, over time, have
an acidifying effect on the soil.
 5) Mulching and Compost. As organic matter breaks down, it tends to create soil more acidic.
Regularly apply of organic compost and mulches will, over time, bring the soil pH closer to the
desired neutral slightly acidic level.

Treatments for Soil Alkalinity

 Excellent drainage to allow salts drain with fresh water.
 Leaching and flushing out of the slats from the soil by keeping the soil free of vegetation for
about a year to accumulate sufficient water to penetrate beyond the root depth.
 Adding of gypsum or sulfur to the soil.

C) Soil Neutrality
In those areas, where the soil contain hydrogen and hydroxyl ion almost in equal quantities,
the soil are neutral in character.

Effect of Soil pH on Plant Growth

Soil pH indirectly affects the plant growth based on its effect on nutrient availability.
 Bacteria that are responsible for releasing nitrogen from the organic matter and some
fertilizers operate ideally if soil with pH value ranging from 5.5 to 7.0.
 Plant nutrients leach quickly from the soil if the pH value goes below 5.5 than from soils within
the range of 5.5 to 7.0
 In some soils, aluminum can be dissolved if the pH level is below 5.0 and becomes toxic to
plant growth.
 Soil pH may affect the plant nutrients too. Nutrients are readily available to the plants if the
soil ranges from 5.5 to 7.0
 Soil pH can also affect the structure of the clay soil. In the optimum range, clay soils are
granular and easy to work with. But, if the soil is extremely acid or alkaline clay, the soil tends
to become very sticky and makes it hard to cultivate.

pH requirement of Selected Crops

Acid Soil Crops: the following crops prefer a pH of 4 to 5.5:
Blackberry 5.0-6.0
Blueberry 4.5-5.0
Cranberry 4.0-5.5
Parsley 5.0-7.0
Peanut 5.0-7.5
Potato 4.5-6.0
Raspberry 5.5-6.5
Sweet potato 5.5-6.0
Somewhat Acid Soil Crops: the following crops prefer require a
somewhat acid soil; they can tolerate a pH of 5.5 to 6.5:
Apple 5.0-6.5
Basil 5.5-6.5
Carrot 5.5-7.0
Cauliflower 5.5-7.5
Corn 5.5-7.5
Eggplant 5.5-6.5
Garlic 5.5-7.5
Melon 5.5-6.5
Parsley 5.0-7.0
Pepper 5.5-7.0
Pumpkin 6.0-6.5
Radish 6.0-7.0
Squash (winter) 5.5-7.0
Sweet potato 5.5-6.0
Tomato 5.5-7.5
Turnip 5.5-7.0
Moderately Alkaline Soil Plants: the following crops will tolerate
a pH of 6.0 to 7.0 or greater:
Artichoke 6.5-7.5
Asparagus 6.0-8.0
Bean (pole) 6.0-7.5
Bean (lima) 6.0-7.0
Beet 6.0-7.5
Broccoli 6.0-7.0
Brussels sprouts 6.0-7.5
Cabbage 6.0-7.5
Cantaloupe 6.0-7.5
Cauliflower 6.0-7.5
Celery 6.0-7.0
Chinese Cabbage 6.0-7.0
Chive 6.0-7.0
Gourd 6.0-7.5
Horseradish 6.0-7.0
Kale 6.0-7.5
Leek 6.0-8.0
Lettuce 6.0-7.0
Mustard 6.0-7.5
Okra 6.0-7.5
Onion 6.0-7.0
Oregano 6.0-7.0
Pak choi 6.0-7.0
Pea 6.0-7.5
Radish 6.0-7.0
Spinach 6.0-7.5
Squash, summer 6.0-7.0
Sunflower 6.0-7.5
Watermelon 6.0-7.0
Very Acid to Alkaline Soil Tolerant Plants: the following crops
have the greatest tolerance for a wide range of soil acidity or
alkalinity, from about 5.0 to 7.0:
Alpine strawberry 5.0-7.5
Carrot 5.5-7.0
Cauliflower 5.5-7.5
Corn 5.5-7.5
cucumber 5.5-7.0
Garlic 5.5-7.5
Parsley 5.0-7.0
Peanut 5.0-6.5
 Pepper 5.5-7.0
Squash (winter) 5.5-7.0
Tomato 5.5-7.5
Turnip 5.5-7.0

Factors Controlling Soil Reaction

There are some factors that control soil reaction.

1. Nature of Soil Colloid. Soil colloid influences soil reaction to a very great extent. Soil colloids
when dominated by hydrogen ion, the reaction of soil becomes acidic. On the other hand, soil
colloid when dominated by hydroxyl ion, the reaction of soil becomes alkalinity.
2. Nature of Ion. The soil that contains more hydrogen ion than hydroxyl ions becomes acidic in
reaction. When the aluminium ions are present in the soil, they react with water to liberate
hydrogen ions, which increases the soil acidity.
3. Rainfall. Rainfall plays important role in determining the soil reaction. The soils that are
developed in high rainfall areas, becomes acidic in nature due to leaching of some nutrients
such as calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) from soil solution. So, leaching encourages the
development of soil acidity. On the other hand, the soils that are developed in low rainfall
areas, becomes alkaline in nature.
4. Fertilizer. The continual use of fertilizers is responsible for a marked change in soil pH. Acid
forming fertilizers such Ammonium sulfate, Urea, Ammonium nitrate etc. when applied in the
soil in large quantities makes the soil acidic.

Activities
Study Questions
Directions: Google/search the following questions and give what is being asked. Write your answers
on any size bond paper take a clear photo and send it on Google classroom. NOT on pad paper.
Strictly no copying!
1. Draw and label the complete diagram of water/hydrologic cycle on a 1/8 illustration board.
2. What is the most abundant chemical element in slightly acidic to alkaline soils?
3. What is the most abundant chemical element in strongly acid to extremely acid soils?
4. What pH is suitable for growing crop? Why?
5. How will you correct the acidity of the soil?
6. How does soil pH affect the availability of some plant nutrients?
7. How does soil pH affect the activity of soil microorganisms?

Self-Assessment
Self-Assessment is served as your quiz and it will be on the Google form. Wait for the announcement
for the said quiz. Please read comprehensively your module to be able to answer the questions.

References
1. College of Agriculture, ISU 2016. Principles of Soil Science Notes, Artemio A. Martin, Jr., San
Fabian, Echague, Isabela.
2. College of Agriculture, CLSU. 2015. Soil Science: Agriculturist Licensure Examination Review
Manual. CLSU Publication. Science City of Muñoz, Nueva Ecija.
3. Properties and Importance of Soil Colloids at https://www.jagranjosh.com/general-
knowledge/soil-colloids-types-properties-and-importance-1556889533-1
4. Causes of Soil Acidity at
http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0009/167175/acidity-causes.pdf.
5. Optimum pH requirement of selected cropst at https://harvesttotable.com/vegetable-crop-soil-
phtolerances/#:~:text=%20Somewhat%20Acid%20Soil%20Crops%3A%20The%20following
%20crops,19%20Tomato%20%285.5-7.5%29%2020%20Turnip%20%285.5-
7.0%29%20More%20.